HUM 350 Midterm 1
Self-proclaimed "Friends of the Indians" launched an ambitious campaign to:
"Americanize" Indian children and obliterate their tribal identity. This was the most far-reaching effort at child protection. The federal government and private religious organizations established dozens of boarding schools to indoctrinate Indian children in Anglo ways. "Kill the Indian and save the man." -Richard H. Pratt. Students were prohibited from speaking their native languages. They could not wear native dress, perform native dances, or practice their religions. By the 1960s, Indian children were no longer forced to attend boarding schools. This had a major psychological impact on Indian children.
What two divergent conceptions of childhood emerged from the Industrial Revolution?
"The Useful Childhood" in working class families. "The Protected Childhood" in Middle class families.
The Puritan minister Cotton Mather said that a dead child was:
"a sight no more surprising than a broken pitcher." Almost all families experienced the loss of at least two or three children.
Slave children were encouraged to refer to older slaves as:
"aunt" and "uncle", and to younger slaves as "sister" and "brother".
The end of infancy was marked by a ceremony called:
"breeching." Breeching is the ceremony that allowed boys to begin wearing pants. This also gave children more work responsibilities.
Some psychological cruelties of slavery include:
Fear of family seperation An intense sense of powerlessness Seeing directly that slave children's parents were unable to protect them
The 1950s were an increasingly commercialized, child-centered envirenment. True or false?
True.
______ ______ played a critical role in desegregating schools and transportation facilities.
Young people.
The Enlightenment Era held that "The newest and most influential conception of childhood was:
a Romantic vision, which viewed children as symbols of purity, spontaneity, and emotional expressiveness who were free from adult inhibitions and thus required parents who would ensure that their innocence was not corrupted." - Jean-Jacques Rousseau
School for immigrant children was difficult due to:
language barriers and overcrowded conditions.
Skeletal evidence revealed that:
malnutrition was common.
The child-centered curriculum lead teaching away from:
memorization, drills, repetition, and strict disciple and instead lead teaching toward active learning and applicable skills.
By the early twentieth century most urban school systems sought to educate children in English as rapidly as possible and discouraged the use of:
native languages.
For many immigrant children, becoming American involved the rejection of:
older identities and adopting distinctively American styles and consumer products. Dress and personal appearence were critical symbols of Americanization.
The psychologizing of childrearing raised:
parental anxieties.
Puritans did not "baby-proof" their homes because:
parents stressed safety through obedience and and assumed that a child's well-being was best served by teaching a child the skills and rules necessary to function in the adult world. Accidents were a fact of life.
Between the 1880s and 1930s, the school and peer groups became more:
significant in young people's lives.
What appeared for the first time in the 1870s?
societies to prevent cruelty to children.
The Progressive Era was the beginning of:
standardized testing and "tracking."
In the 1950s, millions of Americans moved to:
suburban houses.
Fredrick Douglass felt that slavery's greatest evil was the:
systematic deprivation of knowledge about one's ancestry, about reading and writing, and even about one's birth date.
The child-centered curriculum of the Progressive Era focused on:
teachers taking interest in their students as individuals.
Slave parents helped their children learn how to obey racial etiquette without giving into it by:
teaching them how to seperate one's outward demeanor from their "real self". teaching them deception and trickery. teaching them songs and folklore that helped instill a sense of distinctive identity and collective history.
Anxiety was high in:
the 1950s.
Child psychologists blamed almost all of children;s misconduct on:
faulty mothering.
The three overlapping phases of childhood:
1. Premodern childhood (Colonial era) 2. Modern childhood (19th Century) 3. Postmodern childhood (Current era)
When was the first Scout handbook in the USA?
1911
The Girl Scouts were founded in:
1912. 1 year after the Boy Scouts.
"Infancy" to the Puritans lasted only until the ages of:
6 or 7.
Two big developments for the history of childhood in the end of the 1800s and early 1900s:
Advent of scientific childreaaring advice. Modern concept of adolescence.
________ ________ were a big [resence in the emergence of rock and roll, but invisible from many parts of the culture.
African Americans.
Leisure activities were crucial symbols of:
Americanization.
Parents of immigrant children did not like:
Americanization. The bitterest fights involved control over language, money, and leisure time. Language was a particular source of contention.
Developmental stages during the late 1800s and early 1900s:
Appearance of Kindergarten. Rapid expansion of the High School. Middle class organizations for kids (Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts). Emergence of pediatrics as a medical specialty.
The Romantic conception of childhood:
Believed childhood was a stage of life to be enjoyed and prolonged. Encouraged the notion thatchildren needed to be sheltered from adult realities, such as death, profanity, and sexuality, in order to preserve their childish innocence. This resulted in Sunday Schools and public schools, orphanages, houses of refuge, reform schools, and children's hospitals.
Literacy allowed slaves to read the ____ for themselves.
Bible
Differences between boy scouts and girl scouts:
Boy scouts MUST do things, Girl Scouts must TRY. Boy Scouts are conditioned for the army, Girl Scouts are conditioned for leaving the house.
The "problems" with the early 1900s:
Boys seemed less "hardy, virile, and manly" than their fathers and grandfathers. Fears that feminine supervision and urban life had created "sissies". Youth workers established YMCA, Boy's Clubs, and Boy Scouts. Girls acquired growing freedom from societal constraints. The women's bicycle was introduced in 1890 and was feared to take womens' virginities. First girls to participate in team sports. Girl Scouts founded over strenuous opposition from Boy Scouts over the use of the name scouts.
How did slave parents navigate the tug-of-war for their children?
By instilling a sense of pride in their offspring and educating them to manuever through the complexities of slavery. Slave parents taught their children the ettiquette of interacting with whites, such as not repeating things that slaves say to the whites, teaching them how to appear respectful, and teaching them how to flatter the egos of the whites.
What kinds of jobs did slave children do?
Child care Serving food Swatting flies Fanning their master or mistress Human scarecrows animal care
What were the conditions of pregnancy and childbirth at this time?
Childbirth was difficult and sometimes life-threatening. During the seventeenth century, between 1 and 1.5% of childbirths resulted in the death of the mothers. The typical mother gave birth to between 7 and 9 children. Many Puritan women regarded childbirth as "that evil hour I look forward to with dread."
What was the Puritan view of education?
Children were educated in a religious manner.
______ ____'s murder underscored blacks' vulnerability, victimization, and powerlessness, which could no longer be tolerated by younger African Americans.
Emmett Till. Age 14.
Discipline in the Romantic era:
Due to intensive mothering becoming essential to raising children in the Romantic era, families would discipline their children by appealing to their moral suasion and affections rather than physically punishing them and instilling fear.
Life for European immigrants in the Chesapeake colonies of Virginia and Maryland in the early 17th century entailed:
Extremely high infant and child mortality rates due to the malarial environment. In one Virginia county, over 73 percent of children lost at least one parent before they reached the age of 21. Households were not nuclear families - the average marriage lasted 7 years. As time went on, more stable family patterns emerged among white inhabitants.
Mintz says that with today's higher valuation of multiculturalism, immigrant children:
Find it easier to retain elements of their home culture. Stay connected to ties in their home country and society. Feel like part of a global community. Can pick and choose which aspects of America they will adopt and which will reject. Feel greater ambivalence toward mainstream American culture.
Girl Scout handbook tips:
First Aid. Housekeeping. Camping. How to stop a runaway horse. How to tie up a burglar with 8 inches of cord.
How did children become a battleground in the struggle to define the meaning of freedom in the New South after Abolition?
Former slave ownders used apprenticeship laws to force African American children to work for free. There were sidespread efforts to force subservience in all aspects of these children's lives, particularly their education. The State of Alabama's education spending was $22.96 per white child and only 98 cents per black child. Young African Americans were repeatedly told to bite their tongues and repress their feelings of anger.
Why does Steven Mintz think Huck Finn is a good emblem of American Childhood?
He has been celebrated as a symbol of youthful resourcefulness and spirited rambunctiousness and decried as a rowdy and reckless risktaker. Huck has been interpreted as an abused child and a victim of ADHD. He encapsulates the modern conception of childhood as a period of peril and freedom; an oddessy of psychological self-discovery and growth. The precariousness of Huck's trip down the Mississippi suggests the physical, emotional, psychological, and socioeconomic challenges of childhood. Much as the raft is carried by raging currents that Huck can only partly control, so, too, childhood is inevitably shaped and constrained by society, time, and circumstances.
The Juvenile Court was introduced in:
Illinois in 1899.
Many ________ ________ felt caught between 2 worlds.
Immigrant children. (could see luxury all around them but came home to poverty).
Between 1948 and 1964, the number of youths appearing before juvenile courts ______ by 58%, with sex offenses ___ by 37%.
Increased, up.
How did slave children use religion to cope with slavery?
It helped them deal with family seperation, it taught them endurance as they learned about the Lord's endurance during his crucifiction. Through the spirit world, enslaved youth found the determination and resources to withstand the destructive impact of slavery.
Who founded the Girl Scouts?
Juliette Gordon Low, reffered to as "Daisy".
Some big changes of the Romantic Era were:
Mandatory school attendance Child labor restrictions Birth control Concentrating childbirth in early years of marriage economic incentive - children no longer seen as a source of labor, but investments that took time and resources Belief that women didn't need to devote their lives to constant childbirth Belief that children needed more care and attention
Who led the first societies to prevent cruelty to children?
Moralistic upper-class reformers who were distressed by the rapid growth of cities and the "depraved" habits of the immigrant poor.
Middle Colonies (from New York to Delaware) were:
More pluralistic. Embraced the principle of religious toleration. An area that attracted a diversity of immigrants.
"Planter" families (compared to New England families) in the 18th century were:
Much more relaxed about children's upbringing. Had few work responsibilities for sons under the age of 12 or 13. Absence of strong religious influences. Day-to-day care of children left in the hands of slaves. Parents could "coddle and spoil" children. Childhood was percieved as a distinct stage of life characterized by innocence and delightful "prattling." Farms and plantations were isolated, resulting in intense sibling relationships. Planter fathers more likely to stress gender heirarchy. Discipline was directed toward slaves, not children. "Despite certain trends toward uniformity over the 18th century, regional difference remained a defining feature of colonial childhood."
Boy Scouts must be:
OBEDIENT. They must be religious cause they are being prepared for the military.
What was play like for slave children?
Play was a chance to feel stong and equal to white children, because slave children were allowed to play with white children and were often better at activities. Play was a chance for slave children to learn adult skills. It taught them role playing. It created a sense of solidarity. It was something beyond the control of their masters. It would allow them to sneak education to learn to count and recite the alphabet. It increased their vocabulary through verbal sparring (playing the dozens) It taught them ingenuity and resourcefulness (such as making balls out of yarn and a sock, etc) Sometimes children would play to help the older slaves accomplish their work. They rarely played games that required the elimination of other players because they wereso used to having friends and family taken away that they did not want to eliminate anyone from play.
Importance of Little Rock, Arkansas:
President Eisenhower privately pressed Prval Faubus to comply with the court order to desegregate schools. When Faubus refused to budge, the president federalized the Arkansas National Guard and sent 1000 paratroopers from the Army's 101st Airborne Division to escort the students into the school. This showed that integration would not come easily, and it would be African-American childrn who had to stand on the front lines.
Who founded the Boy Scouts?
Robert S.S. baden-Powell He was a military hero fromserving in Africa. English boys read his manual on stalking and servival in the wilderness. He rewrote the manual as a nonmilitary nature skill book and called it Souting for Boys.
____ ___ ____ generated ectraordinary anger in the 1950s because it was associated with black culture and sin.
Rock and roll. There were crusades to ban it from the airways.
In 1954, ________ ______ were declared unequal by the Supreme Court.
Segregated Schools.
Some similarities and contrasts between child rearing in David Zeisberger's culture and Native American culture were:
Similarities: both surrounded pregnancy with many taboos to ensure the baby's well-being, both had initiation rituals for newborns (such as baptism and circumcision), both announced names of children at ceremonies, both ensured that childrens' bones grew straight, and both raised boys and girls very differently. Differences: Native Americans nursed their own children instead of using wetnurses, Native Americans nursed children for much longer than European women (for four years or more), Native Americans showed more remorse for the death of children, Indian children were given more freedom and were allowed to be "nearly naked", Native Americans did not physically punish their children, young women stayed in menstrual cabins for their menstrual periods, young men underwent a "vision quest" where they spent time alone in the forest for self-discovery, and Native Americans had a ceremony to celebrate the death of childhood and the rebirth of adulthood where people would ingest a nauxious substance that caused vomitting and/or hallucinogenic drugs.
What kind of things happened with the tug-of-war between slave parents and masters?
Slave owners frequently intruded on parental prerogatives in an attempt to produce a loyal, diligent, obedient, and even grateful labor force. They would show kindness to slave children to make themselves seem benevolent. They would try to win the affection of slave children with food and privileges.`
How could slaves become educated?
Slaves educated themselves by studying signs and names on doors, by buying books and claiming they were buying books for white children, by copying letters they saw their masters write in the linings of shoes and other things, etc.
What was the Shoo Turkey song?
Slaves would sing to keep the children entertained and occupied while working. It would also teach the children their tasks. An example is the shoo turkey song.
______ helped transform teen culture into National culture.
Television.
Generational roles were inverted in which era:
The Progressive era. Young people learned the new language faster and picked up new customs.
Why were Puritan child-rearing manuals addressed to men and not their wives?
The Puritans believed that a godly family was a patriarchal unit in which a man has authority over his wife and family. Men had an obligation to help their sons find a vocation or calling.
The Society of the prevention of Cruelty to Animals existed before:
The Society of the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.
Five myths of American Childhood:
The myth of a carefree childhood The myth of home as a haven and bastion of stability in an ever-changing world The myth that childhood is the same for all children The myth that the United States is a peculiarly child-friendly society The myth of progress (or the myth of decline)
Who was Americanization attractive to?
The young. The children of immigrants. This collided with their parents' desire to maintain older traditions and ensure that their offspring contributed to the family economy.
What were murder ballots?
They were songs such as "You are my sunshine." These songs were dark and were often turned into nursery rhymes.
What's a "jeremiad" and why did it develop toward the end of the 17th century?
This was a new literary form made by Puritan ministers. It was named for the Old Testament prophet jeremiah, who had pointed out the ancient Hebrews' evil ways. The "jeremiad" was a prolonged lamantation and complaint about the rising generation. Jeremiads foresaw a calamitous future for New England unless new people obeyed God's laws and accepted their parents' faith. They denounced disobedience, immodest dress, youthful frolics and dalliances, and masturbation.
What was "The Protected Childhood?"
This was in middle class families. It sheltered children from the stresses and demands of the adult world. This was attractive to the working class as well, and led to Union's demands for a "family wage", which would allow a male breadwinnerto support his family by himself.
What was "The Useful Childhood"?
This was in working class families. It believed that all family members, including children, should contribute to a family's support. Children's earnings were essential to a family's well-being.
What type of pattern of childhood arose in the Middle Colonies (especially among the Quakers)?
a family pattern that was characterized by unusually intense emotional bonding between parents and children, indulgent childrearing, and an acceptance by parents of early youthful independence. Most families lived in small nuclear households. Mintz calls this "The private family."
The legacy of the Puritans is:
a fixation on childhood corruption, child nurture, and schooling that remains undiminished in the United States today.
Studies of the remains of slaves found in a graveyard founded in 1697 revealed:
a great deal about how harsh life was for slave children, who were often subjected to bondage.
Between 1880 and 1930, Parent-child relations underwent:
a profound transformation. Middle-class family life grew more democratic, affectionate, and child-centered.
The Puritans believed that play was:
a sinful waste of time.
Psychologizing childrearing suggested that parenting was:
a skill that had to be learned and that improper parenting could have disastrous psychological consequences.
The Great Awakening reinforced:
a trend toward greater youthful autonomy.
A single case of ____ ignited a movement to end cruelty to ______.
abuse, children.
Benjamin Franklin was:
an indentured servant to an older brother as a printer's apprentice when he was 12. He also experienced a period of subordination to a master.
Educators in the Progressive Era saw play as:
an intrinsic educational and developmental value.
Due to poor diets among slaves:
anemia was rampant.
This antipatriarchal, antiauthoritarian ideology of the Quakers helped to sensitize the colonists to:
arbitrary British colonial authority. Hello, American Revolution!
Reverend benjamin Wadsworth said:
babies were filthy, guilty, odious, and abominable both by nature and practice.
Most popular toy in the 1950s:
barbie.
The Puritans are where Americans get the idea of:
being exceptional, as chosen, and as an object of admiration.
Children were buried:
by people who cared deeply about them. Bodies aligned heads to the west so they were facing the direction of the sunrise (West African custom).
It was difficult for enslaved Africans and their descendants to:
create and sustain families because there was a disproportionate amount of males to females, making it hard for males to find spouses. Spouses often lived on different plantations.
The Progressive Era sought to create a:
child-centered curriculum. This was the "Progressive Era" of education.
1865 to 1910 was the golden age of:
children's fiction. Contained books such as Little Women, Anne of Green Gables, Rebecco of Sunnybroke Farm, and Black Beauty. These books sought to excite young reaaders' imagination rather than instruct them or shape their character.
The Progressive Era represented a high point of interest in:
children's welfare. It was an attempt to "universalize" the middle-class ideals of childhood as a period devoted to play and education.
In the 1950s, parents spent more money on ____ than ever before.
children.
Despite the threat of sale and seperation, African-American parents instilled a strong sense of:
family identity in their children.
Generational tensions wrre especially intense for:
daughters.
Immigrant parents were much more restrictive of daughters or sons?
daughters.
The Puritan view of death was:
death was inevitable and everywhere. Children were prepared for death by being subjected to graphic descriptions and images containing death. They were educated about death and hell and how they could die at any moment.
The Puritans regarded childhood as a time of:
deficiency, associating an infanite inability to walk or talk with animality, and considered it essential to teach children to stand upright and recite scripture as quickly as possible. Both were associated with morality and propriety.
When children reached adulthood, their criminal record:
disappeared and court records were kept private.
In New York City, the adolescent homicide rate ______ after World War II as postwar slum learance and migration from rural South and Puerto Rico ignited battles over playgrounds, parks, and neighborhood.
doubled.
After decades of struggle, Reformers succeeded in creating a pattern of childhood that:
emphasized prolonged schooling and residence in the parental home. This transcended class, ethnicity, and region.
Right before the civil war, 4 million southerners were:
enslaved. Most were children under 16. They experienced the most extreme version of unprotected childhood.
Unlike the Puritans, the Quakers emphasized:
equality over heirarchy, gentle guidance over strict discipline, and early autonomy for children.
Puritans required communities to:
establish schools.
The baby-boom market was highly susceptible to:
fads.
Modern childhood was to be:
free from labor and devoted to schooling. Mothers assumed the responsibility for childrearing, and stages of childhood were more carefully delineated.
Contact with Indian peoples both reinforced European ethnocentrism and also:
freed a few European thinkers, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, to contemplate alternative ways of bringing up the young, ways that they regarded as freer and more natural.
For many young immigrants, leisure was associated with:
freedom, romance, and the joys of consumption.
For many working-class youths who were alienated from school and their own families and were qualified for only the most menial jobs, ____ ________ offered a way to win prestige, power, and adulation from girls.
gang membership.
The number of ____ in big cities like New York exploded in the mid-1940s to the mid-1960s.
gangs.
Childrearing advances in the baby-boom era emphasized:
gender distinctions. Fear of "sissiness" in boys and masculine behavior in girls.
Theere is evidence of slave children:
having broken bones that didn't heal and evidence of carrying heavy loads, especially on the head.
Between the 1880s and 1930s, children showed:
heedless disregard for convention; a contemppt for the advice fo their elders.
The 1950s held many family patterns, such as:
high birthrates. Stable divorce rates. Low number of mothers in the work force.
Teachers sought to "reform ______ ______ into little citizens."
immigrant children. This caused cultural conflict in classrooms.
Overcrowding was rampant in:
immigrant neighborhoods.
The Progressive Era was linked with a huge wave of:
immigration
During the 1920s, knowledge about children's psychological needs....
increased substantially.
Enslaved children were extremely vulnerable to:
infectious disease (tuberculosis, cholera, influenza).
Wooden rods were sometimes placed along children's spines to:
promote proper posture.
The Puritans were convinced that the key to creating a pious society lay in:
properly rearing, disciplining, and educating a new generation to higher standards of piety.
Even worse than slavery's physical severities were its:
psychological cruelties.
Immigrant children suffered intense feelings of:
psychological dislocation and marginality.
In the 1920s, middle-class parents began turning to:
psychologists for help in dealing with such problems as sibling rivalry, bedwetting, moodiness, rebelliousness, and sleeping problems.
Puritans were among the first groups to:
reflect seriously and systematically on children's nature and the process of childhood development.
A Puritan childhood was enveloped in:
religion, starting with Baptism.
Literacy was an act of ____ for slaves:
resistance. Literacy instilled a sense of self-worth and offered psychological freedom. It allowed them to read the Bible for themselves.
Puritan sermons and moral tracts portrayed children as:
riddled by corruption. Even a newborn infant's soul was tainted with original sin-the human waywardness that caused Adam's fall.
The first group to state publicly that entire communities were responsible for children's moral development:
the Puritans
Wetnursing was condemned by:
the Puritans
The Quakers extolled a family life centered on:
the affection and companionship between a husband and wife and the love, care, and emotional support of their children.
According to Fredrick Douglass, slavery had robbed him of:
the attributes of childhood and certain defining elements of a human identity.
The patriarchy began to fade considerably during:
the early 18th century. Paternal control of marital decisions weakened considerably. From this came an emergence of youth culture. This was due to rapid population growth, increased geographic mobility, and the emergence of a more commercial economy. The youth began establishing independence and father's had less control over their children.
Modern childhood was invented in:
the early 19th century.
The world did not acquire widespread usage of associations with puberty, generational conflict, identity formation, and psychological volatility unil:
the early twentieth century.
The Great Awakening stressed:
the idea that divine grace could save the young.
Families in the Middle Colonies pioneered practices and attitudes that would subsequently spread across:
the middle class.
The juvenile court provided wayward youths with:
the opportunity to turn their lives around.
The baby-boom era contained huge medical advances such as:
the polio vaccine. Sulfa drugs Penicillin insulin immunization against whooping cough and diphtheria New treatments against tetanus flouride against tooth decay
Apprenticeships were very important to:
the process of the youth becoming mature, acquiring adult skills, and obtaining autonomy from their parents.
The baby-boom era introduced a way to measure students intellegence called:
the scholastic aptitude test (SAT).
Enslaved children were extremely vulnerable to seperation from:
their parents.
Societies to prevent cruelty to children did not question parents' rights to use physical punishment, they just wanted:
to protect them from "undue severity."
Dr. Spock urged parents to:
trust their instincts, talk to and play with their infants, and shower themwith love.
A defining element of slave childhood was a ________ between a child's parents and the master and his family for the child's affection and obedience.
tug-of-war
In addition to the half-million Africans brought to the colonies in chains, more than half of the 307,000 white migrants who arrived in the colonies between 1700 and 1775 were:
unfree. They came as indentured servants or bound or convict laborers and were expected to work four or more years of service before attaining freedom.
Between the ages of 15 and 19 for slaves, there were:
very high death rates for both male and female slaves.
In the progressive era, children became:
wage earners and guides who had to negotiate with landloards, school officials, etc.
Puritans believed that disciple:
was a display of love. As seen in Proverbs 13:24, Proverbs 29:15, and Proverbs 22:15, parents who love their children will discipline them properly with the rod, the rod gives wisdom, and the rod gets rid of foolishness.
Did Thomas Jefferson have slave children?
yes, he required them to serve as nurses until 10, then to make nails and spin until 16, then to go into the grounds or learn trades.
Adolescent culture was largely a creation of:
young people themselves, who created distinctive high school culture centering on sports, dating, and the peer group.
The 1950s were the first time that all the massmedia specifically targeted ____ as a distinctive audience.
youth.