Human Development CH. 9

Recent work on personal & behavioral charec & ID formation

- links ID status or degree of exploration & commitment to other personal & behavior charec: religiosity, risk taking, prosocial behavior, delinquency, openness & conscientiousness. Foreclosure more strongly ass/ religiosity than other ID statuses. ID diffusion -> more risk taking, less prosocial. Commitment decline over time -> engage in delinquent acts; commitment increase -> fewer delinquent acts Some ass/ btn personal charec & ID formation specific to particular domains. EX. early conscientiousness -> predict commitment to educ goals.

How do personal & behavioral characteristics & identity formation relate?

- personality and cog characteristics affect ID formation esp how likely engage in exploration or stick w/ commitment early research on behavioral & cog correlates of each global ID status. achieved status -> internal locus of control; diffused -> external locus of control. commitment made, esp in foreclosed status -> less anxious. Moratorium -> most anxious. egocentric -> more exploration & greater likelihood of reaching ID achievement, esp males.

Negative effects & risks of discriminatory experiences

- physical & psych effects (Benner, 2017). longitudinal study, 16-18 AA, rep racial discrim -> more signs of wear and tear on bio systems at 20 (cortisol, blood pressure) (Brody et al, 2014) ^ in MH prob like mood anxiety, and substance abuse disorders. major risk seems to be moderated by ethnic/racial ID commitments in teens & early adulthood. Strong ethnic ID - buffering role, protect self-esteem in stressful inter-racial interaction (Yip & Douglass, 2013)

Adolescent culpability continued

- weigh short term gain in decision making, discount long-term consideration. -immature, changing, neurological processes - more vulnerable to compelling circumstances, more easily provoked to aggressive responses by perceived threat, sit more stressful. Need for peer support & approval -> susceptible to influence. - uncharacteristic on grounds character and ID relatively UNFORMED. experiment behaviors potentially dangerous (drug, antisocial acts), for most, activity short-lived. ex perpetration of sex offenses. Recidivism rates 8-12% lower than adults 20-40% (Repucci, 2002) sex behaviors less established, may represent experimentation, work in progress, more likely to respond to treatment.

Why is early puberty happening?

-declining physical activity, increasing intake of high-calorie foods. body fat affects timing of puberty in girls, ^ rations of fat assc/ w earlier onsets. this less clear for boys, some studies show also true. several mechanism involved, overproduction of leptin - hormone produced in fat tissue, can affect GnRH levels in hypothalamus. if body fat unusually low, like those malnourished, likely being puberty later.

Applications: Identity - Long and winding road

-sense of ID rel/ psyc well-being bc personal goals met thru its expression & meaning found in pursuit teen able ID own goals, create meaning from actions, chart course. helping parents & others understand develop approp of non-destructive personal expression can be reassuring. When healthy alternatives for autonomy-seeking lacking, might try meed fundamental needs in inapp or harmful ways. supporting explo of healthy & develop app routes for expressing indep, part of social group, satisfaction in accomplishment goals, for educators, therapist & parents. trajectory of ID develop nuanced & dynamic. Contemp opp for explo abundant. Advantages & challenges bc need find place in complex, globalized world w unlimited choices. Aspects of personality interact w/ fam, school, comm, culture in ID creation, material from each to shape self. imp for how commitments made. Understand macro-influences, support emerging coherence & meaningfulness of EACH unique ID construction.

Refresher on stress response and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

.perceive stressor, amygdala -> chain of reactions in hypothalamus, pituitary & adrenal glands. Adrenal glands release cortisol -> travels thru bloodstream to many organ system -> fight, flight, freeze. ordinary condit, cortisol circulates back to amygdala & hippocampus, binds w/ receptors there, ending stress response so homeostasis.

____ of teens experience depressed mood, subclinical level of dep at any given time

1/3. rates of clincial dep higher for teens than kids. mid-teens clinical dep rates reach adult levels. dep mood & clinical dep more often in females beginning in teens. 12-19 yo ranging from 5-20%, girls rates as much as 3x of boys

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

A hormone released from the hypothalamus that triggers the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH. sets the reproductive axis into motion!

Arming youth against threat of racial discrim has more mixed results

AA c's -> strengthened connections w/ fam memb but lowered acad performance, heightened dep, & feeling of hopelessness in some studies. some indicate expectations abt discrim can foster hostility & antisocial behavior. Teaching abt realities may need to be decoupled from promo of mistrust and/or coupled w/ school & comm efforts to promote trust. opp for mainstream activities & cross-racial friendships related to better social skills & ovrll adjustment. inter-group contact & cross-group friendships can increase explo of ERI, & ethnic commitment ass/ + & diverse peer rel.

Anorexia nervosa

Charec by refusal to maintain adeq body weight (below 85%) for age & height. restricting type - malnourished state maintained by not eating or caloric restriction binge eating/purging - marked weight loss, but course of disease punctuated by bursts of binging and/or purging. Binges - typically followed by compensatory action (diuretics', laxatives, vomiting, exercise) Highly distorted cognitions abt body shape & size. Low-self-esteem. Deadly. 57x more likely die from suicide. regarded as affected mid-high SES white fem, incidence increasing in min groups.

Etiology & risk factors for eating disorders

ED good ex of multiply determined disorders, no one casual factor sufficient to explain emergence. evidence for influence of genetically transmitted risk of AN & BN, cluster in fam. Research in molecular genetics underway, id partic genes ass/ risk, ID potential epigenetic processes in etiology. recog hormonal & neurotransmitter abnormalities ass/ AN & BN may result from malnutrition or pre-morbid psychiatric condit like dep, anxiety, SA. Examine direciton of effects. both AN & BN types share preoccup around food/eating, distortions in body img, low self-esteem, diff describes that appear predate diagnosis & persist after recovery. AN - perfectionist, conformist, obsessional, high in self-control, rigid thinking. BN - impulsive, prone to self-harm, SA, dependent on food to reg dysphoric mood, others as self-effacing & guilt-prone. alleviate guilt after over-indulgence. AN & BN share symp, 25-39% BN have history of AN. over enmeshment & over-control said to be prevalent in fams of AN girls, parental under control & conflict for BN. inconsistent evidence tho. evidence for role of cult, standards of beauty implicated.

Adolescent development: Path ahead

Eirkson (1968) believed reward for search was achievement of fidelity or something to hold on to. process necessary part of moratorium that precedes achievement of greater stability. Josselson (1994) - search fundamentally dialogue teen doesn't engage in alone. success of search for fidelity depends on community's fidelity to teens as search.

Four statuses of ID

Eirkson's poles: ID achievement - exploration occured & followed by commitment. identity diffusion - neither exploration nor commitment occurred. foreclosure - makes commitment w/o exploration (ex adopting fam value) moratorium - no commitment made but actively exploring. at any one time, same teen may be charec by diff statuses w/ regard to ex religion, politics etc.

Questions of where imaginary audience & fables originate and when recede

Elkind characterized egocentric develop as product of formal op skill, suggest diminish in later teens -> func of interpersonal experience (sharing ideas & feelings w/ others, pov taking, recog not unique) studies indicate self-focused thought not as closely ass/ formal op skills.

James Marcia noted that embedded in Erikson's ID formation are two processes.

Exploration - actively q, weighing various ID alternative before deciding which values, beliefs, & goals to pursue Commitment - making ID choices & engaging in activities to implement them. there are 4 ID status could characterize person, depending on whether exploration & commitment have or have not occurred.

concept of ID or ego ID

FIRST elab by Erikson's theory of personality development. not so much abt temperament charec. focuses on doing side of personality. new staks at each stage help see themselves in new ways that motivate behavior. ID formation incorp & expand on feeling abt self, forms of self-knowledge - social academic, & physical self concept. draws on beliefs & expectations from family & lrgr culture.

Which of the social categories that "define" children as they enter teens is quite salient?

Gender. from earliest years. Rogers & meltzoff (2017) 7-12 yo in low income, racially diverse US schools to select ID labels ranging from roles, gender & ethnicity & rank imp. Label fam & student 1 & 2, 3rd gender, & ethnicity last.

Stroud and colleagues (2009)

HPA axis & cardiac functions in C's 7-12. & teens 13-17. exposed to performance (5 min speech, mental arithmetic, q) or social stressors (social rejection interaction, excluding from convo). teens didn't report more feelings of distress, but stronger physiological reactions on ALL stress-related measures. including cortisol production. severe, unpredictable or chronic stress esp neg effect. ex 16 yo severe social adversity (violence, bullying) blunting of stress response by 19. animal studies, struc in limbic system & prefrontal cortex can show permanent stress induced atrophy, hypertrophy, atypical changes, affecting performance on behavior measures.

Box 9.2 Choosing an ID: Case of Multiracial Youth

Herman (2004) study, 9kteens in Cali & Wisconsin in 80s. asked select major ethnic group, & select of parents. considered most comprehensive investigation of multiracial youth in US. looked for factors influencing choices make when forced to choose. probed view of themselves and ethnicity w q on global self-esteem, imp of ethnic background for self-definition, ovrll feeling abt background & perceived discrim. SES & yearbook pics coded by apparent race used. Context variables - one or both reside w/ teen? Which ethnic group charec friends? Makeup of school & neighborhood? cat as monoracial or biracial. Biracial W/B, tend ID as black. All grps felt + abt background, biracial teen feeling abt same as monoracial. Monoracial & biracial asian W rep sim feelings abt ethnicity, both somewhat less pos. monoracial n-w & biracial c's rep discrim, self-esteem comparable to W w/ little or no discrim. Monoracial Blacks, ^ self-esteem than W, moracial Asians somewhat lower scores.

Do individual differ in their ID development processes because members of certain groups?

INTENSE clinical & research interest in specific ID development patterns of groups - gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation critical to sort out which processes & trends generalizable across grps & which aren't. & also -> how does group membership moderate development & impact intervention efforts growing multicultural citizenry & social movements. Ex. counselors movement to recog & integrate diverse pov in training & therapeutic practice bc relevance of group memb in well-being & client-counselor interaction.

How do minority youth respond to discriminatory views and behavior

Looking-glass society than sorts ppl on basis of race/ethnicity & reflects back measure of worth. Theories suggest some may immerse themselves in grps or actively reject dominant cult during this period.

Box 9.2 - How did students decide what racial ID to report?

Majority of biracial teen ID w/ minority cat. those who id as white more likely to look white to observers or live w/ white parents. Hispanic W biracials - living in more affluent or W neighborhood predicted ID as white. Attending largely W HS -> ID as hispanic. Perhaps being minority highlights distinctiveness. Native American W biracials , even who looked white, almost never ID as W. perception of imp of ethnicity issues in lives among strongest predictors of ID choice. If min W biracial teen rep ethnic discrim, more likely ID as non-w, if felt ethnicity imp aspect, also more likely ID as non-w.

What do studies of ID formation actually find?

Marcia (2010) meta-analysis of 124 studies 1966-2005. longitudinal studies w/ measures of global ID status found 1/3 made progressive changes during time. 15% -regressive changes, half no change. Not many longitudinal studies & covered various age ranges so hard to conclude more than progressive changes more likely than regressive. cross-sectional studies, young teens more diffusion & foreclosure. prop in moratorium ^ across teen yrs, greater prop of late teens & YA -> ID achievement. Much fluctuation EVEN in diffusion & foreclosure from early teens to mid-twenties. newer longitudinal studies -> confirm change tens to be progressive but highly variable. Ex, repeated cycles of exploration (esp, in-depth), tweaking/reconsidering commitment in various domain, & meeting new ppl, new experiences, & mjr life changes -> cycles of reeval.

What are issues in the study of ethnic or racial & sexuality development?

Methodological complexities. sexuality & gender development, disagreement & uncertainty abt what categories of gender & sexual orientation are or shld b, esp given many a multiplicity of cat apply. terms like race, ethnicity, culture, often used to signify diff things. term sexuality development replaced sexual development, reflect fluidity & interconnectedness of physical & psyc develop of coming to understand sexuality. assuming members of race or ethnic group homogenous. consider generational status, immigration history, & nationality. is whiteness racial charec or socio-cultural? good idea for ppl consider place of own race, cult & ethnicity in self-definition. W people often fail to recog how being white in society stratified by race influences attitudes, behaviors twrds themselves & others. W youth rep some ethnic ID explo esp if have cross-cult friendships but typically not key domain of ID explo. failure of pov taking, sustain prob of privilege. group memb typically involves intersection of multiple cat. each ID mod each of others, explo & commitment unique.

Cognitive development

National Council of teaching of Math recc intro concrete elements grades 5-8, generalization of arithmetic w/ some precursors early as grade 3. abstract concepts better intro 9-12. why planners wait so long to introduce algb? simplest algebraic eq involve use of symbol for x. ASKING TO REASON logically abt abstraction, cannot be rep in concrete term. no concrete ex of unknown #. middle childhood, Piaget - stage of concrete op thought, c's reason logically. hold pieces of info simul, discover rel BUT CONCRETE, or parallels w/ rela world.

What are different approaches to assess ID formation?

Questionnaires to measure current degree of both exploration & commitment in multiple domains Narrative ID: ask to tell stories abt themselves and lives, open-ended q (prompts). Involve high/low/turning points. Code for different aspects of content (ex. agency, communion). Narrative is designed to determine content of domains of ID, if used in longitudinal study, eval how changes over time. The other two designed to measure whether ID status changing and ID sequence of change.

What is an example of a minority group that doesn't seem to benefit from strong ethnic ID

Roma teens in E. Europe. Better served by strong fam ID. W/ strong ethnic commitment -> more poorly on measures of wellbeing. Harsh national policies might play role in disrupting protection ethnic ID affords. Dmmiitrova et al. (2017)

Helping Sexual Minority Youth

Sexual ID development can't be disentangled from other aspects of ID like gender, race, & cult. supportive environ, provision of info, recog, affirmation of diff, understanding also imp for LGBTQI. LGBTQU adults asked abt experiences w/ health care proff. three of themes: 1. Providers shld be comfortable to show authentic respect 2) Providers shouldn't generalize or make assumptions abt sexual ID, preferences or behaviors 3) should address barriers to care, provide resources recognize obstacles. outcomes for sexual minority youth may depend on fam acceptance ore rejection, complexities of gender & ethnic status & social support or ostracism. Many struggle come terms w/ own orientation before understand what issue really is. Conflicts might be expressed as feeling diff. can exist in context of societal condemnation, threats, rejection, sense of isolation esp when condemnation based on religion.

what evidence is there for protective role of ERI?

Supple and colleagues - Latinx teens. explore & resolution primarily related to parental socialization efforts. Affirmation of cult ID , however, depended also on interaction of parenting quality & environment. Highly supportive parenting + neighborhood secuity -+ rel/ eri. Low quality parenting + unsafe environ -> opp. Ethnic ID shaped by many interacting variables & enhanced by quality of micro & exo-systems. When min grp memb central to HS and college kids ID, ethnic ID appear increase sensitivity to discrimination & protect psyc well-being. Yip, Seaton & Seller (2006) AA teens, college kids, & adults - achieved ERI ass/ racial centrality & private regard (race as +). College -> achieved protective factor against dep.

What is the developmental sequence in ID formation?

Theorist since Eirkson hypo normative course to ID: foreclosure or diffusion typical of younger teens. Moratorium & ID achievement more common in older teens & young adults. argue shift from diffusion to either closure or moratorium is progressive. Others are closure -> moratorium & moratorium -> achievement. assume any commitments made in early teens w/ or w/o previous moratorium, more likely to change later than if made in late teens or as YA.

How does culture limit identity status

W cult - make possible many diff options for most ID domains, periods of moratorium common. traditional cultures - few or no options for future directions of belief systems, youth may be more typically foreclosed. memb of ethnic or racial subcultures in W societies sometimes see options as more restricted than mainstream youth.

Sexual orientation

a preference for sexual partners of the same sex (heterosexual), of the opposite sex (homosexual), of both sexes (bisexuality), last two -> nonheterosexual. most adolescents ID w/ heterosexual. 80% in one survey, girls more likely ID as bi (9.8) than lesbian (2), pattern w adults. boys evenly divided. bisexual (2.4) or gay (2). by adulthood, more likely exclusively gay. most rep only heterosexual contact. smaller prop (1.7) w/ same-sex, 4.6 bisexual contact, 45.7 no contact (Kan,, Olsen et al, 2016)

Adolescence identity is

a synthesis of earlier elements w/ new, more cog & emo mature aspects of self-system.

What does puberty correspond with?

adolescent growth spur - rapid increase in size accompanied by changes in shape & proportions of body. 4 yr span - avg increase in heights ~10 inch for B & G. boys gain 42 pounds and girls 38 pounds (avg). diff parts of body grow at diff times. Nose & ears usually before skill. Hands, feet, & limbs before torso. can be asymmetries ing growth btwn 2 sides of body.

other stressors beyond impact of early puberty can contribute to sex differences in dep rates. (girls) continued.

after puberty, mixed-sex groups & heterosexual dyads -> differences in discourse styles may lead to stress. less likely influence outcome of discussion (Maccoby, 1990). Boys don't offer much support to convo partners as girls do. romantic involvement linked to dep. sexual debut - age of first intercourse, usually defined as before age 15. girls (not boys) who have early debt, dep ^ over time, self-esteem decrease. typical romantic behaviors (ex. flirting, kissing) ass/ ^ dep symp (Steinberg & davila, 2008). tend report more feelings of guilt & shame so issues like double standard, low levels support from males may be imp. earlier puberty, more likely to simultaneously face puberty & transition to secondary schools. coping style of rumination. stable-emo focused, respond to prob by directing attention internally twrd neg thoughts & feelings. cog & affective elements. increase duration & intensity of dep episodes in teens & adult fem.

Adolescents and young adults who have acquired a stable and coherent sense of self ....

and of their future back (global ID achievement) tend to see lives as more meaningful (Negru-subtirica et al, 2016) Making commitment ass/ w many aspects of pos well-being & adjustment, low levels of itnernalizing & externalizing prob to high acad achievement (Crocetti, 2017). BUT not all who remain in diffusion over time by adulthood are trouble. Many do suffer from psyc distress, less autonomous, & more influenced by external pressures (Carlsson et al, 2016).

What is one of the first was message of diversity was promulgated?

array of ID development theories based on group differences. developmental schemes proposed of Blacks, Hispanics, Asian Americas, Whites, women, & lesbian & gays. Eliason (1996) summary review - 11 diff theories of coming out or ID development for LBG. Helms (1990) described 11 models of Black ID development.

emotional brain governs both an

avoidance (harm) & approach system (pleasure). two behavioral systems may not develop at same space. former led by amygdala, imp driver of stress response. help interpret stim & react in ways avoid pain or punishment. approach, ID potentially rewarding sit, driven by ventral striatum.

How many hours of sleep do adolescents need?

btn 8-10 hrs per night. longitudinal study, teens sleep as much as wished up to 10 hrs, avg 9.25 hrs. school days, less sleep than need. most middle & hs begin earlier & bc sleep late, miss out. sleep routines tend to also vary.

other stressors beyond impact of early puberty can contribute to sex differences in dep rates. (girls)

by 11, aware female gender role less valued, greater restriction on behavior, discrimination (brown & bigler, 2005) seen as less competent, traditional female occup less prestigious, integrate beliefs into self concept -> less worthwhile, or appreciated. worry more abt appearance & weight after puberty. dissatisfaction w/ bodies predictive of declining self-esteem & dep symp (Solomon-Krakus et al, 2017). ethnicity moderates ^, AA youth more likely report + body img than white youth. Former body ideals more consistent w/ actual body characteristics, protective factors. lower expectations of success, lingering inequalities affect beliefs abt future possibilities stress -> sexuality & sexual desriability. double standards - female sexual behavior judged more harshly, peer rejection 11-16 , immoral if multiple sex partners. girls acceptance & experience w sexuality ^, more subject to ambiguous msgs abt acceptability of sex, uncertain what app. physical & social consequences of sex greater.

What happens when puberty is off time, esp early onset?

can create social and emo prob, internalizing & externalizing prob esp for girls. early & late maturers subject to same hormonal influences once puberty begins, BUT early matures more susceptible to dep, suicidal thoughts, panic attacks, substance abuse, & others.

Constructing ideals

capable of generating possibilities w/o regard for present reality, acquired neg cog tool can b used to construct ideals -> logically org possible systems. might mentally construct ideal school, ideal self etc. can make real, imperfect forms seem inadeq. may lead to zeal for reform, contribute to skeptical attitude abt childhood religious beliefs, parent politics & values. family belief system just ONE of many possibilities. critical attitude & skepticism abt justifications others give for status quo. cure for critical attitude is experience. ideals by def not real, perfect possibilities. not familiar yet w/ complexity of ideas to action & limits of real world. failure understand real limits of ideas if form of egocentrism. apply to judgements of others & herself. increase in dep in teens partly affected by discouragement of imperfections, real doesn't measure up to ideal. attitude self-generated. even when compare favorably to others standards, may judge as indeaq based on ideal version. frustrating to adults can play role in serious disorders like anorexia.

Bulimia Nervosa

charec by repeated binge eating & compensatory behaviors at least once a week for 3 mo. may remain at normal weight but do so by relying on purging, laxative use, excessive exercise. cog distortions abt body shape & size, tendency base self-esteem on these dimensions. manifest in purging, reg self-induced vomiting or laxatives, enemas, non-purging, includes excessive fasting or exercise. Binges marked by perceived lack of control over eating behavior

puberty phyisiological changes affect

circadian rhythms & homeostasis. timing of daily hormone release from endocrine glands delayed & that shifts teens sleep-wake cycle to later times, 1-4 hr. sleep homeostasis, sleep reg system, also changes, after puberty teens can resist sleep pressure more than before. prefer sleep later at night & morning. DELAYED PHASE PREFERENCE. this + more control on bedtime, late night socialization, make bedtimes later. wake up times early so, sleep deprived.

Applications: Where do I Fit?

coherence/good-fit w/ social networks, vocational choices, sexuality, racial, ethnic & spritual values -> healthy ID expression. trying to make early college decisions or committing to career while in HS may be develop inapp goals for teens who lack experience to make personally meaningful choices. May reflect pseudo-maturity, akin to premature foreclosure in certain domains. commitment follows epriod of explo, initial expli preceds indepth, usually done after some commitment made. all typies of explo can be rel/ to meaning making but some get stuck in maladaptive ruminative explo -> rel/ lower well-being, dep, unresolved q of commitments. Undermine commitment might contribute to coherence & meaning. Therapist can be helpful to ^ by scaffolding adaptive vs maladaptive forms of explo, help reduce chronic self-judgment & indecisiveness, & supporting mindsets of persistence v failure.

both moratorium & identity diffusion are characterized by

confusion & uncertainty. diffusion - not engaged in any motivated effort to clear up confusion. Erikson argued can be highly problematic later in young adulthood. may not trust ability to find & commit to meaningful path in life or deny need to do so. lack sense of optimism abt future. be nobody, somebody bad or dead. may situate themselves within highly controlling environment that dictates behavior & nature of views.

Navigating Special Challenges

constricted opp experience by some teens bc of societal discrim, cultural intolerance, poverty, lack of support can make ID domains of rel, school & work closed domains -> little pos explo. Prevention or intervention can depend on opening up opp for explo & supporting commitments. ERI constituted from Ft of ID specific to race/ethnicity, attitude & feelings abt memb, & understanding society views abt group. Results of pos ERI related to psyc well-being not always consistent. Stronger ass/ found btwn ERI & school achievement & self-efficacy. Some studies, strogn ERI neg ass/ achievement for AA, no effect for Asian Am. Health outcomes (ex. drug use) & strong ERI inconsistent. greatest benefits to those who interested in and value ethnic/racial ID in first place. Some less connected to ERI, less salient than other ID dimensions like fam rel. Strong ERI likely product of ID maintenance (in-depth explo) or growing interest. Sufficient evidence to support cultivation of POS ERI.

sleep deprivation & variability are problematic for the

developing brain. sleep imp active role in sculpting brain. study, longitudinal daily sleep diaries for 2 wks, when 14 & yr later. imaging procedure (DTI) reveal org & struc integrity of white matter. More variable sleep time at 14, less white matter integrity in 1.5 yr later. any age, sleep deprivation assc/ poorer performance on EF test, learning tasks, & emo reg measures. likely sleepy when need to be alert. SOLUTIONS? - later school start time, can increase sleep duration, longer sleep assc/ better attendance, improved grades, less unhappy, less risk of crashes. even 30 min l8r start. Parents also can take steps.

aspects of nutrition & stress may also interact w/ chemicals exposure to

disrupt pubertal processes. chemicals used in industrial production ( endocrine disrupting chemicals) interfere w/ endocrine functions. linked to changes in pubertal timing, affect fat metabolisms. EDCs - flame retardants, pesticides, some pharmaceutical agents, lead, mercury, phthalates in plastic. rel w/ pubertal abnormalities in studies of animals & humans.

coping styles that seem to help minimize depression

distraction. diverting attention away from prob twrds more + thoughts or actions. males more likely used approach. gender role influence how c's & early teens cope w/ prob. ruminative in fem & boys whose gender roles stereotypically feminine. ID as rel passive & nondominant, less likely cope by active prob solving or distraction. uncomfortable or incapable of psyc distraction may be esp burden for feminine-id boys.

prefrontal cortex does not each peak responsiveness to dopamine until

early adulthood. still makes substantial maturational progress during teen years. improvement in EF, learning and logic. neural circuitry that connect prefront cortex to subcortical, emo brain is in flux. many not fully develop until maturation of 2 systems come into alignment. some researchers argue sometimes teen choices in emo & socially charged sit, esp involved peers, risk and/or reward driven more by subcortical structure.

Scientific prob solving: Next generation Science Standards

established by indep reform org composed of business & political leaders in U.S. training in reasoning, in domain knowledge (ex. chemistry facts) & in practical methods of sci at all grade levels. assume all 3 interact to advance c's understanding of how to investigate prob. recc even in primary grades, engage c's in argument from evidence, process of learning to distinguish opinions from evidence, asses relevance of evidence etc, more familiar. adult difficulty w/ sorting out theory & evidence, hope scaffolding sci thinking by exposre & practice w/ argument structure can help sci thinking develop more effectively bt teens. Some support w/ early teens.

Formal operational thought

ex. canisters of hard candy, 1st - 1 g, 2 y. 2nd - 5 & 5. odds make first best choice (want y). 8 yo argue second bc more y, imp ft is compare rel probability. not abt inexperience, failure understand & reason effectively abt abstraction. formal op stage, begin 11-12. rises above partic contents & focus on rel govern content - abstractions. coordinating mult rel. Can b difficult for adults. may not always use it effectively. experience & training or expertise helps. abt 30% of young teens (13) tendency apply formal reasoning in some sit, 60% for older or young adults. gradual, not startling stagelike shifts. prob solving strat from 9-10 more elab than at 6-7, may involve rel abstract content.

Facination w/ adolescence

fascination w/ it, endow it w/ meaning & celebrate it as innocent, dependent kids --> young adults. defies easy descriptions. centrality of identity development - Erikson, but development of it also prior to teens. E also emphasizes epigenetics, each new developmental task build on qualities & skills acquired from earlier life stages.

menarche & spermarche

first menstrual period first ejaculation usually occur near end of puberty, often treated as imp SOCIAL markers of sexual maturation. fertility - ovulation & adeq sperm production may not happen for year or more after outward manifestations.

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology: Eating Disorders

food supports life, social connectedness, offer pleasure, & communicates cult & religious values. Maslow hierarchy of needs - food as foundation, basic survival. rates of eating disorders increasing, esp when considering numb of subthreshold cases. DSM-V include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder, rumination disorder, pice, cat of subthreshold disorder of AN, BN, BEP, purging disorder & night eating syndrome. affect few males, ratios 1:10, some as high as 1:3. rates for c's younger than 12 increasing eating disorders frequently accompanied by other psychiatric condit, esp affective & anxiety disorders. An ass/ high rates of inpatient hospitalization & suicide. Consequences of bulimia may also be severe.

the timing of puberty appears to be affected by

genetic factors ID twins - within 2-3 mo of each other, mother & daughter ages at menarche correlated. environmental factors matter. downward shift of menarche avg age in many countries (~under 13, 50s - 16) * varies across racial &ethnic groups. ex. study (NY, San Francisco, Cincinnati) ~1200 girls, 6-7 high rates of early puberty. 7, early break development - 23% AA, 15% hispanic, 10% caucasian. rates jumped ~2x at 8 yo

gender differences in growth spurt

girls - begins & ends abt 2 yr earlier than boys. ^ breast size & greater pelvic spread for G's & broader shoulders in B's, gender diff in INTERNAL GROWTH. size of heart & lungs ^ more in B, also thicker bones & more muscle tissue. Many of such changes contribute to avg diff in physical strength & endurance btwn sexes. called SEXUAL DIMORPHISM - physical diff btwn sexes

Evidence for imp of prenatal androgens in sexual roeintation

girls - exposed prenatally to masculinizing hormones, either overproduc or from environ source, often later ^ freq of homosexual experiences & fantasies. males, delayed exposure to masculinizing hormones during prenatal development found affect sexual behavior in nonhuman mammals. ex stressed mom rat during preg, hormones produce delay release of androgens, male offspring reach adulthood -> homosexual tendencies. males, fraternal birth other. homosexuals' males tend have disprop ^ numb of older brothers. each addit older brother ^ chance. -> possible role for immunology. maternal body begin develop antibodies to male linked y-chromo proteins during preg. accumulate w/ each male preg. effect on brain develop, maybe blocking func of Y-chromo proteins. diff in brain areas, ex hypothalamic nuclei. effect cross-cult & SES.

gray matter in adolescence

gray matter volume, appear to peak in early to middle childhood, decreases w puberty. pruning of cortical synapses 1 likely reason. pruning in infancy & early childhood primarily in sensory & motor cortices. teens - occurring prim areas of brain related to higher order functions.

Experimental studies have demonstrated adolescent more responsive to emo stimulu.

greater pupil dilation to emotion related words remb prop more emotional related words in delayed recall tasks. greater amygdala activation to both fearful & neutral faces perhaps more difficult suppressing emo responses to threatening cues when no longer pose a problem. short experiences of social stress can affect moods.

Is identity in adolescence the end of the story?

growth & change of self-rep & commitments can take place thruout life span. what makes this stage remarkable is impressive strides make to develop essential core of how will be as adults. life stories subject to revision by time, place & circumstance. core sense of self that fits becomes clearer w/ years. FOREVER-TO-BE-REVISE, self within social reality (Erikson). values held in highest regard within cult context affect nature of self-rep, worldviews & commitments.

Clinical guidelines for working w/ sexual minority youth (Telingator & Woyewodzic, 2011)

help by attending to special dimensions of adolescent experience, alert to risk ass/ status. 1. consider own attitudes, anxieties, & judgments insofar as influence quality of prof rel. 2. aware social stigma & fear of rejection can make young period hide sexual ID & discount sexual feelings 2. Allow openness around issues of sexuality, sexual attractions, gender ID. Safe for honest-explo 4. Consider sexual ID development as fluid process 5. Help teen ID real & reliable sources of support & assist in accessing them 6. fam support is key protective factors. work w/ fam to strengthen attachments that will protect against risk. May involve supporting fam memb themselves, help understand fears & uncertainties abt child's sexuality.

Is the ID formation process different for males and females?

if examine general progress of ID formation (ex. movement from more diffused or foreclosed -> moratorium & achieved), patterns same. Girls & young women engage in more in-depth explo & ruminative explo. Process of ID formation might begin sooner. May be function of earlier puberty onset. Bc behavior diff, possibility diff in content of gender ID. Theorist speculate some domains differentially imp, more central to ID, more attention in process. Results equivocal. Religion, late teens and YA, religious involvement tend to decline for both. W more likely to pray or meditate or turn to religion for comfort, could be relg ID more imp. Gen imp same.

CONT risk factors of EDS

imp consideration is need to sep what contributes to beginnings of ED what maintains it once there. neg affect may present indirect risk for eating pathology. Capacity of emo reg not up to task of managing distress, perception of world, self, ft can appear bleak -> dissatisfaction, emo dysregulated. Pathological behaviors likely occur in these sit. Dieting demo promote binging thru mechanisms of neg affect, can arise from physical & emo stress of caloric deprivation. some fiend dieting curbed impulses to overeat, restrained binging. Unexplained indiv diff here? array of risk factors appear op sim for teen boys, consider masculine body img, influence of male peers & athletic participation. Sim risk factors for both groups, but risk of BN for girls greatest in mid teens, risk peaked for males in early 20s.

Box 9.1 - Limits of Guilt in Adolescence

imp of treating juvenile offenders differently. not fully capable of understanding trial proceedings, participating in defense, or making decisions required. first juvenile justice system by Illinois 1899. -> 25 yrs two system of justice for adults and juveniles everywhere. Emphasize rehabilitation, reflected in terminology (ex, petition v indictment) based on belief juvenile offenders immature, can be reshaped or reformed. Parental role of state to provide right environment for future development. 90s, laws altered, allow juveniles to be tried in adult court. sense of predatory teens, irremediable character flaws getting away w/ crimes. tough-on-crime approach. Supreme court in rules capital punishment's unconstitutional for juvenile defendants (2005). later limited sentences of life w/o parole. (2010) crimes OTHER than homicide. 2012- even w/ homicide, 2016 revisit cases prior to ruling. ^ based on info by developmental sci on cog functioning, brain development, ID, & social interactive processes (e.g., peers)

Mascunalizing & feminizing hormones are produced in

includes progesterone (involved in reproductive cycle). DIFFERENT RATIOS. increases in androgen production higher in boys, estrogen for girls.

white matter in adolescence

increases bc of continuing axon myelination which allows faster info processing axons transmit up to 100x faster after myelination, neurons w/ myelinated axons can fire up to 30x more freq (giedd, 2015) fine tunes timing of sig arriving at any single neuron from multiple parts of brain. multiple synapses activated simul, more likely neuron will fire & active others. firing strengthens synapses w/ activating neurons. makes learning, building or strengthening of assc, more likely. more learning & more complex circuitry within structures (prefrontal cortex) & btwn (cortical & subcortical regions)

The adolescent brain is an

instrument of change. plasticity most remarkable characteristic ( giedd, 2015) not so much brain growing bt circuitry changing. reorg, teen brain esp open to new experiences & learning opp, esp vulnerable to adversity. longitudinal studies of humans & mammals show puberty hormonal cascade helps trigger & mod changes in brain struc & func. Hormones can modify brain by influencing on(ff) set of genes -> alter protein synthesis, imp for ALL neuro-maturational processes.

Therapy approaches to EDs

interest in mindfulness & acceptance based treatments like mindfulness-based stress reduc, mindfulness based cbt, DBT, & acceptance & commitment therapy adapted for EDS. all share emphasis on cultivation of nonjudgmental awareness of present experience, develop emo reg skills or wise mind. Effectiveness in reducing neg affect, target central causal factor in EDS. Mindfulness-based eating awareness therapy, group treatment - binge eating disorder use MSBR & MCBT. Guided eating related meditations & mindful eating exercises integral. Develop greater awareness of satiety mechanism & eating w/o critical judgments. Mindful awareness, fosters self-acceptance & emo reg, help reduce need use food for emo purposes. 4 mo - 95% no longer met criteria for BED, compared to 76% in CBT. Results rel/ degree of mindfulness practice.

In what domains is the possibility of gender diff in identity formation most likely?

interpersonal domains. propose for girls and YW, intimacy, social rel & communal experiences more central than for boys or men. may tie so socialization (sep v connection) research provide some support for greater imp for girls & w id development, for fact rel issues more central to development. Found girls -> more explo, signs of commitment, personal satisfaction from rel, gen closer friendships, high expectations of being cared for & understood, more distress to terminated friendships. Teen and YW express more rel-themes fears abt future.

Partnered sex tends to begin with

kissing & fondling, may move on to oral-genital contact. more often received by boys. oral-genital sex ^ but little known abt how typical or what effects might have. some see it as maintaining virginity. BUT when define activities other than intercourse as not counting -> less likely use condoms or other protection. if male more often recipients -> see girls as givers than receivers. most often researched is coitus, penile-vaginal intercourse. implications for social adjustment & health. sexual debut 12-24 for most by 20. US early if before 15. normative 15-19, late after. % declined for all gender & ethnic groups since 91, maybe bc ^ of OTHER behaviors. sexual maturation key determiner of sexual behavior, other factors too -> curiosity, peer culture. more likely if peers sexually active, if peer approve, or pressure them. other influences - social class, ethnicity, religious, geo, pop cult, quality of sex educ, personality.

What are other brain changes launched at puberty?

large shifts in production of NT & enzymes that metabolize them. puberty initiates slow decrease in serotonin levels & rise in dopamine levels.

early puberty is a risk factor for

later breast cancer, cardiovascular prob, elevated BMI, insulin resistance, numb of MH and behavioral issues,. signs increasing for boys too. early signs of genital development - 10% Whites, 9% AA, 10% hispanics, onset occurring 6-2 earlier than data 20 ya.

HPA in adolescence.

matures in multiple ways. basal rate of cortisol production increases, remains higher in adulthood than as C's grows more sensitive to stressors, secreting more stress induced cortisol. more responsive, remains like that thru young adulthood.

In combination w/ other hormones circulating the blood, M & F hormones cause

maturing of primary sexual characteristics (directly involved w/ reproduction like genitalia) & secondary ( physical traits not directly involved in reproduction but indicative of sex) early outward signs of puberty usually appearance of pubic hair, growth of scrotum & testes in boys & breasts in girls.

advances in metacognitive skills: thinking abt thought

mc - some metag skills, planful org thinking abt thought processes involves logical thinking abt abstraction. teens more likely than c to be introspective in analytic mode. metacog skills benefits sci thinking, careful planning & eval of activities self-eval & self-monitoring come w/ improved metacog skills -> egocentrism.

Young adolescents especially likely to have some sexual contact w.

members of same sex, displaying & touching genitals, mutual masturbation. partly function of opp, spend more of time w/ same sex peers. for msot, sexual contacts not indicators of homosexuality. ex, 1 in 5 girls & fewer than 1 in 25 who rep same-sex contact id as nonhetero by 20s. time of exploration, sensation seeking w. many behaviors. time of sexual fluidity, change in sexual interest. fem who id as nonhetero interviewed from 16-23, many changed sexual id to adjacent cat, bi to hetero, or lesbian to bi.

exaggerated emotional responding can be a risk factor for the development of

mental illness when comb w/ other potential risks (genetics, trauma, fam dysfunction) risks factors potentiate each other. diagnosis of serious mental disorders rise in teens. first episodes of psychosis, including bipolar & schizo, often occur in later teen years or soon after. half of social anxiety cases first diagnosed by 13, 90% by 23. clinical dep rates ^^.

Stice & Shaw (2004) guidelines for prevention programs

meta-analysis of evidence from 15 programs. 1. universal prevention prog not as effective as selective intervention in -> beneficial results & reducing remission program targeted at those at-risk or already having symp may be more effective bc motivated to seek help. universal prevention may be directed twrd age group lacking cog skills needed to benefit. prog offered to 15 yo & older more successful than w/ younger ones. Programs provided exclusively for fem more effective than combined. Brief over longer, provided more than 1 session. Program content less critical, strongest result from those that targeted risk factors mentioned^^.

Box 9.1 - adolescent culpability

mitigation - culpability of guilty actor somewhere on continuum & continuum of punishment. NOT EXCUSING CRIME. Steinberg & Scott (2003) 3 sources of mitigation in adult law: diminished capacity (ex. emo distress, influence), compelling circumstances (pressure, extreme need or threat), uncharacteristic behavior. Steinberg teens should be considered LESS culpable on ALL three sources of mitigation. cog & psychosocial develop affect choices in ways not characteristics of adults. immature/impaired decision making, diminished capacity. Reasoning ability developing, affected by ambiguous & emo factors. peer influence, high risk takers, limited self-control, thinking of future limited.

One promising approach to treatment of EDS lies in

modifying underlying cog charec. inefficient neurocog func like cog inflexibility & weak central coherence *neglect big pic present in indiv w ed. may explain obsession & hyperfocus.

Early debut is associated w/

more negative outcomes. pregnancies & STDs more likely and so is dep, esp for girls. causal rel btn early dep & dep seems to be bidirectional. early debut predict onset of dep, & dep in young teens increase likelihood of early debut (Davila, Capaldi, & La Greca, 2015)

Depression - Other reasons besides hormones (girls)

most girls begin puberty before most boys, early maturing girl bigger than most c's their age, heavier, more likely to be unhappy w/ body in culture that prizes slimness. early sexual maturation can make target for teasing, innuendo, or outright rejection (less mature girls). parents of early maturing girls worry abt risk for sexual experiences -> limit independence. behavior prob for early maturing girls more likely if become involved w older prob, more prob w/ low levels of parental supervision. also targets of sexual victimization & partner violence (mendle, 2014).

What are the normative process of forming ERI?

most theories, highest stage achieved when, having actively explored what ethnicity means, affirms ID (commitment). Phinney argues ERI can be seen as reflecting same 4 statuses in other aspects. resolution -ID achievement is 1) reconciling diff exist btwn ethnic minority grp & dominant. 2) coming to terms w/ lower status of grps in larger society. THIS achievement DOESN'T need to coexist w/ high level of involvement in own cult group. Can explore what means, achieve ethnic ID or if fam use + racial socialization practices, may have foreclosed ID, can be +. IF fail to commit ID during teens, may be more vulnerable to stress when experience discrimination.

What accounts for adolescent rise in dep rates?

multidimensional processes at work. physical changes from puberty interact w/ other causal factors to affect emo & behavior, esp MH. sex diff in circulating hormones may directly contribute to sex diff in dep rates. most developmentalists argue social stressors can play as great or even more in mix of causes. may be girls face more challenges in early teens, more sim stressors.

How do we assess identity formation?

must be translated into something measurable. Marcia (1964) semi structured ego id interview. three domains: vocational choice, religious beliefs, & political ideology. selected bc Eirkson saw occup * ideology, pol & religious as ID expression. various forms of this measure development, variety of other domains - work/family, gender role attitudes, parenthood, sexual expression. GENERAL q, ex. Should one believe in Good or not? followed u by specific probes. can be cat for id status in each domain assessed & assigned global ID status

Information processing: sharpening exec functions

neo-Piagetians & theory theorist assume elab reasoning skills constructed over time, help of advances in info processing abilities, esp EFs. MC gains cont at somewhat slower pace in teens. linked to maturation of prefrontal cortex & more elaborate cortical circuitry. ongoing axon myelination ^ processing speed, WM expand. Improvement in inhibitory ability, affects attentional control. better at ignoring irrelevant stim during prob solving. suppress learned info & responses for new understanding & practice of new responses. all contribute to formal thinking: id, org & draw inferences abt complex abstract content. EF changes linked to reasoning skills in teens. change necessary but NOT SUFFICIENT. knowledge, metacog understanding of effective strategy, intention efforts to acquire, compare, & org info imp (Ricco, 2015) capacity influence many aspects - approach to academics, views, self-evaluation, and rel.

Elkin's contribution (19 68)on metacog skills

new capacity for introspection, inward focus that is distorting, understand minds of own, self fascination, mistakenly assume others intrigued by & concerned abt them as they are. --> imaginary audience. -> self-conscious, aware of looks & behavior w/ others. self-focus, distorted view of imp -> personal fable, special, experiences & concerns unique. include fantasies of special destiny, imp role in lives of others or world. *feeling of invulnerable, immortal -> invincibility fable, maybe contributing to risk-taking.

Nonsocial influences/processes on sexual orientation

nonhetero likely been gender nonconformists in childhood, strong & persistent tendency to behave like other sex. often show gender nonconformity by age 2, usually doesn't seem function or parent or others pushing child to act in atypical ways. diff emerge early in develop & precursors of attraction later. suggest bio causes, coaction of genes & early environment. twin studies support. concordance rates lower for fem twins. ID some candidate genes, much to learn which imp & how influence. prenatal hormones appear play organizing role. male fetuses produce androgen in lrgt quant (fem don't), masculinize rep system & brains. exposure to androgens, esp test during prenatal develop linked to orientation.

Constructed identity

not based upon predetermined set of expectations. rep either redefinition of childhood & early teen goals ^ values or something very diff. moratorium - future may be perceived as difficult, exciting or anxiety producing but process allows future shaped by own decision making.

Myth of sleep deprivation & catching up on sleep

on weekends. delaying wake time on weekends assc/ later daily release of melatonin over next week, making later sleep times even MORE likely (Bryant & Gomez, 2015). sleep regularity more effective protection.

Identity may be construed as an

overarching construct, each domain (social, academic, physical) rep more specific aspect. vary in level of self-esteem across domains, variation in nature of ID formation & timing of developmental progress. Erikson considered moratorium essence of adolescent mind, make sense of transitory, inconsistent, & incomprehensible nature of teen behaviors. ID -> personally constructed.

Sexual pleasure

part of human functioning even in early childhood. preschoolers & school-aged c's may fondle genitals, sex play w/ others - playing doctor. show sexual attraction @ adrenarche - adrenal glands increase activity before puberty, ~10. strength & urgency of adult sex drive, emerging as func of puberty, new. more sensitive to, interested in, sexually relevant stim than younger c's. young teens seek opp to socialize in mixed-gender grps. explore sexuality.

Depression - other reasons besides hormones (boys)

pic less clear. older studies indicate might be helpful, edge in socially approved activities (athletic, romantic rel) given mroe in line w/ that of typical girls. late maturers could be at disadvantage then. prob true in some cases bt newer longitudinal studies find early birds some of same disadvantages as girls - social liability, peer rejection, less social competence as move thru teens.

Emotion and mood in adolescence

pop myth of hormones raging. yes hormones influence brain struc & changes in stress reaction but many contributing factors: new cultural expectations for mature behavior, prospect of making critical life decisions, mjr changes in friendships & peer experiences, dramatic appearance changes, intensified sexual impulses.

Puberty

process of sexual maturation. when complete, boys & girls are fertile. also related to wide range of emo, behavioral & social changes.

Physical development : Glandular awakening

puberty begins w/ kisspeptin (discovered in Hershey, PA) - signaling chemical produced in hypothalamus. kisspeptin combines w/ receptors in hypothalamus to trigger cascade of events in parts of the brain & body.

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH)

released by pituitary, circulate thru bloodstream & stimulate other endocrine glands to ^ hormone production (gonads - testes, ovaries) that now increase masculinizing (androgens - testosterone) & feminizing (estrogen) hormones.

Box 9.2 Quintana (1999) and focus on ethnicity causes on minority ID

rep for college kids, sensitivity to ethnic issues key factor in deciding ID. Non-w bc right thing to do, hist of opp of non-W grps or loyalty to non-w parents. more likely bidirectional process, kids who sensitive to ethnicity issues prone to adopt min status, & kids who adopt min status more likely to confront & be sensitized to issues like discrim. Whites don't usually perceive racial status to be imp aspect of ID. Herman - true for white monoracials & biracials who ID as white.

ED - Prevention and Treatment issues

review of 91 papers. fam based therapy w/ behavior focus or maudsley fam therapy are only well-established treatments for AN. structured approaches focus on weight gain, recruit teen & fam as nonjudgemental partners to accomplish goals. control over eating grad returned to teen. once weight re-established, insight-oriented therapy focused on fam dynamics can be helpful, gen CBT w/ nonspecific focus on thoughts & feelings not sufficiently tested. FBT & CBT-Guided Self-Help possibly effective for BN. CBT- self-monitoring activities (ex, three hour rule, planning, food diary), interactive online sessions to deliver classic CBT themes. Treatments for BED not sufficiently studied. CBT, interpersonal & Dialectic Behavior some support for adults. IPT & DBT prelim support w/ youth. ARFID -averse to new experiences, may be overly sensitive to taste/textures, phobias to food. Indiv plan recc, no clear treatment options.

what is the earliest & most common activity thruout adolescence?

sexual fantasizing, & next step - masturbation. rep more by boys, seems more socially & culturally determined than diff in sexual desire. girls w/ more educ on body functions more likely to masturbate & as are girls in countries w/ greater gender equality. some religions & cultures frown on masturbation -> guilt or shame. masturbation ass/ w valuable health outocmes, develop of sexual self-awareness -> more satisfying partner rel. option for sexual release w/o STD or preg risk.

What causes homosexuality?

social causes no empirical support. most famous of these if Freud, 2-5 compete w/ same sex parent for opp-sex parent. avoid consequences of competition, ID w same-sex parent. why hetero. homo or bi when something goes wrong w/ ID process -> single parent, same-sex parent week or show little interest in child, or opp-sex lacks warmth or too dominant. No support. even modeling doesn't seem affect sexual preference. C's raised by gay partners no more likely to be gay. view that socially contagious, encouraged by removing legal or moral restrictions or sexual recruiters, spreads. No support.

Lapsley (1993) on adolescence egocentrism

social realities, need to sep form parents, form ID at least as imp in explaining egocentrism. imaginary audience may be expression of intense anxiety ass/ individuation & personal fable useful fantasy for reducing anxiety. anxiety tends to ^ egocentrism. recent research suggest not phenomenon unique to teens. elements of imaginary audience *extreme self-consciousness & personal fable continue into adulthood, not much decline.

Many parents engage in ethnic/racial socialization practices that help young people build

strong ethnic ID. 1) teaching abt culture, values & participating in cultural acitvities 2) prep for possible experience of discrim & schooling on how cope emotionally 3) opp for mainstream cult experiences & egalitarian rel w/ others from diff grps msgs abt racial/ethnic pride & participation in activities reflecting shared heritage ->> pos ^ in competence, ID, self-esteem, academ, & less anti-social behavior (Wang & Huguley, 2012). Also, parenting strategies that help C's feel safe abt confiding experiences & concerns. coaching/modeling accepting neg emo & management w/ encouragement, prob solving, & comfort imp.

Variety of evidence to support notion of more rapid

subcortical maturation. ex. dopamin is NT imp in many brain areas & critical for learning, processing emo, anticipating & experiencing reward. studies of animals show subcort struc like ventral striatum reach peak of responsiveness to dopamine (density of dopamine receptors) by early teens.

onset of puberty tends to be earlier in families where there is

substantial conflict or other sig sources of stress(rickard, frankenhuis, & nettle, 2014) ex. polish boys and girls in crowded urban conditions, accelerated for finish boys & girls reared in father-absent homes, New Zealand girls from divorced fam, early childhood abuse assc/ w early menarche. longitudinal study of aussie c's, extreme socioecon disadvantage -> high risk. low ses boys 4x greater freq of early onset. low ses, 2x greater. effects of overweight controlled. STRESS affects hormone production.

Crocetti (2017)

suggest two kinds of exploration: for breadth ( searching & trying diff alternatives) in-depth exploration. who made commitment usually continue w/ in-depth explo, includes reflecting on meaning of commitment & figuring out how talents & potentials fit. can help solidify commitment and ID w/ goal. occasionally can lead to uncertainty & reconsideration of commitment. -searching moratorium. book -another process is ruminative exploration, dark side of ID development.

Larson and Richards (1994) used a technique called experience sampling method (ESM) to gauge teens moods in natural settings

teens & parents wore pagers thru waking hours. beeped, made notes of what doing, thinking, feeling. teen rep more mood disruptions, more feelings of self-consciousness & embarrassment, more extremes of emo, less overall happiness. emo reaction to same events more intense than parents.

Navigating Special Challenges - programs/supports

teens ^ ability for pov taking from view of group affilication (consciousness), cultativng assests may offer unqieu opp. min youth, programs can be effective vehicles for promo of ethnic & racial heritage as shared cultural asset. Ex. Teach conventional comm & social skills, & incorp cultural values African traditions, rituals, history lessons, skits on imp figures, discussions abt racism, health & wellness info (ex. hair care) -> ^ pos ERI. values and cult tradit assets to be recog & celebrated. some programs fam based. ex. cult sensitive 7wk program, Strong African American Families Program (Brody et al, 2014). og studied rural AA mom & teens, strengthening parent & y protective factors. prevent drug use by improving fam comm abt race, sexuality, drug. Adaptive racial socialization considered protective factor based on evidence that min C's who receive explicit info abt nature of prejudice, adaptive ways of dealing w/ discrim, msg can be successful despite reality have btter aca success & more + expectations abt future. Active socialization practices may assist in managing personal encounters, reduce risk factors, help reduce internalization of neg msgs as sense of personal ID matures.

In identity formation, a teen or young adult identifies

the passion, strengths & values fit together to provide framework for life course. construction of a guide to rel, career, political & religious choices in adulthood. Erikson labeled process as crisis of ID vs ID confusion. view more described as specific challenge or tasks asserting itself. Make choices & have experiences that take them closer or further away from meaningful sense of self until one kinds of resolution predom other.

Race & ethnic ID formation

this ID domain increases in imp during adolescence and YA for most memb of minority or marginalized grps (Meeus, 2017) Theorist speculates ethnic/racial ID (ERI) developments progress like other aspects of teen ID. Early phase of diffusion, ethnic ID unrecog or not considered very imp as study ^ suggest. Followed then by moratorium like stage, triggered by some experience highlighting imp. Ambivalence or conflict here. For many time when racism & cult oppression takes on personal sig. Experiences based on racial & ethnic stereotypes can be salient & central to teen development.

Harassment of Sexual Minority Youth

timing of coming out ~14 yo earlier possible bc greater social awareness acceptance. potential for increased bullying by peers w/ early self-id & disclosure. Younger teens tend to see sex roles as rigid, punishing of deviations. Only 18 states passed laws to protect studies from bullying & harassment bc of gender ID & orientation. 2016 study, 80% called names or threated. 70% didn't participate in school functions bc of harassment. Victimization rel/ increased involvement in disciplinary actions in schools, higher drop out rates, involvement w/ juvie system. Homophobic bullying persists. 30-43% of youth in drop-in centers, shelters, street outreach programs ID as LGBT. great risk, rates of dep, anxiety, SA, PTSD, suicidal ideation higher than for hetero. Suicidal attempts - 31% of LFBT youth, 4.1 gen pop, see as burden to fam. Bisexual youth highest risk, express more suicidality and dep.

Ernst triadic model of neural development

to explain increases sensation seeking & risk taking in teens. 1. reg prefrontal cortex maturing more slowly than subcortical struc 2.subcortical level, approach system greater effect on behavior. both maturing bt either amygdala developing more slowly than ventral striatum or circuitry that allows each of them to mod other responses lagging.

Scientific prob solving

understand control of variables strategy. essence of experimental procedure, other variables held constant. some elementary c's figure out CVS on own when give prob, most don't. can be trained see value & use it consistently. combinatorial logic, type of formal op thought. systemic examination of all possibilities ex, can elim all but hypo that's correct. pattern of results among all tests drive conclusions NOT concrete observation. generating all possibilities are abstractions. metacognitive understand. essential here. adults struggle seeing theories as ONE set of possibilities - distort, ignore evidence. motives & emo commitments sidetrack logical reasoning. who overcome ^ are who learned to logically analyze thought processes, eval evidence to ensure maintain logical consistently. Self-monitoring ^ in teens but stronger emo commitment, harder self-eval effectively, less likely to do it.

Imbalance in adolescent brain development

uneven brain development - diff regions mature at diff rates. complexity of processes so great, researches don't always agree. subcortical struct imp for hot processes - emo reactivity, attraction to peers, pleasures of risk & reward. prefrontal cortex, seat of cool, more rational processes changes at slower, steadier pace. imp for emo & social processing, planning, control, contemplative element to emo reactions, social interaction, eval of risk & reward.

adolescent cognitive abilities do not function in a

vacuum. among many casual elements in multidimensional mix. remarkable confluence of change into life : thinking skills, biochem, brain func, physical shape & size, peer & parent expecations, educ struc & req. adult responsibility lurks in corner.

Life through its many agents ask adolescents new questions

what do you want from life? how do you see your future? that's what forming ID about, figuring out what do i want to make of myself & what do I have to work w/?

Interpretation of overall findings can be:

when studies do ID diff in aspects of self-definition that are more imp to one gender, girls and w more likely assign interpersonal, communal aspects. Whether or not do, interpersonal domain central to both. Ex. w close friends, M rep sim elvels of intimacy, beginning w childhood, g ->more themes of rel in stories but in late teens, diff in autobio stories subside. Both tell stories that emphasize rel & emo connection, themes of masc & autonomy decline.

what does the imbalance in adolescent brain development help explain

why tend to score higher than other age groups on sensation seeking (Harden et al, 2017) defined as need for varied, novel, complex sensation & experiences & willingness to take on physical & social risks. might anticipate and experience more pleasure from risky behavior than other age grps. might be less able to reg behavior in potentially rewarding it.

effects of environmental stress may be moderated by

* at least effects of chronic socioecon disadvantage protective social factors, ex. secure attachment. if low ses girls securely attached as infants, less likely than if insecurely.

Box 9.1 Adolescent Competence to Stand Trial

- defendant must be competent to stand trial, assist counsel in prep defense, understand court proceedings to participate, capable of making decisions abt rights (ex. plea bargain) MacArthur research Network on Adolescent Develop & Juvenile Justice - studies to assess degree of teen capabilities. 1k juveniles, 500 young adults. half in juvenile detention or adult jail, other half from community. 2 measures - competence to stand trial (understanding, reasoning), other ID kinds of choices characteristic of diff age groups on legal decisions. Heard stories of indiv charged w/ crime, asked make decisions (ex, how respond to plea). 11-15 less competent than young adults, 16-17 not sig diff from adults. young teens - impairments in understanding or reasoning abt court related matters. age & intelligence sig predictors of competence. NOT SES, ethnicity, status as offenders, gender failed to ID or adeq eval risks or account long-range consequences of choices.

Evidence-based approaches helping sexual minority youth

- establish school climate policies that provide them w/ acknowledgement, respect, & protection. Gay-straight alliances, other student-led clubs that offer educ & support + teacher PD can be a lifeline. Good rel w/ supportive peers & romantic partners can help reduce deleterious of discrim & homophobia on ID development.