Human Biology 1090 Final Review

3. List the commonalities shared by living organisms

1. growth 2. metabolism 3. cells 4. DNA 5. response to stimuli 6. adaptation to changing environments.

26. Identify three mechanisms that can result in evolution

1. natural selection 2. genetic drift 3. gene flow

6. Recognize the four kingdoms of eukaryotes

1. plants 2. animals 3. protists 4. fungi

1. cell theory

(biology) the theory that cells form the fundamental structural and functional units of all living organisms

Lysosomes

-"suicide sacs " -small structures that contain enzymes which are used in digestion. -if a lysosome were to burst it could destroy the cell.

Nucleus

-Large Oval body near the center of the cell. -control center for all activity. -Surrounded by a nuclear membrane.

Vacuoles

-are clear fluid sacs that act as storage areas for food, minerals, and waste. -in plant cell the vacuoles are large and mostly filled with water. This gives the plant support. -in animal cells the vacuoles are much smaller.

Cyto Plasm

-cell material outside the nucleus but within the cell membrane. -clear thick fluid. -contains structures called organelles.

Chloro Plasts ( Plant cells only )

-contains a green pigment known as chlorophyll which is important for photosynthesis.

Nucleolus

-is found in the nucleus. -contains more genetic information (RNA)

Nucleoplasm

-is the protoplasm in the nucleus. -contains genetic material ---> CHROMOSOMES (DNA)

Cell Wall ( Plant Cells Only )

-non living structure that surrounds the plant cell. -protects & supports the cell. -made up of a tough fiber called cellulose.

Mitochondria

-power house of the cell. -center of respiration of the cell. -they release energy for cell functions.

Endo Plasmic Reticulum ( ER )

-systems of membranes throughout the cyto plasm. -it connects the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane. -passageway for material moving though the cell.

Cell Membrane

-the outer boundary of the cell. -it separates the cell from other cells. -it is porous ---> allows molecules to pass through.

Ribosomes

-tiny spherical bodies that help make proteins. -found in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Golgi Bodies

-tube like structures that have tiny sacs at their ends. -they help package protein.

28. Describe how the theory of evolution explains both the unity and the diversity of life.

1)Descents from a common ancestor explain the unity of life. 2) the unity of life = living things share a common chemistry and cellular structure (DNA, RNA and cell membrane). 3) Adaptions to a particular environment explains the diversity of life.

7. Recognize that we eat to:

1. get structural materials for building cells and extracellular structures 2. to get energy molecules 3. to get other materials (e.g. water, minerals and vitamins) required for the function of cells.

27. Summarize evolutionary mechanisms that have led to differences between human populations.

1. Natural Selection: Natural Selection leads to an evolutionary change when some individuals with certain traits in a population have a higher survival and reproductive rate than others and pass on these inheritable genetic features to their offspring 2. Genetic Drift: Random Drift consists of random fluctuations in the frequency of appearance of a gene, usually, in a small population. The process may cause gene variants to disappear completely, thereby reducing genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, environmental or adaptive pressures do not drive changes due to genetic drift. The effect of genetic drift is larger in small populations and smaller in large populations. 3. Mutations: Mutation can be defined as a change in the DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome of a living organism. Many mutations are neutral, i.e. they can neither harm nor benefit, but can also be deleterious or beneficial. Deleterious mutations can affect the phenotype and in turn, reduce the fitness of an organism and increase the susceptibility to several illnesses and disorders. On the other hand, beneficial mutations can lead to the reproductive success and adaptability of an organism to its environment. These beneficial mutations can be spread and fixed in the population due to natural selection processes if they help individuals in the population to reach sexual maturity and to successfully reproduce. Mutations are, undoubtedly, a source of genetic variation and serve as a raw material for evolution to act. Germ line mutations occur in gametes (eggs or sperm cells) and can be pass on to offspring, whereas somatic mutations occur in non-reproductive cells and are not pass on to the following generation. Those mutations that occur in germ line are the most important to large-scale evolution because they can be transmitted to offspring. 4. Gene Flow: In population genetics, Gene Flow (also known as gene migration) refers to the transfer of genes from the gene pool of one population to another. Gene flow may change the frequency and/or the range of alleles in the populations due to the migration of individuals or gametes that can reproduce in a different population. The introduction of new alleles increases variability within a population and allows for new combinations of traits. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) also known as lateral gene transfer (LGT), is a process in which an organism (recipient) acquires genetic material from another one (donor) by asexual means. It is already known that HGT has played a major role in the evolution of many organisms like bacteria. In plant populations, the great majority of cases linked to this mechanism have to do with the movement of DNA between mitochondrial genomes. Horizontal gene transfer is a widespread phenomenon in prokaryotes, but the prevalence and implications of this mechanism in the evolution of multicellular eukaryotes is still unclear. Nevertheless, many investigations on HGT in plants have been carried out during the last years trying to reveal the underlying patterns, magnitude and importance of this mechanism in plant populations as well as its influence on agriculture and the ecosystem.

28. Describe the basic characteristics of the four kingdoms in the Eukaryote domain (plants, animals, fungi, protists).

1. PLANTS Domain: Eukaryote Kingdom: Plantae Cell Type: Eukaryote Cell Structures: Cell walls with CELLULOSE; chloroplasts Number of Cells: MULTICELLULAR Mode of Nutrition: Autotroph Example: Moss, ferns, and flowering plants 2. ANIMALS Domain: Eukaryotes Kingdom: Animalia Cell Type: Eukaryotes Cell Structures: NO Cell walls and NO CHLOROPLASTS Number of Cells: Multicellular Mode of Nutrition: Heterotroph Example: Sponges, worms, insects, fishes, mammals 3. FUNGI: Domain: Eukarya Kingdom: Fungi Cell Type: Eukaryote Cell Structures: Cell walls of CHITIN Number of Cells: some unicellular,,MOST MULTICELLULAR Mode of Nutrition: Heterotroph Example: MUSHROOMS AND YEAST 4. PROTISTS: Domain: Eukarya Kingdom: Protista Cell Type: Eukaryote Cell Structures: Cell walls of CELLULOSE: some have chloroplasts Number of Cells: Most unicellular, some colonial or multicellular Mode of Nutrition: Autotroph or heterotroph Example: AMOEBA, PARAMECIUM, MOLDS, GIANT KELP

Recognize problems that result from defects in your immune system.

1. X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) 2. severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID disorders) 3. common variable immunodeficiency 4. Alymphocytosis ("boy in a bubble" disease 5. AIDS 6. cancers of the immune system, such as leukemia 7. immune complex diseases, such as viral hepatitis 8. multiple myeloma

23. Describe the main points of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection:

1. all life is derived from a common ancestor; 2. species are not mmutable; and natural selection is the mechanism by which species change over time.

35. Name these major arteries, and the body regions they supply:

1. aorta (entire systemic circuit) 2. common carotid (head and neck) 3. subclavian (arms) renal (kidneys) superior and inferior mesenteric (intestines common iliac (legs and pelvic cavity) femoral (legs).

6. Recognize the three domains

1. archaea 2. bacteria 3. eukaryotes

7. List the major macronutrients in a human diet.

1. carbohydrates 2. proteins 3. lipids 4. water

4. State the four biological macromolecules.

1. carbohydrates 2. lipids 3. proteins, and 4. nucleic acids

37. Identify the category of pathogen that causes each of the following: colds, influenza, E. coli infection, Staph infection, Hepatitis, and malaria.

1. colds: rhinovirus 2. influenza: influenza virus types A, B, and C 3. E. coli infection: Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria 4. Staph infection: aureus 5. Hepatitis: Hepatitis viruses 6. Malaria: Plasmodium

25. Give examples of five sources of evidence that support the theory of evolution.

1.) Fossil Record: the ordered array in which fossils appear within layers of sedimentary rocks 2.) Comparative Anatomy: comparison of body structures in different species, which give signs of common descent 3.) Biogeography: the geographical distribution of species 4.) Comparative Embryology: the comparison of early stages of development the greater number of protein (amino acid sequence) similarity between species, the more likely they share a common ancestor, more closely related. 5.) Comparative Molecular Biology: anatomy on the molecular level

38. Name and define the components of the three lines of defense and illustrate the functions of each. Recognize problems that result from defects in your immune system (ie, allergy, susceptibility to disease).

1st Line of Defense: Surface coverage The body is protected from pathogens by the skin and mucous membranes 1. Skin - dead cellular layer - dry, low pH 2. Mucous membranes contain lysozymes (enzymes which break down bacteria) 3. Other cells contain cilia which filter pathogens and particulates Breaks in the protective barrier 1. Digestive openings 2. Reproductive openings 3. Respiratory openings 4. Sensory Organs 2nd Line of Defense: Non-specific responses are generalized responses to pathogen infection - they do not target a specific cell type The non-specific response consist of some WBC's and plasma proteins Phagocytes - cells which "eat" foreign material to destroy them 1. Phagocytes are formed from stem cells in bone marrow (stem cells are undifferentiated WBC's) a.. Neutrophil - phagocytize bacteria b. Eosinophils - secrete enzymes to kill parasitic worms 2. among other pathogins Macrophage - "big eaters" phagocytize just about anything Macrophage destroying bacterial cells Non-phagocytic leucocytes - Basophil: contain granules of toxic chemicals that can igest foreign microorganisms. These are cells involved in an allergic response 2. Mast Cells - similar to basophils, mast cells contain a ariety of inflammatory chemicals including histamine and seratonin. Cause blood vessels near wound to constrict. Complement proteins - plasma proteins which have a role in nonspecific and specific defenses Form a cascade effect - if only a few are activated, they will trigger others to become active in great numbers 1. Some punch holes in bacterial walls (forms holes where cellular components leak out) 2.Some promote inflammation a. Concentration gradients attract phagocytes to irritated or damaged tissue b. Encourage phagocytosis in phagocytes (promotes "eating") 3. Some bind to the surface of invading organisms Chemokines: create a chemical gradient to attract neutrophils and other leucocytes to the wound site Inflammation: a localized physical condition in which part of the body becomes reddened, swollen, hot, and often painful, especially as a reaction to injury or infection. 3rd Line of Defense - The Immune System (Specific Responses): Called into action when nonspecific methods are not enough and infection becomes widespread Types of cells involved in the immune system: 1. Macrophages - engulf foreign object a. Inform T lymphocytes at a specific antigen is present 2. Helper T cells - produce and secrete chemicals which promote large numbers of effector and memory cells 3. Cytotoxic T cells - T lymphocytes that eliminate infected body cells and tumor cells 4. B cells - produce antibodies (secrete them in the blood or position them on their cell surfaces) Each type of virus, bacteria, or other foreign body has molecular markers which make it unique Host lymphocytes (i.e. those in your body) can recognize self proteins (i.e. those which are not foreign) When a nonself (foreign) body is detected, mitotic activity in B and T lymphocytes is stimulated While mitosis is occurring, the daughter populations become subdivided Effector cells - when fully differentiated, they will seek and destroy foreign Memory cells - become dormant, but can be triggered to rapid mitosis if pathogen encountered again Thus, immunological specificity and memory involve three events: (1) Recognition of a specific invader (2) Repeated cell divisions that form huge lymphocyte populations (3) Differentiation into subpopulations of effector and memory cells Antigen - a nonself marker that triggers the formation of lymphocyte armies Antibodies - molecules which bind to antigens and are recognized by lymphocytes Antigen-presenting cell - a macrophage which digests a foreign cell, but leaves the antigens intact. It then binds these antigens to MHC molecules on its cell membrane. The antigen-MHC complexes are noticed by certain lymphocytes (recognition) which promotes cell division (repeated cell divisions)

15. Describe the relationship between chromosomes, genes and alleles.

2 alleles represent a gene. Genes are pieces of DNA. DNA makes up chromosomes. Chromosomes are found inside the nucleus of cells.

1. causation

A cause and effect relationship in which one variable controls the changes in another variable.

4. Identify the building blocks and explain the function of each.

A DNA molecule consists of two long polynucleotide chains composed of four types of nucleotide subunits. Each of these chains is known as a DNA chain, or a DNA strand. Hydrogen bonds between the base portions of the nucleotides hold the two chains together. Nucleotides are composed of a five-carbon sugar to which are attached one or more phosphate groups and a nitrogen-containing base. In the case of the nucleotides in DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose attached to a single phosphate group (hence the name deoxyribonucleic acid), and the base may be either adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or thymine (T). The nucleotides are covalently linked together in a chain through the sugars and phosphates, which thus form a "backbone" of alternating sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate. Because only the base differs in each of the four types of subunits, each polynucleotide chain in DNA is analogous to a necklace (the backbone) strung with four types of beads (the four bases A, C, G, and T). These same symbols (A, C, G, and T) are also commonly used to denote the four different nucleotides—that is, the bases with their attached sugar and phosphate groups.

21. Determine the amino acid sequence in a protein given a specific mRNA sequence and the codon/amino acid "decoder" chart.

A chain of these units will typically have an amino group at one end, and a carboxyl group at the other. For consistency, sequences are described from left to right, with the amino end, known as the N-terminus, at the left, and the carboxyl end, or C-terminus at the right. It is also possible, however, for the opposite ends of a polypeptide chain to form a peptide bond, resulting in a cyclic molecule. Proteins, and other polypeptides, can therefore be described by the sequence of amino acid units. For brevity, the names of the units are usually abbreviated to three letters or to just one letter. For example, in the three-letter system, arginine is Arg, leucine is Leu and proline is Pro. In the one-letter system, the letters for these units are R, L and P, respectively. Therefore, a particular amino acid sequence could be represented as Leu-Arg-Leu-Pro-Arg-Pro, or as L-R-L-P-R-P.

1. correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Glycolysis

A metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP

5. Illustrate the difference between ionic and covalent bonds.

A molecule or compound is made when two or more atoms form a chemical bond, linking them together. The two types of bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds. In an ionic bond, the atoms are bound together by the attraction between oppositely-charged ions. For example, sodium and chloride form an ionic bond, to make NaCl, or table salt. In a covalent bond, the atoms are bound by shared electrons. If the electron is shared equally between the atoms forming a covalent bond, then the bond is said to be nonpolar. Usually, an electron is more attracted to one atom than to another, forming a polar covalent bond. For example, the atoms in water, H2O, are held together by polar covalent bonds.

19. Describe sex determination in humans (XX, XY).

A sex-determination system is a biological system that determines the development of sexual characteristics in an organism. Most sexual organisms have two sexes. Occasionally, there are hermaphrodites in place of one or both sexes. There are also some species that are only one sex due to parthenogenesis, the act of a female reproducing without fertilization. In many species, sex determination is genetic: males and females have different alleles or even different genes that specify their sexual morphology. In animals this is often accompanied by chromosomal differences, generally through combinations of XY, ZW, XO, ZO chromosomes, or haplodiploidy. The sexual differentiation is generally triggered by a main gene (a "sex locus"), with a multitude of other genes following in a domino effect. In other cases, sex is determined by environmental variables (such as temperature) or social variables (e.g. the size of an organism relative to other members of its population). Environmental sex determination preceded the genetically determined systems of birds and mammals; it is thought that a temperature-dependent amniote was the common ancestor of amniotes with sex chromosomes.[citation needed] Some species do not have a fixed sex, and instead change sex based on certain cues. The details of some sex-determination systems are not yet fully understood.

8. Active Transport

Active transport is the movement of molecules across a cell membrane in the direction against their concentration gradient, i.e. moving from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration.

34. Describe the function of capillary beds.

Capillary beds are formed from a network of capillaries and are found between arterioles and venules to function as the exchange site between the blood and the interstitial fluid. Capillaries are absent of smooth muscle and consist of a single layer of endothelial. The luminal diameter is equivalent to that of a single red blood cell.

10. Describe the function of ATP as an energy source for chemical work, mechanical work, and transport work in cells.

ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. The "adenosine" part consists of a nitrogen-containing compound called adenine and a five-carbon sugar called ribose. The triphosphate "tail" consists of three phosphate groups.The tail is the "business" end of ATP—it is the source of energy used for most cellular work. An ATP molecule contains potential energy, much like a compressed spring. When a phosphate group is pulled away during a chemical reaction, energy is released. Each phosphate group is negatively charged. Because like charges repel,the crowding of negative charge in the ATP tail contributes to the potential energy stored in ATP. You can compare this to storing energy by compressing a spring. The tightly coiled spring has potential energy. When the compressed spring relaxes, its potential energy is released. The spring's kinetic energy can be used to perform work such as pushing a block attached to one end of the spring. The phosphate bonds are symbolized by springs in Figure 7-9. When ATP is involved in a chemical reaction that breaks one or both of these phosphate bonds, potential energy is released. In most cases of cellular work, only one phosphate group is lost from ATP. Then the tail of the molecule has only two phosphate groups left. The resulting molecule is called adenosine diphosphate, or ADP. ATP and Cellular Work During a chemical reaction that breaks one of ATP's bonds, the phosphate group is transferred from ATP to another molecule. Specific enzymes enable this transfer to occur. The molecule that accepts the phosphate undergoes a change, driving the work. Your cells perform three main types of work: chemical work, mechanical work, and transport work (Figure 7-10). An example of chemical work is building large molecules such as proteins. ATP provides the energy for the dehydration synthesis reaction that links amino acids together. An example of mechanical work is the contraction of a muscle. In your muscle cells, ATP transfers phosphate groups to certain proteins. These proteins change shape, starting a chain of events which cause muscle cells to contract. An example of transport work is pumping solutes such as ions across a cellular membrane. Again, the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP causes the receiving membrane protein to change shape, enabling ions to pass through.

11.Describe where cellular respiration occurs and explain the role of oxygen.

Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria and is the process by which ATP is produced by cells by the complete oxidation of organic compounds using oxygen . In aerobic respiration oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor, accepting electrons that ultimately come from the energy rich organic compounds we consume.

8. Illustrate the role of enzymes in metabolism and recognize that enzymes are proteins.

All enzymes identified thus far are proteins. Enzymes, which are the catalysts of all metabolic reactions, enable an organism to build up the chemical substances necessary for life—proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids—to convert them into other substances, and to degrade them. Life without enzymes is not possible. There are several protein hormones with important regulatory functions. In all vertebrates, the respiratory protein hemoglobin acts as oxygen carrier in the blood, transporting oxygen from the lung to body organs and tissues. A large group of structural proteins maintains and protects the structure of the animal body.

25. Explain why alternative theories explaining the diversity of life do not fit the evidence observed on earth.

Although many religions have accepted the occurrence of evolution, such as those advocating theistic evolution, there are some religious beliefs which reject evolutionary explanations in favor of creationism, the belief that a deity supernaturally created the world largely in its current form. The resultant U.S.-centered creation-evolution controversy has been a focal point of recent conflict between religion and science. Modern creationism is characterized by movements such as creation science, neo-creationism, and intelligent design, which argue that the idea of life being directly designed by a god or intelligence is at least as scientific as evolutionary theory, and should therefore be taught in public education. Such arguments against evolution have become widespread and include objections to evolution's evidence, methodology, plausibility, morality, and scientific acceptance. The scientific community, however, does not recognize such objections as valid, citing detractors' misinterpretations of such things as the scientific method, evidence, and basic physical laws.

34. Describe the organization of veins, arteries and capillaries, and recognize that arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins carry blood toward the heart.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart; the main artery is the aorta. Smaller arteries called arterioles diverge into capillary beds, which contain 10-100 capillaries that branch among the cells and tissues of the body. Capillaries carry blood away from the body and exchange nutrients, waste, and oxygen with tissues at the cellular level. Veins are blood vessels that bring blood back to the heart and drain blood from organs and limbs. Capillaries have one layer of cells (the endothelial tunic or tunica intima) where diffusion and exchange of materials takes place. Veins and arteries have two more tunics that surround the endothelium: the middle tunica media is composed of smooth muscle that regulates blood flow, while the outer tunica externa is connective tissue that supports blood vessels.

50. Describe the basic functions of the brainstem, the cerebellum and the spinal cord.

Brainstem: The brain stem regulates vital body functions such as cardiac and respiratory functions, and acts as a vehicle for sensory information. Cerebellum: receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of the brain and then regulates motor movements. Spinal Cord: it is abridge between brain and body.it works as intake of sensory information from rest of the body towards the brain for proper functioning..senses heat coolness.pain,etc.it position the body in well pousterit rceives reflex action as well

44. Locate the major bones of the body. Examples: Humerus is in the arm. Radius and Ulna are in the forearm. Carpals are in the wrist.

Carpals are bones that make up the wrist joint. There are eight carpal bones in each wrist. These bones are small and glide against each other so that we can move our wrist in different directions. Clavicle: This bone is more commonly known as the collarbone. The clavicle connects with the scapula and the sternum. The clavicle is the most frequently broken bone in the body. Cranium: The cranium is the part of the skull that protects the brain. The cranium is the upper part of the skull without the mandible. Femur: Largest bone in the body. More commonly known as the thigh bone. The femur is the longest, strongest, and heaviest bone in the body. The femur supports much of our body weight. Fibula: This long thin pin-like bone is found on the outside of the tibia. The fibula's main job is to provide sites for muscles to attach. It also acts as a brace and provides support for the tibia. The fibula is located in the lower leg. Humerus: More commonly known as the "funny bone." The humerus is the largest bone in the upper limb (arm). Its smooth, ball-like head fits into the scapula and forms our "ball and socket" shoulder joint. Mandible: This is a U-shaped bone and forms the lower jaw. It is the largest and strongest bone in our face. The mandible is the movable part of the skull. Metacarpals: Metacarpals are bones of the hand. Press on the back of your hand and you can feel your metacarpals. Make a fist and look at your knuckles. Your knuckles are the ends of your metacarpals. Metatarsals: Metatarsals are bones of the foot. There are five metatarsals. Patella: Touch your kneecap. Your kneecap is the patella. The patella is a round shaped bone. Pelvis: Your pelvis is your hip bones. Elvis Presley was famous for shaking his hips when he danced and he was nicknamed "Elvis the Pelvis." Phalanges: Phalanges are better known as your fingers and toes. You have 14 phalange bones in each hand and 14 in each foot, for a GRAND TOTAL of... 56 phalanges! Radius: This is one of the two forearm bones. The forearm is the lower part of your arm from your wrist to your elbow. The radius is thinner near the elbow and gets thicker with a bulge near the wrist. Ribs: You have twelve pairs of ribs. In the front of your body they attach to your sternum with flexible cartilage. In the back of your body they connect with the vertebrae. Your ribs are a bony cage that protects your heart and lungs. Scapula: This thin, flattened, triangular bone is found on the back of the shoulder area. The scapula connects the clavicle to the humerus. The scapula is commonly called the "shoulder blade." Sternum: More commonly known as the "breastbone." Located right in the middle of your chest. Tarsals: These are the bones in your ankle. There are seven tarsal bones that allow for movement in the foot. Tibia: This bone is also known as the shinbone. The tibia is the second largest bone in the skeleton and is found in the lower leg. The Tibia is very large at the top where it connects with the femur at the knee joint. Ulna: The ulna is a long thin bone of the forearm. The top "wrench-like" end of the ulna is larger that the small, rounded end. It is next to the radius in the lower arm. Vertebrae: The vertebrae are the bones of the spine. There are 26 vertebrae. The top one is the atlas and the bottom one is the coccyx (say: cok-sicks). The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.

1. Recognize these key theories in biology:

Cell Theory, The Germ Theory and The Evolution Theory

10. Describe cellular respiration as the process enabling cells to make ATP.

Cellular respiration is the process of oxidizing food molecules, like glucose, to carbon dioxide and water. C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O → 12H2O + 6 CO2 The energy released is trapped in the form of ATP for use by all the energy-consuming activities of the cell. The process occurs in two phases: 1. glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid 2. the complete oxidation of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and water In eukaryotes, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol. The remaining processes take place in mitochondria.

28. Describe in detail the biological classification of human beings.

Classification level Name Characterized by: Domain Eukarya Nucleus, organelles Kingdom Animalia Ingests food, multicellular, no cell wall Phylum Chordata Spinal cord Subphylum Vertebrata Segmented backbone Superclass Tetrapoda Four limbs Class Mammalia Nurse offspring Subclass Theria Live birth Order Primates High level of intelligence Family Hominidae Walk upright Genus Homo Human Species H. sapiens Modern human

18. Define codominance and incomplete dominance.

Codominance occurs when two alleles are equally dominant, and both appear in a phenotype. The classic example is human blood type, in which the A and B alleles are codominant, so anyone with both will have the phenotype AB. Incomplete dominance is a mixing of phenotypes (usually incorrectly called "blending"), and the classic example of this is the crossing of a red snapdragon with a white snapdragon to produce a pink snapdragon; the phenotype is intermediate between the parents.

Citric acid cycle

Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.

11. Define photosynthesis.

Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy.

20. Explain how DNA codes for proteins.

DNA encodes a message in a 4 base code (ATGC), which is then transcribed into RNA by RNA polymerases. RNA has a code which complements the DNA with one alteration, all the Ts are changed to Us so that the cell can easily distinguish RNA from DNA (AUGC). There are promoter sites upstream of genes which tell transcription factors where to bind. These then bind the RNA polymerase showing it were to begin transcription. At the end of the gene, there will always be a stop code. After this the RNA polymerase adds a good number of As to the end of the RNA in case it gets degraded. This way the RNA will not loose any important information. Caps are added to both ends of the RNA to further protect it. A number of enzymes will splice out areas of the RNA which are 'non-coding' that is not needed for the next stage. These steps change it from RNA to mRNA (messenger RNA) which is the code used to produce proteins. These are then exported from the nucleus of the cell into the cytosol. There, it is bound by a Ribosome, which is made of rRNA and acts as a sort of Protein producing machine. tRNAs come into each of the binding sites of the Ribosome and match to sections of the mRNA. The code of the mRNA is such that every three letters represents one amino acid. that is every three letters from the RNA code tell the Ribosome piece goes next in the Protein. Unlike RNA and DNA, proteins have 20 different components which form them. Each tRNA has a binding site for the 3 RNA base code on one end and an Amino Acid (component of protein) on the other end. It recognizes the code on the RNA and then adds its amino acid to the growing Protein chain. The process of making a protein from RNA is called Translation. Other important notes: the mRNA code will always begin with a Start codon and end with a Stop codon.

13. explain how the cell cycle is regulated.

Eukaryotic cell cannot divide into two, the two into four, etc. unless two processes alternate: 1. doubling of its genome (DNA) in S phase (synthesis phase) of the cell cycle; 2. halving of that genome during mitosis (M phase). The period between M and S is called G1; that between S and M is G2. So, the cell cycle consists of: G1 = growth and preparation of the chromosomes for replication; S = synthesis of DNA [see DNA Replication] and duplication of the centrosome; G2 = preparation for M = mitosis. When a cell is in any phase of the cell cycle other than mitosis, it is often said to be in interphase.

18. Interpret a DNA fingerprint and explain how fingerprinting is used to identify individuals.

DNA fingerprinting is a test to identify and evaluate the genetic information—called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)—in a person's cells. It is called a "fingerprint" because it is very unlikely that any two people would have exactly the same DNA information, in the same way that it is very unlikely that any two people would have exactly the same physical fingerprint. The test is used to determine whether a family relationship exists between two people, to identify organisms causing a disease, and to solve crimes. Only a small sample of cells is needed for DNA fingerprinting. A drop of blood or the root of a hair contains enough DNA for testing. Semen, hair, or skin scrapings are often used in criminal investigations camera.gif. A person who has DNA fingerprinting done voluntarily usually provides a sample of blood taken from a vein. DNA testing also can be done on cells obtained by a simple mouthwash or a swab of the cheeks inside the mouth, but these methods are not recommended. DNA fingerprinting is done to: Find out who a person's parents or siblings are. This test also may be used to identify the parents of babies who were switched at birth. Solve crimes (forensic science). Blood, semen, skin, or other tissue left at the scene of a crime can be analyzed to help prove whether the suspect was or was not present at the crime scene. Identify a body. This is useful if the body is badly decomposed or if only body parts are available, such as following a natural disaster or a battle.

12. Explain the process of DNA replication.

DNA replication. The double helix is unwound and each strand acts as a template for the next strand. Bases are matched to synthesize the new partner strands. DNA replication is the process of producing two identical replicas from one original DNA molecule.

33. Describe the basic structure and function of the heart, including the chambers and valves, and the basic sequence of events in a heartbeat.

Describe the structure and functions of the four heart chambers. Name each chamber and provide the name and general route of its associated great vessel(s). Left Atria - left superior chamber of the heart that receives oxygenated blood from the lungs Right Atria - right superior chamber of the heart the receives oxygen-poor blood from the body Left Ventricle - left inferior chamber of the heart that pumps oxygenated blood to the body Right Ventricle - left inferior chamber of the heart that pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs The basic sequence of events in a heartbeat: Blood enters the Atria. The Atria contracts. Valves between the Atria and Ventricles open. Blood moves into the Ventricles. Valves between the Atria and Ventricles close. The Ventricles contract. Valves leading out of the Ventricles open. Blood leaves the heart. The heart muscle relaxes. Hope that helps

Vitamin D

Dietary Source: Cod liver oil (warning: cod liver oil is rich in vitamin A; too much may be bad for you) Tuna canned in water. Sardines canned in oil. Milk or yogurt -- regardless of whether it's whole, nonfat, or reduced fat -- fortified with vitamin D. Effects of deficiency: Low blood levels of the vitamin have been associated with the following: Increased risk of death from cardiovascular disease Cognitive impairment in older adults Severe asthma in children Cancer Research suggests that vitamin D could play a role in the prevention and treatment of a number of different conditions, including type1 and type 2 diabetes, hypertension, glucose intolerance, and multiple sclerosis.

Vitamin B2

Dietary Source: Riboflavin Effects of deficiency: can cause weakness, throat swelling/soreness, a swollen tongue, skin cracking (including cracked corners of the mouth), dermatitis, and anemia. Riboflavin deficiency can also affect vision, including blurred vision and itching, watering, sore, or bloodshot eyes, as well eyes becoming light-sensitive and easily fatigued.

Vitamin K

Dietary Source: a group of compounds. The most important of these compounds appears to be vitamin K1 and vitamin K2. Vitamin K1 is obtained from leafy greens and some other vegetables. Effects of deficiency: causes delayed blood coagulation, easy bruising, and tendencies toward nose-bleeding and gum-bleeding. Appearance of blood in urine or stool and experiencing heavy bleeding during menstrual cycle are also signs of vitamin K deficiency

Vitamin A

Dietary Source: a group of fat-soluble retinoids, including retinol, retinal, and retinyl esters Effects of deficiency: Vitamin A deficiency can result from inadequate intake, fat malabsorption, or liver disorders. Deficiency impairs immunity and hematopoiesis and causes rashes and typical ocular effects (eg, xerophthalmia, night blindness).

Vitamin C

Dietary Source: all of our listed citrus fruits (orange, grapefruit, lime, and lemon) are excellent sources of vitamin C. Many non-citrus fruits are highly rated sources, as well. Papaya, strawberries, pineapple, kiwifruit, cantaloupe, and raspberries are also excellent vitamin C sources. Effects of deficiency: Symptoms include fatigue, depression, and connective tissue defects (eg, gingivitis, petechiae, rash, internal bleeding, impaired wound healing). In infants and children, bone growth may be impaired.

41. Describe the basic structure and function of the musculoskeletal system.

Differ widely in terms of size and structure but basic virus has a protein coat made of nucleic acid. The protein coat is called capsid

8. Diffusion

Diffusion happens when the particles are free to move. This is true in gases and for particles dissolved in solutions. Particles diffuse down a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Basic organization of bones.

Divisions Axial skeleton Main article: Axial skeleton The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32-34 bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones). The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. The erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance. A human is able to survive with just the axial portion of their skeleton. Appendicular skeleton Main article: Appendicular skeleton The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction. Functions A human skeleton on exhibit at The Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma The skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation. Support The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse. Movement The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system. It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture have caused human bone density to reduce significantly. Protection The skeleton helps protect our many vital internal organs from being damaged. The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears. The vertebrae protect the spinal cord. The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels. Blood cell production The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. In children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.[6] Storage The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon. Endocrine regulation Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.[7] Sex differences Anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelves (sing. pelvis) are exhibited across human populations. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. Skull A variety of gross morphological traits of the human skull demonstrate sexual dimorphism, such as the nuchal crest, mastoid processes, supraorbital margin, supraorbital ridge, and mental eminence.[8] Dentition Human inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canines, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes. Long bones Long bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses. Pelvis Human pelves exhibit greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. The Phenice method is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations.[

6. Describe the classification scheme used to organize life

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.

13. mitosis and cytokinesis [M])

During mitosis chromosomes replicate, become positioned near the middle of the cytoplasm and then segregated so that each daughter cell receives a copy of the original DNA (if you start with 46 in the parent cell, you should end up with 46 chromosomes in each daughter cell). Prophase is the first stage of mitosis proper. Chromatin condenses (remember that chromatin/DNA replicate during Interphase), the nuclear envelope dissolves, centrioles (if present) divide and migrate, kinetochores and kinetochore fibers form, and the spindle forms. Metaphase follows Prophase. The chromosomes (which at this point consist of chromatids held together by a centromere) migrate to the equator of the spindle, where the spindles attach to the kinetochore fibers. Anaphase begins with the separation of the centromeres, and the pulling of chromosomes (we call them chromosomes after the centromeres are separated) to opposite poles of the spindle. To do this cells utilize microtubules (referred to as the spindle apparatus) to "pull" chromosomes into each "cell". Animal cells (except for a group of worms known as nematodes) have a centriole. Cells that contain centrioles also have a series of smaller microtubules, the aster, that extend from the centrioles to the cell membrane. The aster is thought to serve as a brace for the functioning of the spindle fibers. Telophase is when the chromosomes reach the poles of their respective spindles, the nuclear envelope reforms, chromosomes uncoil into chromatin form, and the nucleolus (which had disappeared during Prophase) reform. Where there was one cell there are now two smaller cells each with exactly the same genetic information. These cells may then develop into different adult forms via the processes of development. Cytokinesis is the process of splitting the daughter cells apart. Whereas mitosis is the division of the nucleus, cytokinesis is the splitting of the cytoplasm and allocation of the organelles and cytoplasm into each new cell.

Define genes and alleles. Recognize that allele pairs are separated into different gametes during meiosis.

Gene: a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring. Alleles: one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. A gene is a stretch of DNA or RNA that determines a certain trait. Genes mutate and can take two or more alternative forms; an allele is one of these forms of a gene.

16. Use examples to contrast phenotype and genotype.

Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual. Refers to the information contained on two alleles in the cell. Example: DNA, susceptibility to diseases Phenotype: Detectable expression of the genotype. An expressed and observable trait. e.g. hair color. Example: Hair color, eye color, weight, the ability to roll one's tongue

40. Explain how glands often regulate each other by feedback mechanisms.

Glandsdischarge hormones directly into the bloodstream. They have built in feedback mechanisms that maintain a proper balance of hormones, and prevent excess hormone secretion. Low concentrations of a hormone will often trigger the gland to secrete. Once the concentrations of the hormone in the blood rise this may cause the gland to stop secreting, until once again hormone concentrations fall. This feedback mechanism (which is characteristic of most glands) causes a cycle of hormone secretions.

1. control

In an experiment, the standard that is used for comparison

31. Explain the function of feedback systems, and describe the process of regulation of blood glucose levels by insulin and glucagon, as an example of negative feedback and homeostasis.

Homeostasis involves monitoring internal variables and correcting changes by negative feedback mechanisms. Negative feedback mechanisms keep the body within safe limits. In negative feedback, the body's response cancels the original stimulus. Body temperature, blood glucose, and water balance are controlled by negative feedback mechanisms. Three components - sensors, the brain and effectors - interact to maintain homeostasis Sensors are cells that can detect a specific change in the environment. The brain receives information from the sensors and compares it to a set point. If conditions are different from the set point, the brain sends a message to the effectors. Effectors respond to counteract internal changes. Negative feedback systems are processes that sense changes in the body and activate mechanisms that reverse the changes in order to restore conditions to their normal levels. Negative feedback systems are critically important in homeostasis, the maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions. Disruptions in homeostasis lead to potentially life-threatening situations. The maintenance of relatively constant blood glucose levels is essential for the health of cells and thus the health of the entire body. Major factors that can increase blood glucose levels include glucose absorption by the small intestine (after ingesting a meal) and the production of new glucose molecules by liver cells. Major factors that can decrease blood The homeostatic regulation of glucose concentrations. glucose levels include the transport of glucose into cells (for use as a source of energy or to be stored for future use) and the loss of glucose in urine (an abnormal event that occurs in diabetes mellitus).

16. Define the terms homozygous, heterozygous, dominant and recessive with respect to alleles on chromosomes.

Homozygous: a genetic condition where an individual inherits the same alleles for a particular gene from both parents. Heterozygous: A diploid organism is heterozygous at a gene locus when its cells contain two different alleles of a gene. The cell or organism is called a heterozygote specifically for the allele in question, therefore, heterozygosity refers to a specific genotype. In genetics, a trait that will appear in the offspring if one of the parents contributes it. ( Compare recessive trait.) Note : In humans, dark hair is a dominant trait; if one parent contributes a gene for dark hair and the other contributes a gene for light hair, the child will have dark hair.

40. Describe how hormones are chemical signals, with secretory cells and target cells.

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted into blood or extracellular fluid by one cell that affect the functioning of other cells. Most hormones circulate in blood, coming into contact with essentially all cells. However, a given hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells, which are called target cells. A target cell responds to a hormone because it bears receptors for the hormone. In other words, a particular cell is a target cell for a hormone if it contains functional receptors for that hormone, and cells which do not have such a receptor cannot be influenced directly by that hormone. Reception of a radio broadcast provides a good analogy. Everyone within range of a transmitter for National Public Radio is exposed to that signal (even if they don't contribute!). However, in order to be a NPR target and thus influenced directly by their broadcasts, you have to have a receiver tuned to that frequency. Hormone receptors are found either exposed on the surface of the cell or within the cell, depending on the type of hormone. In very basic terms, binding of hormone to receptor triggers a cascade of reactions within the cell that affects function. Additional details about receptor structure and function are provided in the section on hormone mechanism of action. A traditional part of the definition of hormones described them as being secreted into blood and affecting cells at distant sites. However, many of the hormones known to act in that manner have been shown to also affect neighboring cells or even have effects on the same cells that secreted the hormone. Nonetheless, it is useful to be able to describe how the signal is distributed for a particular hormonal pathway, and three actions are defined: 1. Endocrine action: the hormone is distributed in blood and binds to distant target cells. 2. Paracrine action: the hormone acts locally by diffusing ro0m its source to target cells in the neighborhood. 3. Autocrine action: the hormone acts on the same cell that reduced it. Two important terms are used to refer to molecules that bind to the hormone-binding sites of receptors: Agonists are molecules that bind the receptor and induce all the post-receptor events that lead to a biologic effect. In other words, they act like the "normal" hormone, although perhaps more or less potently. Natural hormones are themselves agonists and, in many cases, more than one distinct hormone binds to the same receptor. For a given receptor, different agonists can have dramatically different potencies. Antagonists are molecules that bind the receptor and block binding of the agonist, but fail to trigger intracellular signalling events. Antagonists are like certain types of bureaucrats - they don't themselves perform useful work, but block the activities of those that do have the capacity to contribute. Hormone antagonists are widely used as drugs. Finally, a comment on the names given hormones and what some have called the tyranny of terminology. Hormones are inevitably named shortly after their discovery, when understanding is necessarily rudimentary. They are often named for the first physiologic effect observed or for their major site of synthesis. As knowledge and understanding of the hormone grow, the original name often appears inappropriate or too restrictive, but it has become entrenched in the literature and is rarely changed. In other situations, a single hormone will be referred to by more than one name. The problem is that the names given to hormones often end up being either confusing or misleading. The solution is to view names as identifiers rather than strict guidelines to source or function.

1. X dependent variables

If an equation shows a relationship between x and y in which the value of y is dependent upon the value of x, y is known as the dependent variable and is sometimes referred to as 'function(x)' or f(x). The final solution of the equation, y, depends on the value of x, the independent variable which can be changed.

19. Define sex-linked traits and explain why recessive sex-linked traits (such as hemophilia or colorblindness) are more common in males than females.

In inheritance patterns, X-linked dominant conditions are transmitted by affected males to all of their daughters but none of their sons, by affected heterozygous females to one half of their children regardless of sex, and by affected homozygous females to all of their children. More common are X-linked recessive conditions, such as color blindness, ocular albinism, the Xg blood types, hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and inborn errors of metabolism. Such conditions are always transmitted by females. Those predominantly affected are males because they have only one X chromosome, and all of its genes, whether recessive or dominant, are expressed. Occasionally, females heterozygous for X-linked recessive disorders show varying degrees of expression, but never as severe as those of affected males. There are no known clinically significant traits or conditions associated with the genes on the Y chromosome. Their only known function is to trigger the development of male characteristics.

31. Explain the important interaction between the digestive and circulatory systems for absorption and distribution of nutrients.

In the mouth, carbohydrates are broken down by amylase into maltose (disaccharide) and then move down the esophagus, which produces mucus for lubrication, but no digestive enzymes. In the duodenum, disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by enzymes called maltases, sucrases, and lactases; the monosaccharides produced are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells to be used in metabolic pathways to harness energy. In the stomach, proteins are broken down into peptides, which are then broken down into single amino acids that are absorbed in the bloodstream though the small intestine. Lipids are digested mainly in the small intestine by bile salts through the process of emulsification, which allows lipases to divide lipids into fatty acids and monoglycerides. Monoglycerides and fatty acids enter absorptive cells in the small intestine through micelles; they leave micelles and recombine into chylomicrons, which then enter the bloodstream. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed in the same manner as lipids; water-soluble vitamins can be directly absorbed into the bloodstream from the intestine.

Explain the difference between genetic and infectious disease.

Infectious is something you get from a certain type of contact with some one who has the disease. Genetics is passed by you receiving a diseased gene from your parents.

28. Explain why viruses are not included in the classification of living organisms.

It cannot reproduce without invading a "host" cell. Therefore, it does not fit the criteria of a life form, and cannot belong to a biological kingdom.

28. Explain how an evolutionary tree represents the relatedness of different organisms.

KINGDOM: Animalia PHYLUM: Chordata SUBPHYLUM: Vertebrata SUPERCLASS: Gnathostomata CLASS: Mammalia ORDER: Primata SUBORDER: Haplorhini FAMILY: Hominidae GENUS: Homo SPECIES: Homo sapiens

14. Describe meiosis as the type of cell division that occurs in testes and ovaries, and generates sex cells (gametes).

Meiosis is a special type of cell division that is a reduction division. It results in the production of gametes or sex cells (sperms or eggs) with half the chromosome number that the organism contains in its body cells. The number of chromosomes in the gametes is called the haploid amount as compared to the diploid amount found in body cells. Meiosis occurs in gonads--sex organs which are testes in males and ovaries in females. It starts with a diploid body cell. The amount of chromosomes is replicated before meiotic division occurs. This results in paired chromosomes called chromatids. For example, if this were a human with a diploid number of chromosomes of 46, after replication, there would be 46 pairs of chromosomes. The cell goes through two rounds of cell division--prophase I, metaphase I, telophase I, anaphase I and then, a second round of division - prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II. The end result of meoisis is-- four haploid cells. It is important to note that during prophase I, homologous chromosomes form groups of four called tetrads. These will exchange sections of DNA with eachother in a process called crossing over during synapsis. This is much like shuffling a deck of cards and results in a rearrangement of genes. This produces sperms or eggs with much variation and explains why unless someone is an identical twin, your DNA is unique. Once meiosis is completed, in the case of females, only one cell becomes the ovum or egg, it is slightly larger than the other three cells, but contains half the chromosomes of the parent cell. The other three haploid but very small cells are called polar bodies. These are not used as gametes. In males, the end result is four haploid sperm cells. Both the human egg and sperm will have 23 chromosomes in each. Fertilization, restores the diploid amount of chromosomes (46) found in body cells. In sexually reproducing organisms, meiosis is the special cell division that forms haploid gametes. These haploid gametes preserve the species number of chromosomes in a particular organism, once they unite during fertilization.

14. Describe mitotic cell division (mitosis) as the process that generates the vast majority of cells in a human.

Mitosis is a part of the cell cycle process by which chromosomes in a cell nucleus are separated into two identical sets of chromosomes, each in its own nucleus. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is often followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.[1] Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated, condense and attach to fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell. The result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei. The cell may then divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells.[2] Producing three or more daughter cells instead of normal two is a mitotic error called tripolar mitosis or multipolar mitosis (direct cell triplication / multiplication).[3] Other errors during mitosis can induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) or cause mutations. Certain types of cancer can arise from such mutations.[4] Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells and the process varies in different organisms.[5] For example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.[6] Furthermore, most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission.

30. State the basic function of each organ of the GI tract. Diagram the path of food as it passes through the digestive system.

Mouth: The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here when taking the first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use. Esophagus: Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your mouth when you swallow. By means of a series of muscular contractions called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to your stomach. Stomach: The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are sufficiently processed, they are released into the small intestine. Small intestine: Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The duodenum is largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process, with the jejunum and ileum mainly responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon. Pancreas: The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone for metabolizing sugar. Liver: The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. In addition, the liver is the body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various chemicals the body needs to function. The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs. Gallbladder: The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum to help absorb and digest fats. Colon (large intestine): The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum. The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum. The appendix is a small tube attached to the cecum. The large intestine is a highly specialized organ that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient. Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination. Rectum: The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the person know that there is stool to be evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes away. Anus: The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas, or solid. The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. It keeps us continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

12. Define a mutation and explain why mutations can result in genetic disease.

Mutation is a natural process that changes a DNA sequence. And it is more common than you may think. As a cell copies its DNA before dividing, a "typo" occurs every 100,000 or so nucleotides. That's about 120,000 typos each time one of our cells divides. Most commonly, a single base is substituted for another. Sometimes a base is deleted or an extra base is added. Fortunately, the cell is able to repair most of these changes. When a DNA change remains unrepaired in a cell that will become an egg or a sperm, it is passed down to offspring. Thanks to mutation, we all have some new variations that were not present in our parents. People commonly use the terms "mutant" and mutation" to describe something undesirable or broken. But mutation is not always bad. Most DNA changes fall in the large areas of the genome that sit between genes, and usually they have no effect. When variations occur within genes, there is more often a consequence, but even then mutation only rarely causes death or disease. Mutation also generates new variations that can give an individual a survival advantage. And most often, mutation gives rise to variations that are neither good nor bad, just different.

Explain how mutations vary in severity (recognizing that "protein shape determines function" so changing the amino acid sequence of a protein may result in loss of normal function, gain of a new function or no change).

Mutations can also occur in nongenic regions. One study on genetic variations between different species of Drosophila suggests that, if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, the result is likely to be harmful, with an estimated 70 percent of amino acid polymorphisms that have damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.[4] Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on genes, organisms have mechanisms such as DNA repair to prevent or correct (revert the mutated sequence back to its original state) mutations.

13. Explain why mutations specifically in genes that code for cell cycle checkpoint proteins can lead to the formation of cancer cells.

Mutations occur when the type and order of DNA changes. They can be inherited or mutations can be caused by exposure to carcinogens. Mistakes in regulating the cell cycle arise when genes that control the cell cycle are mutated. Proto-oncogenes regulate the cell cycle. Oncogenes are mutated versions of these genes. Tumor suppressors are normal genes that can encode proteins to stop cell division if conditions are not favorable and can repair damage to the DNA. They serve as backups in case the proto-oncogenes undergo mutation.

25. Recognize that natural selection requires variation in populations and describe how mutation is the ultimate source of this variation.

Natural Selection leads to an evolutionary change when some individuals with certain traits in a population have a higher survival and reproductive rate than others and pass on these inheritable genetic features to their offspring. Evolution acts through natural selection whereby reproductive and genetic qualities that prove advantageous to survival prevail into future `generations. The cumulative effects of natural selection process have giving rise to populations that have evolved to succeed in specific environments. Natural selection operates by differential reproductive success (fitness) of individuals.

24. Describe why natural selection can only act on heritable traits.

Natural selection can only act on heritable traits because if a trait is heritable if all the induviduals of a population are genetically identical for that trait, evolution cant occur.

26. Explain how only natural selection drives species to become better adapted to their environments.

Natural selection is a mechanism by which populations adapt and evolve. In its essence, it is a simple statement about rates of reproduction and mortality: Those individual organisms who happen to be best suited to an environment survive and reproduce most successfully, producing many similarly well-adapted descendants. After numerous such breeding cycles, the better-adapted dominate. Nature has filtered out poorly suited individuals and the population has evolved. V.I.S.T.A. Natural selection is a simple mechanism that causes populations of living things to change over time. In fact, it is so simple that it can be broken down into five basic steps, abbreviated here as V.I.S.T.A.: Variation, Inheritance, Selection, Time and Adaptation.

13. Contrast the behavior of normal cells with the behavior of cancer cells.

Normal Cells Versus Cancer Cells All living organisms are composed of cells. These cells grow and divide in a controlled manner in order for the organism to function properly. Changes in normal cells can cause them to grow uncontrollably. This uncontrollable growth is the hallmark of cancer cells. Normal Cell Properties Normal cells have certain characteristics that are important for the proper functioning of tissues, organs, and body systems. These cells have the ability to reproduce correctly, stop reproducing when necessary, remain in a specific location, become specialized for specific functions, and self destruct when necessary. Cell Reproduction: Cell reproduction is needed to replenish the cell population that ages or becomes damaged or destroyed. Normal cells reproduce properly. Except for sex cells, all cells of the body reproduce by mitosis. Sex cells reproduce through a process called meiosis. Cell Communication: Cells communicate with other cells through chemical signals. These signals help normal cells to know when to reproduce and when to stop reproducing. Cell signals are usually transmitted into a cell by specific proteins. Cell Adhesion: Cells have adhesion molecules on their surface that allow them to stick to the cell membranes of other cells. This adhesion helps cells to stay in their proper location and also aids in the passage of signals between cells. Cell Specialization: Normal cells have the ability to differentiate or develop into specialized cells. For example, cells can develop into heart cells, brain cells, lung cells or any other cell of a specific type. Cell Death: Normal cells have the ability to self destruct when they become damaged or diseased. They undergo a process called apoptosis in which cells break down and are disposed of by white blood cells.

32. Describe the basic structure and function of the respiratory tract structures. Name the anatomic and common names of respiratory tract structures, including: pharynx = throat, larynx = voice box, trachea = windpipe. Describe the structure and function of alveoli, including their relationship with capillary beds.

Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The function of this part of the system is to warm, filter and moisten the incoming air Pharynx: Here the throat divides into the trachea (wind pipe) and oesophagus (food pipe). There is also a small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis which prevents food from entering the trachea Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated. It also helps protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any solid objects pass the epiglottis. Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube which carries air from the throat into the lungs. It ranges from 20-25mm in diameter and 10-16cm in length. The inner membrane of the trachea is covered in tiny hairs called cilia, which catch particles of dust which we can then remove through coughing. The trachea is surrounded by 15-20 C-shaped rings of cartilage at the front and side which help protect the trachea and keep it open. They are not complete circles due to the position of the oesophagus immediately behind the trachea and the need for the trachea to partially collapse to allow the expansion of the oesophagus when swallowing large pieces of food. Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left and one entering the right lung. The left bronchi is narrower, longer and more horizontal than the right. Irregular rings of cartilage surround the bronchi, whose walls also consist of smooth muscle. Once inside the lung the bronchi split several ways, forming tertiary bronchi. Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles, very narrow tubes, less than 1 millimeter in diameter. There is no cartilage within the bronchioles and they lead to alveolar sacs. Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within alveolar sacs (or ducts). Alveoli have very thin walls which permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. They are surrounded by a network of capillaries, into which the inspired gases pass. There are approximately 3 million alveoli within an average adult lung. Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broad band of muscle which sits underneath the lungs, attaching to the lower ribs, sternum and lumbar spine and forming the base of the thoracic cavity.

39. Describe the basic structure and function of the endocrine system, including the hypothalamus, pituitary, ovaries, testes, adrenal glands, and pancreas.

Pituitary Gland: This gland is often referred to as the "master gland." It greatly influences other organs in the body, and its function is vital to the overall well-being of a person. The pituitary gland produces several hormones. In fact, the front part of it, commonly called the anterior pituitary, produces the following types of hormones: Pituitary Gland This gland is often referred to as the "master gland." It greatly influences other organs in the body, and its function is vital to the overall well-being of a person. The pituitary gland produces several hormones. In fact, the front part of it, commonly called the anterior pituitary, produces the following types of hormones: -Growth hormone: This hormone promotes growth in childhood. For adults, it helps to maintain healthy muscle and bone mass. -Prolactin: In women, it stimulates milk production. In males, low levels are linked to sexual problems; however, most males make no use of the hormone. -Adrenocorticotropic: This hormone promotes the production of cortisol, which helps to reduce stress, maintain healthy blood pressure and more. -Thyroid-stimulating hormone: Just as the name implies, this hormone helps to regulate the body's thyroid, which is crucial in maintaining a healthy metabolism. -Luteinizing hormone: In women, this hormone regulates estrogen. In men, it regulates testosterone. -Follicle-stimulating hormone: Found in both men and women. It stimulates the releasing of eggs in women and helps ensure the normal function of sperm production in men. The back part of the pituitary gland is called the posterior pituitary. It produces the following two hormones: -Oxytocin: This hormone causes pregnant women to start having contractions at the appropriate time and also promotes milk flow in nursing mothers. -Antidiuretic hormone: Commonly referred to as vasopressin, this hormone helps to regulate water balance in the body. When the pituitary gland doesn't operate in a healthy manner, this can lead to pituitary disorders. Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is in control of pituitary hormones by releasing the following types of hormones: a. Thyrotrophic-releasing hormone b.Growth hormone-releasing hormone c. Corticotrophin-releasing hormone d. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone Thymus This gland secretes hormones that are commonly referred to as hemmoral factors and are important during puberty. The role of these hormones is to make sure a person develops a healthy immune system.

27. Summarize the concept of human races and the effects of cultural influence.

Race, as a social construct, is a group of people who share similar and distinct physical characteristics. First used to refer to speakers of a common language and then to denote national affiliations, by the 17th century race began to refer to physical (i.e. phenotypical) traits. Starting from the 19th century, the term was often used in a taxonomic sense to denote genetically differentiated human populations defined by phenotype. Social conceptions and groupings of races vary over time, involving folk taxonomies that define essential types of individuals based on perceived traits. Scientists consider biological essentialism obsolete, and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits. Even though there is a broad scientific agreement that essentialist and typological conceptualizations of race are untenable, scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race in widely differing ways, some of which have essentialist implications. While some researchers sometimes use the concept of race to make distinctions among fuzzy sets of traits, others in the scientific community suggest that the idea of race often is used in a naive or simplistic way, and argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance by pointing out that all living humans belong to the same species, Homo sapiens, and subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens. Since the second half of the 20th century, the associations of race with the ideologies and theories that grew out of the work of 19th-century anthropologists and physiologists has led to the use of the word race itself becoming problematic. Although still used in general contexts, race has often been replaced by other words which are less ambiguous and emotionally charged, such as populations, people(s), ethnic groups, or communities, depending on context.

1. Describe the scientific process.

Scientific Method 1. Observation 2. Question 3. Hypotheses 4. Experimental Design 5. Conclusion

32. Describe the structure and function of alveoli, including their relationship with capillary beds.

Structure and function of the alveoli: At the end of each alveolar duct there are a number of sac-like structures called alveoli, it is within these structures that surfactant is produced. The alveoli are grouped together like a lot of interlinked caves, rather than existing as separate individual sacs. Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli. Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses through the walls of the alveoli and adjacent capillaries into the red blood cells. The oxygen is then carried by the blood to the body tissues. Carbon dioxide produced by the body's metabolism returns to the lung via the blood. It then diffuses across the capillary and alveolar walls into the air to be removed from the body with expiration. The alveoli have a structure specialised for efficient gaseous exchange: Walls are extremely thin. They have a large surface area in relation to volume. They are fluid lined enabling gases to dissolve. They are surrounded by numerous capillaries.

18. Describe ABO blood type as an example of codominant alleles.

The ABO blood group is a good example of codominance and multiple alleles. There are three allele that control the ABO blood groups. If there are more than two allele of a gene then they are called multiple allele. The allele IA corresponds to blood group A (genotype IAIA) and the allele IB corresponds to blood group B (genotype IBIB). Both of these are dominant and so if IA and IB are present together they form blood group AB (genotype IAIB). Both allele affect the phenotype since they are both codominant. Codominant allele are pairs of allele that both affect the phenotype when present together in a heterozygote. The allele i is recessive to both IA and IB so if you have the genotype IA i you will have blood group A and if you have the genotype IB i you will have blood group B. However if you have the genotype ii then you are homozygous for i and will be of blood group O. Below is a table to summaries which genotypes give which phenotypes. PhenotypeGenotype A IAIA or IAi B IBIB or IBi AB IAIB O ii

13. Describe the normal mitotic cell cycle (interphase [G1, S, G2]

The Cell Cycle: The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis, in which the cell's chromosomes are divided between the two daughter cells, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides in half forming distinct cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G0 phase. G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the restriction point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase. S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids. G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis. M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis). The period between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase. G0 Many times a cell will leave the cell cycle, temporarily or permanently. It exits the cycle at G1 and enters a stage designated G0 (G zero). A G0 cell is often called "quiescent". Many G0 cells are anything but quiescent. They are busy carrying out their functions in the organism. e.g., secretion, attacking pathogens. Often G0 cells are terminally differentiated: they will never reenter the cell cycle but instead will carry out their function in the organism until they die. For other cells, G0 can be followed by reentry into the cell cycle. Most of the lymphocytes in human blood are in G0. However, with proper stimulation, such as encountering the appropriate antigen, they can be stimulated to reenter the cell cycle (at G1) and proceed on to new rounds of alternating S phases and mitosis. G0 represents not simply the absence of signals for mitosis but an active repression of the genes needed for mitosis. Cancer cells cannot enter G0 and are destined to repeat the cell cycle indefinitely.

20. Diagram the flow of information from DNA to protein.

The Flow of Genetic Information • Cells Inherit Molecules, Energy, and Genetic Information • Genetic Information Is Encoded in DNA • DNA Has the Structure of a Double Helix • DNA Is Replicated Before Cell Division • Genetic Information Flows from DNA to RNA to Protein • Cells Express Their Genetic Information Selectively • Chromosome Structure Changes During the Cell Cycle • Chromosome Number Changes During the Life Cycle

23. Define artificial selection and explain how it supports the idea of natural selection.

The breeding of plants and animals to produce desirable traits. Organisms with the desired traits, such as size or taste, are artificially mated or cross-pollinated with organisms with similar desired traits.

34. Describe the systemic circuit and pulmonary circuit of the cardiovascular system.

The cardiovascular system is composed of two circulatory paths: pulmonary circulation, the circuit through the lungs where blood is oxygenated, and systemic circulation, the circuit through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. In the pulmonary circulation, blood travels through capillaries on the alveoli, air sacs in the lungs which allow for gas exchange. As blood flows through circulation, the size of the vessel decreases from artery/vein, to arteriole/venule, and finally to capillaries, the smallest vessels for gas and nutrient exchange.

22. Generally describe how biotechnology techniques are used to create genetically modified organisms. Discuss the benefits, concerns and ethical issues of genetic engineering.

The field of transgenics allows scientists to develop organisms that express a novel trait not normally found in a species; for example, potatoes that are protein rich, or rice that has elevated levels of vitamin A (known as "golden rice").1,2 Transgenics may be also used to save endangered species such as the American Chestnut tree, which is currently being repopulated by Chinese-American chestnut hybrids specifically engineered with a genetic resistance to the chestnut blight—the deadly fungus that nearly decimated native populations in the early 1900s.3 Ethical Issues Transgenic biotechnology presents an exciting range of possibilities, from feeding the hungry to preventing and treating diseases; however, these promises are not without potential peril. Some of the issues that need to be considered are the following: Social Concerns If the blending of animal and human DNA results, intentionally or not, in chimeric entities possessing degrees of intelligence or sentience never before seen in nonhuman animals, should these entities be given rights and special protections? What, if any, social and legal controls or reviews should be placed on such research? What unintended personal, social, and cultural consequences could result? Who will have access to these technologies and how will scarce resources—such as medical advances and novel treatments—be allocated? Extrinsic Concerns What, if any, health risks are associated with transgenics and genetically modified foods?13 Are there long-term effects on the environment when transgenic or genetically modified organized are released in the field? Should research be limited and, if so, how should the limits be decided? How should the limits be enforced nationally and internationally? Intrinsic Concerns Are there fundamental issues with creating new species? Are species boundaries "hard" or should they be viewed as a continuum? What, if any, consequences are there of blurring species boundaries? Are chimeras and transgenics more likely to suffer than "traditional" organisms? Will transgenic interventions in humans create physical or behavioral traits that may or may not be readily distinguished from what is usually perceived to be "human"? What, if any, research in genetic engineering should be considered morally impermissible and banned (e.g., research undertaken for purely offensive military purposes)?14 Will these interventions redefine what it means to be "normal"?

2. Illustrate the difference between anecdotal evidence and valid scientific evidence.

The main difference between an anecdote and a case study is the basic lack of evidence for an anecdote, other than the purported witness testimony (made even weaker in the case of a friend-of-a-friend anecdote). Case studies, on the other hand, are well-documented and supported, even published and peer-reviewed.

29. State the basic functions of the four different types of tissues, and name major examples of each type.

The human body is composed of four basic types of tissues; epithelium. connective, muscular, and nervous tissues. These tissues vary in their composition and their function. A basic understanding of the role of each tissue makes understanding the specific functions easier. 1. Epithelium - lines and covers surfaces 2. Connective tissue - protect, support, and bind together 3. Muscular tissue - produces movement 4. Nervous tissue - receive stimuli and conduct impulses

5. Describe the basic concept of pH and the pH scale. Recognize the normal human blood pH range of 7.35 to 7.45.

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. "Potential hydrogen", the potential of the hydrogen ion concentration. pH = - log [H+]

36. Describe the basic structure and function of the urinary system.

The urinary system works with other organs such as the lungs, skin and the intestines in keeping chemicals and water balanced inside the body. Normally, adults eliminate about a quart and a half of urine each day. The amount of urine released each day depends on how much fluid and food a person consumes and how much fluid is lost through sweat and breathing. Certain medications may also influence the amount of urine that is eliminated. When we consume foods containing protein, such as meat and poultry, a waste product called urea is produced. Urea, along with excess water and other waste products, is normally released from the body in the form of urine. Parts of the urinary system and their functions: The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles, and the urethra. It also includes the nerves that supply these urinary organs.

Explain the main processes contributing to genetic diversity in sexually reproducing organisms (independent assortment, random fertilization, crossing over).

These are the three primary ways by which sexually reproducing organisms generate diversity in their offspring. Independent assortment is the concept that alleles are separate from each other when characteristics are being passed down. For example, hair color is independent of height; those two characteristics are assorted independently. It doesn't work in practice for every possible gene because many alleles are linked together on the same chromosome. If they stay on the same chromosome when the genes are passed down, those two traits are not independently assorted and are linked. A good example of this is looking at the female and male phenotypes. Clearly gonad formation is a linked trait with breast formation, body morphology, hormone composition, and a whole set of other traits. Crossing over describes the process by which chromatids may exchange traits before making gametes. Homologous chromosomes generally have one representative from the father and one representative from the mother. Crossing over allows you to pass a blend of the father's and mother's DNA, rather than simply a replicate of your father's or mother's chromosomes. This is important because it is one of the main processes allowing independent assortment! If on the same chromosome you found hair color and eye color (and some portions of both are on chromosome 19), your only hope of passing down your mother's brown hair with your dad's blue eyes would be crossing over, for example (random colors chosen). Finally, random fertilization describes the concept that the probability of any set of genes has an equal likelihood of combining to form the offspring. This allows all dominant and recessive traits to compete on equal footing before birth. For example, a human egg is no less likely to be fertilized by a sperm containing the "taco tongue" trait than a sperm containing the "no taco tongue" trait. That being said, there has been a hypothesis put forth that there may be exceptions. One prominent one was that sperm containing the light Y-chromosome to make a boy will have an easier time making it to the egg than sperm containing the bulky X-chromosome. All of these contribute to genetic diversity in a specific way. The easiest way to consider how they increase diversity is to realize that during fertilization, there is no selection of traits (that comes after fertilization). Each mechanism maximizes the possible combinations of genes to allow for more and more fit organisms to be produced.

25. Discuss specific adaptations of a particular organism (such as wings, gills, detachable jaws, opposable thumbs) and explain how those adaptations make the organism better fit for its own particular environment.

Vertebrates are named for vertebrae, the series of bones that make up the vertebral column or backbone. There are about 52,000 species of vertebrates, far fewer than the 1 million insect species on Earth. Plant-eating dinosaurs, at 40,000 kg, were the heaviest animals to walk on land. The biggest animal that ever existed is the blue whale, at 100,000 kg. Humans and our closest relatives are vertebrates. This group includes other mammals, birds, lizards, snakes, turtles, amphibians, and the various classes of fishes.

Oxidative phosphorylation

When energy is released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP.

1. hypothesis vs theory

a hypothesis and a theory try to explain a phenomenon. Only the theory has the testing & acceptance of the scientific community. A hypothesis can become a theory BUT NOT IF ONLY YOU TEST IT!

9. Describe CO2 (carbon dioxide)

a greenhouse gas, due to its ability to absorb and emit energy in the thermal (heat) range and discuss the environmental implications.

28. State the basic characteristics of each domain of life

a. Bacteria: 5,000 species recognized today. Each species found in astronomical numbers, but it is difficult to classify simple one-celled organisms, thus number of species is uncertain. Strains of one species look alike, clustered by what they do. b. Archaea: Any of various single-celled prokaryotes genetically distinct from bacteria, often thriving in extreme environmental conditions c. Eukarya: unicellular, no membrane bound nucleus or organelles, cell wall with peptidoglycan, abundant, simple structure, diverse metabolically

Basic properties of muscle cells

conductors heat/electric, malleability, ductility

43. Name the functions of the major appendicular s, and the basic organization of bones.muscles of the body.

consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles (shoulder bones and hip bones) that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. Bones of the limbs help us move from place to place (locomotion) and manipulate our environment. Bones come in many sizes and shapes. For example, the pisiform bone of the wrist is the size and shape of a pea, whereas the femur (thigh bone) is nearly two feet long in some people and has a large, ball-shaped head. The unique shape of each bone fulfills a particular need. The femur, for example, withstands great pressure, and its hollow-cylinder design provides maximum strength with minimum weight to accommodate upright posture. Generally, bones are classified by their shape as long, short, flat, or irregular

42. Name the functions of the major axial muscles of the body.

forms the long axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. Generally speaking these bones protect, support, or carry other body parts.

1. germ theory of disease

idea that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms

3. Describe how the following properties of water make it critical to biology:

its abundance, its role as a solvent for biological molecules, and its polarity, which allows it to dissolve polar molecules, and participate in some reactions.

1. The Germ Theory of Disease

many diseases are caused by the growth of microbes in the body; contributed by Lois Pasteur and Robert Koch

14. Recognize the starting and ending chromosome numbers for both normal mitotic and meiotic cell division.

mitosis, where the nucleus divides into two identical nuclei, meiosis, which results in the production of four nuclei with half the original number of chromosomes of the parent cell.

8. Osmosis

osmosis is the spontaneous movement of a solvent (water) through a cellular membrane. This is a special kind of diffusion that moves water molecules from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration to create a stable and equal cellular environment

2. Describe the importance of peer review.

peer review is a necessary but not sufficient condition for validity and accuracy. Something that can't ever pass an independent peer review in dozens of credible journals is highly suspect. However, a study that passes a peer review isn't guaranteed to be valid and accurate. Contrarian ideologues often say peer review is part of their conspiracy theory. They go with the assumption that any study questioning the consensus view is valid and accurate and therefore scientific journals are conspiring against them. More accurately, contrarian material tends to be fatally flawed - errors being obvious (perhaps violating some basic laws of physics or making dubious inferences from cherry-picked data).

1. theory of evolution

states that organisms change and develop over time to adapt an increase rate of survival

9. "driving a more fuel efficient vehicle"

the most significant way most people could reduce their contribution to greenhouse emissions.