Human evolution more focused question

modern human features for skull

1200-1500cc high vertical forhead,smooth rounded cranium, no retromolar space,flat face, no prognathism(orthognathism),chin(mental eminence) absence/reduction of spraorbital torus,canine fossa,short narrow face, smaller nasal aperture, zygomatic angle more (malar notch)

Homo naledi how found uniqueness of cave location and date controversy of homo vrs austra date stuff crazy late surviving

236,000 - 350,000 years old? Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa Cave site - Burials? - Disposal? The absence of other animal bones in the chamber with the hominin fossils suggests that the chamber was never easily accessible from the surface. It can only be reached now through a narrow chute, after traversing a twisting 100-yard passage in the dark. John Hawks Found in rising star cave 90 meters long. Found to deliberately bury their dead thought until discovery to be an only homo sapient thing to do 1.5 meters tall 46 kilos weight Very slender body small teeth Brain size of an orange Shape of shoulders suggest climbing capabilities Hands and wrists to modern humans very curved fingers also good for climbing Long legs Human like feet Homo features : humanesque skull- general shape of skull is advanced but braincase is less than half of modern humans Versatile hands-it's palms wrists and thumbs are humanlike suggesting tool usage Long legs- bones are long and slender and have strong muscle attachments that give with characteristics of modern dipedal gait Human like feet- except for slightly curved toe feet are nearly identical to modern humans w/ arches that suggest efficient long distance stride Primitive shoulders- are positioned in a way that would help with climbing and hanging Flared pelvis- the hip bones flare outwards a primitive trait and are shorter front to back than modern human pelvis Curved fingers- longe and curved fingers useful for climbing trees and could be trait from more apelike ancestor. Homo naledi-relatively high and thin skull, small brain volume like homo habilis, flexed occipital transverse torus like homo erectus and homo floriensis, small teethlike homo florensis, molars increase towards back like homo habilis

hiedelbergensis archeological site

Atapuerca sites, Spain- Series of caves in northern Spain •Dates range from 850-350kya •Many fossil hominins including the oldest one found in Europe (850 kya) •Two major sites: Gran Dolina and Sima de los Huesos; but other sites as well •A possible older date at Sima del Elefante (1-1.2 mya?), single molar Gran Dolina, Spain Homo antecessor •780 kya •6 individuals •Weird mix of features? •Projecting midface and nose, double arched brow ridge •Smaller mandible than erectus •Shovel shaped incisors •Modern looking cheekbones •Proposed as ancestral to sapiens, heidelbergensis, and neanderthalensis Sima de los Huesos, Atapuerca, Spain 550-350 mya The Pit of bones"- large pit filled with hominin bones, possibly thrown in; remains of 30 individuals •550-350 kya •Large red quartzite handaxe- A funerary offering? •Most are considered Homo heidelbergensis Ancient burial? •Source of about 75% of ALL Middle Pleistocene postcrania! •Flattening of long bone shafts •Broad pelvis, barrel shaped body...much like Neanderthals and good in the cold! •Short limbs •Skulls exhibit some more modern features •Thinning of supraorbital torus, especially over center of eyes •No supraorbital sulcus •Less retreating sloped forehead •Occipital "bun" and smaller nuchal region •"puffy" maxillae Boxgrove, England- 500 kya •Animal remains and tools •Horse shoulder blade indicated projectile hit? •Hominin postcraia- a tibia, with knawing at both ends •Some incisors with cut marks and severe dental disease. •Interactions between tools use and the mouth? Petralona, Greece, 250 - 130 kya- 1200 cc brain,Double arched brows, Long low cranium with obtuse angle, Typical hiedelbergensis Arago, France (400 kya) Reconstruction of body- Large zygomatics, Double arch brow ridge, 1100 cc brain, Sagittal keel? - distorted Robust pelvis, Heavily muscled Bilzingsleben, Germany- 400 kya •Many hominin finds, Detailed environmental reconstruction: clear woodland, but open areas as well; interglacial period, Early art? An incised elephant tibia, Activity areas, hearths, shelters? Schöningen, Germany - 400kya An amazing find: several well-preserved wooden spears- 8 in total •The remains of horses- on the menu at this time •This is a unique look at something we don't normally find: wood. Indicates likely use of materials other than stone Torralba, Spain •500-300 mya •Tools and animal remains, elephant in particular •Used to argue for human hunting... but not quite the case •Few cutmarks on bones, and many small tools. Hominins used the small tools to go after marginal parts of corpse: brains, marrow. •Scavenging! Terra Amata, France- Reconstruction of a 400,000 year old possible temporary dwelling (illustration on the left is a view looking down at the ground without the structure Lazaret Cave- •Henry De Lumley •270 - 210 kya •20,000 bone fragments from fauna •Possible shelter - evidence of stone wall, micro-shell deposits bedding?

Hedelbergensis specimens with names

Bodo, Ethiopia, 600 kya Rhodesian Man- Huge postcrania •Cut marks on the eye orbit •Very wide nose •Massive zygomatics •1100 cc brain size Kabwe (Broken Hill), Zambia 400-200 kya Prominent torus •1300 cc •Long low cranium •Large face •Shorter nuchal, taller occipital, occipital "bun"? Mauer, "Homo heidelbergensis" 700 kya - type specimen Found and named in 1908 No projecting chin M2 is the largest molar Very wide ramus

Chatelperronian tool indurstry

Chatelperronian industry of Southern France/ Northern Spain Pendants and blades added to Mousterian style tools 35-29 kya..right around when moderns show up! Dates from 35 - 29 kya Associated with Neanderthals - Only in Central and Southern France and Northern Spain! Characteristics Grotte du Renne, France Chatelperronian perforated teeth dates are controversial Blade technology Denticulates and knives Uniqueness Very short time span Influenced by aurignacian? Similar tools different techniques

Anatomy of Neanderthal vrs modern human inner ear Conan's paramascatory stress model vrs nose model Neanderthal characteristics hunting technique not just anatomy

Classic Neanderthals date from 130,000 - 30,000 years ago (Upper Pleistocene) cranial morphology large supraordital torus, wide nasal aperture, lack a canine fossa, long low crania, large brain size, midface prognathism, retreating mandibular symphysis, retromolar space, juxtamastoid eminence, suprainic fossa, occipital bun Inner Ear Canal Fred Spoor Throughout human evolution, our canals seem to have increased in size as our agility has increased. But Neanderthals have smaller canals than modern humans, and even earlier ancestors suggesting they were less agile. Paramasticatory Stress Model:Using the teeth as tools - strong bite force is needed Forces pulling on the anterior teeth cause a reactive response of the midface Thus, the face responds through midfacial growth By mid-20s half the anterior teeth have been worn down, by mid-30s, only nubs remain Is the shape of the mandible due to masticatory stress for neaderthals .... The zygomatic root is in line with the 3rd molar much like modern humans The size of the ramus dictates the position of the zygomatic Neanderthals have smaller rami, which creates the retromolar space Franciscus says these features result in a bite force no different than that of humans Neanderthal Nose Mode:Do the cranial features relate to climate? This feature may give the ability to warm inspired air Near East Neanderthals still have broad, projecting noses Shanidar 5 has one of the largest noses Bar Yosef and Vandermeersh believe them to be recent migrants from Europe who retain their cold adaptation Conchae and Septum warm and humidify air A narrow nose has greater exposed surface area and warms the air very efficiently Yet, Neanderthals had wide noses and big faces in glacial Europe Conchae size may be different, but they never preserve Kebara 2 hyoid is identical to that of Homo sapiens sounded diffrent than modern humans

Brain structure for communication

Derek Bickerton: Catastrophic Evolution Two steps: Protolanguage - associated with increasing brain size + cooperation - Lack syntax, tense, closed Full language - associated with cultural revolution in UP and syntax The Roots of Culture: The Brain If culture is symbolic, then it is founded on language •The source of language is located in parts of the brain •Our ability to make and use tools also begins in the brain •Therefore, we start by examining the parts of the brain Structure of the Brain: •Frontal Lobe: The lobe that allows us to think and plan ahead •Motor Cortex: The strip along the edge of the motor cortex that moves the facial muscles (lips, tongue, vocalization) and the arm, hand, and finger muscles •Parietal Lobe: The lobe that enables us to touch and taste Occipital Lobe: The lobe of the brain that enables us to see •Temporal Lobe: The lobe that enables us to hear •Olfactory Bulb: The part of the brain that enables us to smell •Supplementary Motor Cortex: The part that provides sensory feedback from an action involving the motor cortex The Motor Cortex: Lower part: The strip regulates the facial and oral muscles •They include the tongue, the lips, the organs for vocalization, and the jaws •These are related to the language function •Upper part: The strip regulates the arm, the hand, and their fingers •These are related to the tool manufacture and use functions.

When did these structures evolve?aka language evolve Controlled Breathing

Endocasts: •Broca's area may be present in Australopithecines •Wernicke's area seen in H. habilis • Seem better developed in early Homo •Endocast of KNM-ER 1470: signs of Broca's area (Tobias 1981, Falk 1983), Expansion in prefrontal cortex (Falk 1983) •Brain lateralization: right-handedness suggested by stone tool knapping (Toth 1985). Controlled Breathing: Large diameter of neural canals may facilitate increased motor control of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles for the control of breathing during speech (Mac- Larnon and Hewitt 1999). •Rib cage •Funnel shape: chimp and Australopithecines •Barrel shape: from Nariokotome boy (WT-15000), dated 1.6 mya. •External Nose •Helps produce nasal sounds in words (ng Hyoid Bone: Kebara Neanderthal hyoid bone has completely modern shape. •Accordingly, "Neanderthals appear to be anatomically capable of competent speech (Arensberg et al. 1990)." •In humans, hyoid bone is not directly involved in speech, although in apes it is important in some vocalization (Frayer and Nicolay 2000). Arch of Cranial Base: May estimate descended larynx Earliest hominins (Australopiths) had cranial base similar to apes •Cranial base approximates human angle in Kabwe and Steinheim skulls (around 300,000 ybp) •Neanderthal cranium actually flatter than some older samples. •Also associated with prognathism and skull shape •Dubious association with language

hiedelbergensis with examples site pit of bones antecesor versus heiderbregensis Derived feature crania and post crania charactersstics arago is hydobergensis

Expansion of brain. 1200 cc on average, Lower range of modern humans •Face is still prognathic in middle, top, and bottom- total face prognathism •Backward sweeping cheekbones •Parietal expansion •Wide face with ancestral cheekbones •Thinning supraorbital torus •Expansion of occipital, reduction of nuchal, "occipital buns" on some •Large anterior teeth, modern posterior •No chin, thick mandible and the browridge? Many explanations, still unclear •Protection from clubs/trauma? Sun out of the eyes? •Protects against chewing forces •Protection for eyeballs when frontal sits back farther; in H. sapiens, the forehead has caught up over the orbits •Position of temporalis muscle; larger muscle means more forward face/torus

Brain related what brain structures and other structures when did these structures evolve development of speak in the brain and control of speech structure of language how do u define a modern language what parts play a roll in language who has the structures rib cage reassessment brain structures dealing with intelligence and language hypothesis of language evolution structures of language gossip and grooming motherese Brain communication animal

Facial expressions important •Speech •Culture requires intelligence and communication •Areas of the brain essential for structure and sense of speech •Broca's area - concerned with speech •Wernicke's area - concerned with comprehension of language The lower the voice box, the more sounds can be articulated. Gua and Donald (Kellogg & Kellogg, 1933) chimp and baby raised together both express appropriate emotions ie laughing when tickled both learned to eat with utensils could follow simple commands like where is your noes but never learned to talk Kanzi: The talking Bonobo Sue Savage-Rumbaugh Lexigram symbol language Simple syntax Spontaneous acquisition Referential/symbolic understanding 90% utterances: requests/commands Animal Language: Vervet Alarm Calls Different alarm calls appear to be referential Derek Bickerton: Catastrophic Evolution Two steps: Protolanguage - associated with increasing brain size + cooperation - Lack syntax, tense, closed Full language - associated with cultural revolution in UP and syntax The Roots of Culture: The Brain If culture is symbolic, then it is founded on language •The source of language is located in parts of the brain •Our ability to make and use tools also begins in the brain •Therefore, we start by examining the parts of the brain

Language components

Form- Phonology,Morphology, Syntax Content-Semantics •Use- Pragmatics Phonology- Study and use of individual sound units in a language and the rules by which they are combined and recombined to create larger language units. •Phonemes are the unit of sound such as /s/ or /b/ , they do not convey meaning. •Phonemes alter meaning of words when combined (e.g., sat to bat). Morphology Study and use of morphemes, the smallest units of language that have meaning. •A morpheme is a group of sounds that refers to a particular object, idea, or action. •Roots can stand alone (e.g., car, teach, tall) •Affixes are bound such as prefixes and suffixes and when attached to root words change the meaning of the words (e.g., cars, teacher, tallest) Syntax: Study of the rules by which words are organized into phrases or sentences in a particular language. -Referred to as the grammar of the language and allows for more complex expression of thoughts and ideas by making references to past and future events. Semantics- •The larger meaning component of language. More than single words, includes complex use of vocabulary, including structures such as word categories, word relationships, synonyms, antonyms, figurative language, ambiguities, and absurdities Knowledge and ability to use language functionally in social or interactive situations. Pragmatics - Integrates all the other language skills, but also requires knowledge and use of rule governing the use of language in social context. - All of this put together - human level of ToM far exceeds that of other primates - what about Hominins?

homo antecessor

Gran Dolina, Spain Homo antecessor •780 kya •6 individuals •Weird mix of features? •Projecting midface and nose, double arched brow ridge •Smaller mandible than erectus •Shovel shaped incisors •Modern looking cheekbones •Proposed as ancestral to sapiens, heidelbergensis, and neanderthalensis

Tom good Id for a question self counsiousness

Interpretation of the behaviour of the self and others in terms of unobservable mental states. •Humans assume that other people are intentional agents who possess a mind very similar to our own, we treat them as having mental states - opinions, thoughts, fears, emotions, beliefs, intentions •We are skilled at predicting other people's intentions, spotting a liar or cheater, realising that someone is unhappy or afraid etc. •"prediction" is having Theory of Mind A key question concerns whether ToM has only evolved in humans, or whether ToM evolved before the divergence of humans. •If the latter is the case then we would also expect to see ToM capabilities in our near relatives. •According to Humphrey (1978), self-knowledge, and through it the intuitive knowledge of others, have made an essential contribution to the reproductive fitness of social animals. •In complex social groups the ability to understand and predict another individual's behaviour would be an enormous advantage. Self-Consciousness- Dennett (1996) argued that self consciousness can be seen as a hierarchy of intentional systems: First order: having beliefs and desires about many things, but not about beliefs and desires (most animals, human infants) 2nd order having beliefs and desires about beliefs and desires, of self and others (humans, other primates?). •The giant leap of being able to generalise about other individuals comes between stages 1 and 2. •An interesting question is "How did some social animals make this leap?". •Dennett (1996) points out that a likely candidate is communication, and especially in humans the emergence of language. •Communication enables social competition, exchange, alliance building, transmission of important information, culture, and deception. Third-order: having the capability of such feats as wanting another individual to believe that you want something (humans, other primates?). •Fourth-order: having the capability to make another individual believe you want it to believe that you believe something (humans only?). • "Language was invented so that people could conceal their thoughts from one another" •(Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand). Dicription Much of social life is concerned with hiding our true intentions. •A complex social environment led to the need for deception, which led to increased social intelligence, which led to language and symbols, which led to higher-order self-awareness and an advanced theory of mind. •Machiavelli was a Florentine diplomat whose name has become synonymous with a strategy of social conduct in which others are regarded entirely as a means towards a personal end. •Human social intelligence may have evolved in order to understand, predict and manipulate the behaviour of other people. Self-Consciousness •If presented with a mirror, most animals (and human children below 2) react as if confronted by another animal. •Even if exposed to the experience of seeing a mirror on a regular basis, most animals never show evidence of self recognition. •Chimpanzees and orang-utans can learn that the reflections are representations of themselves, as they use the mirror to inspect parts of their bodies that they cannot see. •Gallup (1998) argued that animals who possess self-awareness can use such experiences to model the experience of others (empathy). Empathy Povinelli (1992) devised a task in which one human could see which of two handles would give food rewards when pulled, but could not reach the handles. •To succeed, the individual has to indicate the correct choice to a second individual, who can reach the handles but who cannot see which one is correct. •Chimpanzees but not rhesus monkeys could learn either role, and switched roles as necessary. •Povinelli et al., (1994) allowed a chimpanzee to choose the advice of one of two human helpers in deciding which container is baited with food. •Only one human saw the baiting, and chimpanzees accurately selected the human who had seen the baiting as their helper

Aurignacian Tool Industry

Middle Paleolithic: 300- 40 kya Upper Paleolithic: 40-10 kya Aurignacian: 40-28 kya Chatelperronian: 35-29 kya Gravettian: 28-22 kya 40-28 kya Characterized by the appearance of new artifacts Blades, bone tools, figurative art, cave painting, musical instruments Quickly followed by the Gravettian (28-22 kya) where many more examples of cultural occur Aurignacian Blades Defined as twice as long as they are wide More cutting edge The Punch Blade Technique: A large core is selected and the top portion is removed by use of a hammerstone (b) The objective is to create a flat surface called a striking platform (c) Next, the core is struck by use of a hammer and punch (made of bone or antler) to remove the long narrow flakes (called blades (d) Or the blades can be removed by pressure flaking. (e) The result is the production of highly consistent sharp blades, which can be used, as is, as knives; or they can be further modified (retouched) to make a variety of other tools (such as burins, scrapers, and awls). 3 types of bone tools split based A1, lozenge shaped solid based -had oval section and round section, single bevel. decoration Problems of the Aurignacian-Earliest dates of culture: 42-40 kya, but in Spain and Bulgaria All over Europe: maybe Europe had two entry points? Did it develop independently in several regions, or was it brought in with anatomically modern humans(AMH)?

nanderthals language

Neanderthal hyoid bone resembles modern human hyoid Presence of human FOXP2- human speech development gene Nothing preventing Neanderthals from speaking...but did they? Evidence of symbolism is key; symbolism demonstrates mental capacity for language sound diffrent than modern humans as theire short neck and long face as well as the larynx is too low to make modern human sounds

Neanderthals in lavant near east verse modern humans seasonality patterns modern human vrs neadertal in the lavant

Near East Sites (Levant) 5 sites Teshik Tash, Uzbekistan-Cave site - 70 kya 9 yr. old based on dentition Classic neanderthal traits Burial along the western wall with feet facing the entrance 6 pairs of Ibex horns Point down surrounding the skull Small fire next to the body 761 Ibex bones in the cave - preferred prey for the region Shanidar, Iraq-Shanidar 1: 60-80 kya Crushing fracture of the left orbit and cheekbone A withered right upper arm Degenerative or posttraumatic deformities of both legs that probably caused a limp Shanidar 3 Debilitating arthritis of both the right ankle and adjacent foot joints Stab wound resulting in scar on left 9th rib, piecing of the lung and ultimately death Kebara, Israel-60 kya Discovered by Lynne Schepartz The most complete Neanderthal skeleton known Hyoid preserved Cranium is missing 25, 000 stone tools (mousterian) Generally not different from European specimens Amud, Israel-70 - 50 kya Estimated to be 1.8 meters tall (very fragmentary) 1,740 cc brain (largest) Slight difference from "classic" Neanderthal Amud 7 - infant (10 month) also found, displays features unique to Neanderthals Tabun, Israel-Rock Shelter near Mount Carmel 200 - 41 kya (female 120 kya) One of the longest sequences of hominin occupation (intermittent) Thousands of stone tools and animal remains are present Interesting locations Mixtures of Neanderthal and EMH Amud / Kebara arrowTabun B ~ 60 - 70 kya Skul / Qafzah arrow Tabun C ~ 90 - 120 kya Lieberman and Shea- Used Kebara, Qafzeh, and Tabun Examined dental cementum (root) to recreate climate - season of death Wet season - opaque, thin bands Dry season - translucent, thick bands Kebara - multi-seasonal (N) Tabun B - multi-seasonal (N) Tabun C - fall/winter (EMH) Qafzeh - spring/summer (EMH) Circular mobility based on seasonal variation - Forager strategies

Interested in overview Last stitch neadertal

Pockets of Neanderthals were spread thin across Europe - with concentrations in the Iberian Peninsula St. Cesaire, France - 36 kya-Rock shelter site Middle and Upper Paleolithic tools found at the site Chatelperronian tools clearly associated with Neanderthals Small oval burial - Flexed position Near 10 ky overlap with modern humans in Europe Vindija, Croatia - 29 kya Neanderthal DNA extracted from a specimen Upper Paleolithic tools Split base bone tools Pocket of Neanderthals Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar - 28 kya- Mousterian Occupation Cut bones and Levallios flakes No Neanderthal remains Could it be EMH? Spain - Ebro River Lagar Velho, Portugal - 28-24 kya -Child burial, covered in ochre Cranium has a small chin (recedes) has a juxtamastoid eminence shoveled incisors SHORT distal limb segments Trinkaus and Ruff Cranially - modern human Postcrania - neanderthal Hybrid? Cultural Interactions?Chatelperronian industry of Southern France/ Northern Spain Pendants and blades added to Mousterian style tools 35-29 kya..right around when moderns show up! Chatelperronian tools development-Very short time span Influenced by aurignacian? Similar tools -> different techniques Grotte du Renne, France Chatelperronian perforated teeth -> dates are controversial Neanderthal Burials-The Kebara Cave burial in Israel at 60kya The La Chapelle aux Saints burial, France also dates to 60 kya The Shanidar Cave burial in Iraq, also 60 kya Lagar Velho, Portugal - 28 kya covered in ochre Pollen analysis shows that the flowers were pollinated by bees, so the flowers were brought in from outside. Virtually no grave goods last stand neaderthals Figueira brava, Gorham cave, Zafarraya, neaderthal

neaderthal the hunter/life characteristics

Stable isotopic analyses (δ13C and δ15N) of bone collagen provides a direct measure of diet. These analyses point to Neanderthals behaving as a top-level carnivore. Almost all dietary protein came from animal sources indicating there were effective hunters. Presence of spears at Neanderthal sites (stone-tipped and wooden). Wooden spear found in ribs of Elephas skeleton in Germany and Levallois point embedded in Equus vertebra in Syria Neanderthal anatomical trauma suggests encounters with large animals, necessitated by their available weaponry Also scavenged life expectancy:Osteon aging suggests Neanderthals lived to be in their late 30s to mid 40s Neanderthals wore teeth more rapidly than humans Over 50% of Neanderthals excavated had hypoplastic enamel defects in teeth (ex. pitting), indicating that young Neanderthals were subject to food shortage, trauma, or disease. Higher frequency than living and late pleistocene H. sapiens Many cases of advanced osteoarthritis especially in the vertebral column, degeneration of the joints and periodontal disease have been found in adult Neanderthal skeletons habitation Often in rockshelters and caves; shelter from the elements Clear evidence of hearths in the same place over time Largely still bones and stones Structured use of space? Activity areas Clearing of central areas in caves burials-Neanderthals are first hominin with "clear" evidence for burial Positioned bodies with grave inclusions Not as complex as later humans, but evidence of deliberate interment This is the most recognizably human, nonmaterial aspect of their behavior that can be directly inferred from the archaeological record Burials Neanderthals The Kebara Cave burial in Israel at 60kya The La Chapelle aux Saints burial, France also dates to 60 kya The Shanidar Cave burial in Iraq, also 60 kya Lagar Velho, Portugal - 28 kya covered in ochre Pollen analysis shows that the flowers were pollinated by bees, so the flowers were brought in from outside. Virtually no grave goods Climate change Dietary breadth Cannibalism Disease Intelligence- symbolic capacity of modern humans, better tools and material culture Energy costs of Neanderthal life - 32% higher Competition may have been very fierce

Language Functions of the Brain:

The language functions all occur on the left hemisphere of the brain in most humans •Broca's Area functions to process the generating of speech •It is located at the base of the motor cortex, which handles the tongue, vocalization, and lip movements •Wernicke's Area functions to process the reception of speech •Its in the temporal lobe, which processes hearing The angular gyrus is the part that coordinates all the sense functions housed in the brain •They coordinate the senses of sight from the occipital lobe, of the touch and taste of the parietal lobe, of the smell from the olfactory lobe, and of hearing from the temporal lobe •If you smell the scent of a rose and visualize a rose in the mind •Its function for language is to translate all the sensory information into the sense of hearing so we can assign meaning to speech Comparative Brain Structure: Human and Chimpanzee The human brain has a Broca's area for processing speech. •The chimp brain has a Brodman's area, where calls may originate, but no speech •Our Wernicke's area, which receives speech, is at the same place as the planum temporale among the chimps •The chimp brain is much smaller than humans'—400 cubic centimeters compared with our 1400 cc. •The frontal lobe of the chimp is smaller than the human's, partly owing to the sloping forehead Chimp It has no Broca's or Wernicke's area •It does have Brodmann's area 10, where calls may originate—but no speech •It does have planum temporale, where calls are received—but not processed as language Conclusion Our brains are larger than the chimps' •We have a well-developed frontal lobe •We have well developed language areas: Broca's and Wernicke's area •The motor strip is more developed among humans than among chimps

Modern behavior ** what evidence give examples longbos caves cave painting atalats lion man Venus figures be specific dates/ locations relief carvings cave paintings symbolic thinking complex tools cave paintings elaborate burials

What is Modern Behavior? Tool complexity Art (ochre and figurines) Broad exploitation of resources (like modern hunter gatherers) Long distance exchange Bone tools Earliest clear evidence is around 60-70 kya but certain elements may come earlier Blombos Cave, South Africa 70 ky-Earliest evidence of fully "modern" behavior; next earliest is Europe 40 kya Fauna eaten include shellfish and sea mammals (seals and dolphins) Shell beads Incised pieces of ochre Bone tools Mladec, Czech Republic, 31 kya- 6 individuals Modern vault shape Earliest AMH associated with Aurignacian tool industry unambiguously Dolne Vestonice, Czech Republic-28-25 kya Important Upper Paleolithic site with many cultural elements Art Burial Huts with some type of kiln? Arene Candide, Italy-20 kya Mammoth ivory pendants and a flint blade accompany body Covered in shells, pollen, and red ochre Burials become more numerous and elaborate Lake Mungo 3 Australia 60-40 kya?- Burial of modern individual Individual was covered in ochre Other ochre found in the area (32 kya)- early art and ritual? the production of new tools the aurignacian the creation of atlatl -Combe Sauniere, France 17,500 ya Magdalenian Atlatl-Fawn with Bird" 15,000 ya, Reindeer antler, Holes may be for leather strap Art-WESTERN EUROPE: Hohlenstein-Stadel Cave: Carved from Ivory-1 foot tall. Composite creature: human with feline head. No way to know what the intention was - sorcerer? Humans dressed as animals? Did involve skill & time, so was important. Women in Paleolithic Art: Representations of humans during this period were almost always of unclothed women. Called "Venuses" after the Greco-Roman goddess of beauty. no proof of the idea of named gods or goddesses in that era. "Venus" of Willendorf 25 kya no faceWhy were they thought to be fertility images? What is the evidence against that? What CAN we safely conclclude? Lack of focus on naturalism. No facial features. Evidence in the sculpture that it is a fertility figure? Laussel Venus": woman holding a bison horn, found in Dordogne, France. Probably later than the Willendorf figure. - 20 kya One of the earliest relief sculptures. Originally part of a large stone block. Red ochre was applied to the body. Similar emphasis on the female form to the "Willendorf Venus" Venus of Hohle Fels (Germany) Dolni-Vestonice (Czech) Willendorf (Austria) Les pugue (France) Bird Bone flute Hohle-Fels, Germany 40 kya Neanderthal bone flute - 55 kya Cave bear femur Divje Babe, Slovenia Vogelherd, Germany 38 kya horse carving Clay Bison: Le Tuc d'Audoubert, france-12-17k yrs ago Strict profile- 2 ft long Modeled in clay from the cave itself Antler Sculpture: 4 inches long Compare? Engraving - atlatl Represented with the head turned - probable reason? Upper Paleolithic Cave Art-Primarily located in Central, Southern France, Northern and Eastern Spain Altimira 18 -14 kya (Spain, first discovered, 1878)buffalo using side of palm to paint Lascaux 15 - 10 lya (France - art of dear and such Magdalenian time period)The Shaft of the Dead Man." 2 animals and a stick-man lying on the ground. Indication of narrative in cave paintings. Cleary a man Many interpretations Chauvet 25 - 30 kya (France, discovered 1994) animal painting handprints bears buffalo El Castillo 40 kya? - 11 kya (Spain - new date from 2012) Multiple Similarities Deep caves, difficult to access Paintings of animals, humans, geometrics, hand prints (positive and negative) Dates after ca. 40,000 BP El Castillo, Spain 40,800 BP - new date (2012) - Neanderthals?

Stone tools musterian inderdustry bord bebate

When we deal with Neanderthals, we are no longer deal with the Acheulean period, now we have moved into the Mousterian (roughly 300-50 kya) The Mousterian period covers the later half of the Middle Pleistocene and into the Upper Pleistocene It is true that there is overlap between the Mousterian and Acheulean, but this is expected as one cultural "tradition" is adopted/evolves and slowl y spreads Notice all the overlaps here...Neanderthals/modern humans, Mousterian/Acheulean middle paleolithic Mousterian Dates from 150 - 30 kya Associated with Homo neanderthalensis Characteristics Levallois flake technique "Prepared core" Side scrapers, knives, awls, punches, dentrites... Uniqueness Tools - regional variation (4 types) Clothing - definitely Controlled fire - definitely Hunting - definitely Chaîne Opératoire-With the Mousterian industry, we can see choices had to be made in steps to make tools. "There is a succession of mental operations and technical gestures in order to satisfy a need according to a pre-existing project." tool types -Side Scrapers One sharp working edge (sometime two) Smooth, continuous retouched edge Convergent sidescraper - comes to a point From continuous ware and retouching Points Some may have been hafted Fit onto the end of a spear Burins - may have been used as a chizel or to engrave tools Denticulate - saw-like tool used to drill holes? Backed Knife - 2x longer than wide with graspable edge Mousterian tools are diverse in form convex side scraper,levallois point,mousterian point 3 types , canted scraper, transversal scraper,convergent scraper double scraper,leavllois flake "Here there can be no doubt that the primary object of the knapper was to produce flake tools, the form of which was accurately determined by preparatory work on the core." Binford Says the different proportions of tools are due to the function within all Neanderthals Ethnoarchaeology of Nunamuit eskimo and found they used 2x as much land with 1 tool assemblage than all 4 "tribes" The functional argument is only guessing at what they were used for Dibble You are assuming the stone tools found are the desired end product With evidence of constant retouching, there is no desired end product.

Adaptive Functions of language/hypothesis

form more complex examples of •Group Coordination •Contrafactual Representation (lying) •Time-binding (build cumulative knowledge) •Framework of Consciousness (hypotheticals) Gossip and Grooming Hypothesis (Dunbar 1998) •Grooming is important to primates in the context of social groups and building/maintaining bonds. •Grooming is a mutually exclusive activity, and everyone sees who is grooming whom •the Machiavellian hypothesis suggests primates don't only need to remember how each member of the group relates to other members, they need to anticipate behavior given (often) hypothetical situations because they are in competition with each other, and life is about juggling goals of oneself versus others •ToM holds that a (person) recognizes that someone else can have different thoughts and beliefs from his own. This gets into trust and deception. •Language allows for more complex thought and there fore more complex social interactions with increased numbers of people (and people that are not present) Evolution of Languag : gosip and Grooming •Large groups demand that humans exchange social information about others ("gossip") that were not in their immediate sphere so that group members could anticipate their behavior in certain circumstances ("she will go to bat for me in some situations" but not others, based on her interactions with other group members). •Assess cooperation and defection (game theory) •In the immediate sphere around each member, members see each other's interactions constantly and have to infer less about each other's behavior (they know each other better) - Kin selection •Gossip is about how other people act in discrete social situations, which enables gossipers to formulate opinions about how the gossipees might act in future situations with them or people they care about. •Gossip has replaced grooming in the formation of close social bonds (hairlessness) Motherese / Putting the Baby Down Hypothesis (Falk 2004) •Vocal interactions between early hominin mothers and infants sparked a sequence of events that led, eventually, to our ancestors' earliest words •Hominin mothers, couldn't move around and forage with their infants clinging onto their backs. •Loss of fur left infants with no means of clinging on. •Mothers had to put their babies down. •These babies needed to be reassured that they were not being abandoned. •Mothers responded by developing 'motherese' - an infant-directed communicative system embracing facial expressions, body language, touching, patting, caressing, laughter, tickling and emotionally expressive contact calls. Motherese / Putting the Baby Down •If the combinations of sounds used by the mothers spread throughout the population and were given specific meanings that all understood •Mothers that attended vigilantly to their infants were selected for and further modified their vocalizations and gestures to reassure their infants •Combining vocalizations into a string of words with a specific structure - gives you a modern language •This concept only explains the birth of a protolanguage (no syntax)

neaderthal features

neaderthal post crania Based mostly on males Long clavicles relative to the trunk Churchill quantified trunk shape by measuring 2nd rib Length found to be significantly larger than moderns Barrel shaped chests neaderthals body type Hyperpolar Adapted Bergmann's Rule For a widely dispersed warm blooded species: those in cold climates are heavier (higher body mass) Allen's Rule For a widely dispersed warm blooded species: those in cold climates have shorter limbs Cold environment animals will have less surface area to body mass ratio and thus conserve heat loss, while warm environment animals will have a higher surface area to body mass ratio and increase heat loss. Scapula - smaller than expected with oval and narrow glenoid fossa (moderns are tear drop) Humeri are thick with large muscle insertions Radius and Ulna Short and powerful with slight bowing Hands are strong with Large apical tufts Strong flexor ridges on middle and proximal phalanges Cortical Asymmetry Neanderthals show thicker right humeri compared to their left Comparable to modern day professional tennis player By studying Neanderthal stone spear points, John Shea, has found that the shafts of Neanderthal spears would have been thick and heavy. Woodland hunting = not projectile Trent Holliday believes the right forearm of Neanderthals was particularly powerful, demonstrating a very powerful grip (bowed forearm). Steve Churchill, Neanderthals were ambush hunter waiting in a forest for his prey to stray close attacking with a thrusting spear. This accounts for the right side dominance - source of power Lower Limbs Powerful over short distances, not built for distance running,Massively robust limbs,Curved femur - anterior-posterior Shortened tibia and fibula Hyperpolar adaptations neaderthal pelvis -modern human pelvis is widest from side to side at top and then switches to become widest from front to back at bottom. neaderthal pelvis is widist from side to side the whole way down. The difference means that modern human babies must rotate on their way out. Neanderthal babies likely had to twist to exit the womb. Despite the difference in shape among the two species, the birth canals are about the same size. Scientists also think baby Neanderthals' heads were roughly the same size as modern human babies'. The pelvic morphology of Neanderthals may be more due to locomotion and posture than giving birth Based on subadult Neanderthal dentition, despite having a large brain, they are characterized by a short period of development (Smith et al. 2007)

modern human sites

omo kibash 1 ethiopia 200-160kya -higher forhead, robust torus,canine fossa,chin Herto 1, ethiopia 160kya- vertical forehead,flat face tucked under braincase, modern vault shape, robust torus. occipital is angular (not quite a bun) qafzeh 9,israel 100-120kya- high cranial vault,lack of occipital bun large anterior teeth chin,more modern brow (lac of torus), notch maxillary ( has burial and natually proforated shells) skhul 5- vertical forhead, developed torus,chin retromolar space dali, china -Classified as H. sapiens 200 kya Thick cranial bones Robust torus Long / Low cranium Flat face (crushed maxilla) Malar notch Small crania-1100cc Possible erectus or heidelbergensis or antecessor Jebel Irhoud 1, Morocco 90-190 kya- Malar notch Short face Small nasal Less prognathic 1300 cc brain Long low cranium Slight Occipital bun Large supraorbital torus Mousterian Tools ngaloba,tanzania -110-130kya laetoli site,long low crania, rounded occipital,modest size face

Modern human verse neadertal cranial features

shanidar 1 neaderthals example:long, broad and low braincase, larg,doudle-arched brow ridge,midfacial prognathism,minimal chin, retromolar gap, no canine fossa(large noes low forhead) Qafzeh 9 early modern- high and rounded braincase,developed forehead,small brow ridge,low orbits,some chin development,large teeth, no premolar gap.hollowed cheeks(canine Fossa) both middle paliolithic