Human Geo Chapt 3

Southeast Asia (area of dislocation)

Ref probs change quickly. Indochina was sece of one of 20th century's most desperate ref crises when stream of between 1 and 2 mil peps fled Vietnam after war ended in 1975. During war, U.S. bombed Cambodia and tried to bring a pro-West leader to power. After U.S. left in 1975, Pol Pot came to power in Cambodia on anti-U.S. and anti-Soveit wave. From 1975-1979 Pol Pot and Khmer Roughe controlled Cambodia and started genocide, killing 1.7 mil (¼ of country's pop). Khemer Roughe focused genocide mostly in cities wanting to re-educate, prosecute, or kill educated class adn theos most infenced by West. Cambodians fleeing whent to ref camps in Thailand and then to West like U.S. Now largest camps in region for IDPs in Myanmar, victims of 2004 tsunami, 2008 cyclone, and repressive rule of generals seeking to get country's minority.

North Africa and Southwest Asia (area of dislocation)

Region from Morocco to Afghanistan. -Afghanistan conflict has lasted more than 40 years, largest ref flow in world with a quarter of refs. -Gulf War of 1991 -Iraq War of 2003 both produced mils of refs. -Aftermath of Gulf War pushed Northern Iraqi Kurds into Turkey and Iran. US created secure zone for Kurds in Northern Iraq to persuade refugees to come back. Partially successful. Iraq war made over 2 mil refs, most living in Syria and Jordan, and 2.8 mil IDPs. After Syria outbreak, more Kurds were forced to flee. some became refs in Iraq, allowed. Still a large pop of Iranian refs in Iraq, stemming from Iran-Iraq conflict 3 decades ago. Afghanistan caught in Soviets' last imperialist campaign and paid huge price. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan at end of 1979, in support of puppet gov, and Afhan resistance, made a double migration stream that carried mils west to Iran and east to Pakistan. The Soviet invasion seemed destined tos uceed, but Russians underestimated strength of Afghan opposition. U.S. support for Afghan rebel forces helped eventual Soviet withdrawal, but followed by power struggle for Afghan factions. In 1996, Taliban, Islamic fundamentalist movement that began in NW Pakistan, emerged in Afghanistan and got control of most of country, imposing strict ISlamic rule and suppressing factional conflicts that prevailed since Soviet withdrawal in 1989. Though several hundred thousand refs moved back to Afghanistan from Pakistan, harsh Taliban rule made counter-migration and led to more ref movement to neighboring Iran, where num reached 2.5 mil Eventually, Afggbustab became base for anti-Western terrorist operations, revealing a climax in attack on US Sep 11, 2001. Before inevitable military retaliation started, and despite efforts by Pakistan and Iran to close borders, tens of thousands of Afghan refs flooded across, intenisfying ref crisis which is now more than a quarter-century old. In middle of crisis in Israel/Palestine, Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan, almost every country in SW Asia is currently experiencing impact of refs.

Sun Belt

Region of economic growth with an expanding technology-based service sector and a stable manufacturing sector that stretches along the southern US from Virginia to Cali.

Cyclic Movement

Regular journey that begins at a home base and returns to the exact same place. Leaving and returning.

(Snowbirds)/ Seasonal Movement

Retired or semi-retired people who live in cold states and Canada for most of the year and move to warm states for the winter. Warm- Florida, Cali, Arizona. They economically impact home and winter state. Most own property and pay taxes in US. They also boost econ when buying stuff, but give less business to northern places during winter. It also impacts the U.S. Census every 10 years.

(Human Trafficking) /Modern Slavery

*A form of forced migration wehre people are involuntary sold and traded for manual labor or as workers in the commercial sex trade.* Sex trafficking of kids and adults, forced labor, bonded or debt bondage labor, involuntary domestic servitude, forced child labor, and the recruitment of kid soldiers all fall under modern slavery, The International Labour Organization (ILO) say modern slavery refers to situations of exploitation that a person can't refuse or leave because of threats, violence, coercion, deception, and/or abuse of power. It affects 40.3 mil peeps with 24.9 mil forced in labor in private sectors, 4.8 mil in forced sexual exploitation, and 4 mil in forced labor under govs like China and North Korea.

Islands of Development

*Cities in developing regions where foreign investment is concentrated and to which rural migrants are drawn.* It shows where infrastructure, housing, jobs, and businesses thrive in the middle of a more rural and less developed countryside. Migrants are pulled from rural areas here for work. Goods made here are usually exported. Cities in lower income countries are usually where most foreign investment goes, where many paying jobs are located, and where infrastructure is concentrated, Migrants are drawn to port cities in lower income countries because they are islands of development. In West Africa, oil-producing cities of Nigeria are islands of development. In mid-1970s, peeps in Togo, Benin,Ghana, and northern regions of Nigeria thought that life was better in coastal Nigeria and went there for short-term jobs during good oil econs. The migrants (usually young men) sent almost all money home. In the early 1980s, oil econ declined and Nigerian gov thought the workers weren't needed. 2 mil left.

Immigrants

A person who permanently moves into a new country. They add to the total pop of a country. Ex. Potato Famine caused Ireland's pop to fall starting in 1851, it fell until 1996 when it became part of Eu.

Emigrants

A person who permanently moves out of their home country. They subtract from the total pop of a country.

Repatriation

A refugee or group of refugees returning to their home country, usually with the assistance of government or a non governmental organization.

Rust Belt

A region in the northeastern US that once had an extensive manufacturing industry but had been deindustrialized during the post-Fordist era.

Pastoralism

A type of cyclic movement when herders move livestock through the year to continually find fresh water and green pastures. It is instead of feeding livestock on agriculturally produced feed. It's effective and sustainable form of agriculture in dry lands and limited rainfall. The peeps need to know the territory well to find necessities and the movement is purposeful through familiar routes passed down through gens. Ex. Savanna climate in Africa has well-defined rainy and dry seasons, good for this. Uganda has a lot Gov policies in Uganda discourage this and rainfall patterns are changing because of climate change, which is bad for the peeps.

How Migrants weigh decision of where to go

Any factor can be a push and pull. Migrants weigh their decisions of whether to leave and where to go based on experiences & perceptions. Includes: legal status, Gender, ethnicity and race, environmental conditions, Political conflict, and family links and chain migration.

Legal Restrictions Pt 2

Between 1942-1965, Mexicans migrated mostly to US southwest and Florida. Often cyclical, agriculture jobs. IN 1965, Congress ended Bracero Program and passed Immigration and Nationality Act. The migrants crossed to US and stayed. IN 1952, imm began to rise after congress passed new Immigration and Nationality Act. it established quotas for all countries and limited total imm to160,000. More entered as refs, filling quotas for years ahad. More than 7 mil migrants may have entered US as refs between 1945-1970. By 1965, Congress abolished 1952 act and quota system because it failed. It set new limits allowing migrants per year from specific hemispheres. Ref policies and guest worker policies over next decades allowed more migrants than limitations suggested. In 1986, US gov passed Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) giving permanent residence and path to citizenship for 2.6 mil unauthorized migrants in US. Migration from Mexico and Central AMerica to IS accelerated in 1970s and 1980s, peaking at 2000 with close to 1 mil migrants coming each year. Num of migrants fell sharply after economic downturn of 2008, but imprint of decades-long migration is still evidence. Mexican migrans now constitute close to 4% of US pop, and play fundamentally important econ role in many states and cities.

Family Links and (Chain Migration)

Chain Migration- Permanent movement from one place to another that follows kinship links. For example, a group of migrants settles in a place and then communicates with family and friends at their former location to encourage migration along the same path. When deciding where to go, migrants pulled out places where fam and friends find success. The migrants that go first make positive perceptions of destination for fam and friends and can promise help with jobs or housing.

Waves of Immigration in US

Changes in a country's migration policies can be seen in num of immigrants and origin of immigrants over time. Between 1820 and 1900, Europeans were almost all imms entering US. After Great Depression, European imgration slowed, and Eurpe became a region that had more migrants than sending. A stream of migrants to the US continued after WWII, but source of immigrants changed in 1960s when new migratin legislation was passed. SInce 1960s, migrants in US have come mostly from Altin America and Asia.

Push factors

Circumstances a migrant considers when deciding to leave the home country. Include work/ retirement conditions, cost of living, personal safety/security, environmental catastrophes/hazards, or issues like weather and climate.

Pull factors

Circumstances a migrant considers when deciding where to migrate. Tend to be more vague and can depend solely on perceptions from things heard and read rather than experiences in destination. Migrants can have unrealistically positive images and expectations regarding their destinations and it can create a large pull and motivation.

Americas (area of dislocation)

Colombia has around 5.7 mil IDPs caused by political violence tied to narcotics production. Big areas of Colombia's countryside are vulnerable to armed attack by "narcoterrorists'' and paramilitary units, rural areas are essentially beyond gov control and thousands of villagers have died in crossfire. Hundreds of thousands have left home to seek protection. Other places, earthquakes have displaced mils. 2010 earthquake in Chile killed hundreds and dispaced 2 mil. 6 weeks before, the earthquake in Haiti killed 200,000 peeps and displaced 1.5 mil. Haiti hasn't recovered when Hurricane Matthew hit in 2016 and Hurricane Irma in 2017. Matthew caused 546 fatalities and impaced 2.1 mil peps in Haiti. Ref gangceis report in region impacted by Matthew, 140,000 households still don't have access to minimum earthquake and seismic resistance homes and shelters. Peeps who abandon familiar surroundings because of conditions and perform an ultimate act of desperation. IN process, often face unimaginable challenges and hardships. Ref and IDP pops are barometer of world's political strife.

Forced Labor in Private Industry

Common in hotel industry in US and Europe. Recruiters charge would-be migrants fees averaging $6150 to get a legal, temp visa to work in hotels in US. It's visa tied to a specific employer and the migrant is already in debt to recruiter and at mercy of hotel owner listed on visa. It makes it easy to abuse and migrant workers. They pay low wages, ignore safety protocols, require extra work hours, and sometimes sexual exploitation. Migrants are stuck. It happens all over US in east-west interstate and urban areas.

Two types of movement

Cyclic Movement, Migration

Distance Decay

Decreasing likelihood of diffusion with greater distance from the hearth.

Sub-Saharan Africa (area of dislocation)

Despite ongoing probs with political instability in region, ref situation improved in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa. In 1997, civil wars in West Africa, mostly LIberia and Sierra Leone, sent 1.5 mil refs to Guinea and Ivory Coast. IN 2013, num of refs in West Africa fell to under 270,000 because of improved political stability and repatriation. Largest ref flow in sub-Saharan Africa now is from Central and East Africa, including Democratic Republic of the Congo, SUdan, South Sudan, and SOmalia. Suda, having second civil war in 1983, shows complexities of ref crises in sub-Saharan Africa now. Conflic in Sudan was originally between orth, ligrly Araba and Muslim, and south, largly black African and Christan or animist. SUdan, country whose borders exist because of European colonialism, home to traditional religons and Christanity brought by Western missionaries in south, and Islam brought by North African traders in north. During noth-douth civil war, lasted from 1983-2005, gov in Khartoum, located in largely Muslim north, waged a campaign of genocide at ethnic groups in Christan and animist south. Janjaweed militia practiced scorched earth campaign, burning villages throughout south, and civil war caused lots of damage. Over 2.2 mil peeps died in fighting or starved from war. More than 5 mil were displaced, over 1.6 mil fleeing to Uganda. Both sides of Sudanese civil war interfered with efforts of international agencies to help refs. In 1999, Sudan started exporting oil, extracted from southern sudan. Global attention for humanitarian crisis of Sudanese civil war caused northern gov agree to compromise. IN 2002, north and south made a temp peace deal, but soon after, violence began in Darfur region in wetern Sudan. Though entire norht fo Sudan is mostly Muslim, only two-thirs of norhterners speak Arabic as native language. Other one-third are Muslim, but not ethnically Arab. Non-Arab Muslims are part of at least 30 dif ethnic groups in Darfur region of western Dufan. Arab Muslim gov (in north) Began a campaing of genocide against non-Arab Muslims in Darfur. Janaweed started genocide campagin against non-Arab, Muslim, darker-skinned Africans in Darfur- inclueds killing over 400,000 peeps, raping females, taking lands and homes from Afrcans, and displacing 2.5 mil. In 2004, US Secretary of State Colin Pwerll labled Janjaweed actions as genocide. The 1948 Convention on Gnocide defineds genocide as "acts commited with intent to destroy in whole or in part, a national ethnical, racial, or relgious grooup." International community trying to negotiate end to govpbacvkd campaign in Darfur, with mixed success. South Sudan in 2011 voted to withdraw from Sudan. But now border, created as solution to civil war and ref crisis, has already made new ref flow in region. Many peeps living in borderlands between Sudan and South Sudan are unhappy with placement of international boundary. In 2012, the countries fought a 6 month morder war, displacing thousands, reusing violence in South Sudan for groups who want power. It has 12 mil peoples with 1.3 mil being displaced and over 300,000 peeps fleeing border. Long alsting ref and IDP prob in the Sudans helsa us understand complexity fo politic conflict and migration flows in sub-Saharan Africa, while Muslim-against-Muslim conflicst in Drfur shows political conflic tinst just religions, also ethnic and political. Neighboring countries haven't helped make stability and since 1998, 6 mil peeps died in violence in Democratic Republic of Congo. Itr had violence that kinda started from instability as result of ref flow from 1994 war in Rwanda. In 2009, Lord's Resistance Army (rebel group) attacked northeastern portion of DRC making over 1 mil refs.

Net Migration

Difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants. Can be added to births and deaths to understand if a country's pop is growing or declining.

Rwanda (area of dislocation)

During mid-1990s, a civil war engulfed Rwanda in equatorial Africa. It pitted Hutu against Tutsi and moderate Hutu. It claimed around 800.000 to 1 mil lives and made big migration flows to Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania. More than 2 mil fled homeland and Tutsi-Hutu strive spread to Burundi and dislocated tens of thousands. After civil war calmed down in 1996, UNHCR and World Health Org helped and watched 500,000 repatriate (return home).

Environmental Conditions

Environmental crises also stimulate migrations, like earthquakes, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, floods, fires, and climate change. Flows generated from this can be temp because many migrants return. Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans in 2005 was worse because of climate change. Decades of gov flood-control projects and resource extraction activities marked the landscape of Gulf Coast. Army Corps of Engineers and private industries, like oil comps and developers, have dramatically altered the physical enviro and particularly Louisiana's coastline, destroying natural barriers provided by wetlands, increasing erosion rates, and effectively bringing the Gulf of Mexico to New Orlean's doorstep. Many ways peeps have changed physical enviro of New Orleans ade damage worse. More than 85% of the city of New Orleans flooded, and residents fled to family or larger cities where work and shelter could be secured. Between 2000 and 2010 censuses, the pop of New Orleans fell by 11% because of Hurricane Katrina. And economic recession in 2008. The proportion of kids there fell from 27% in 2000 to 23% in 2007. Mapping where kids live there reflects trend in post-Katrina New Orleans: fams with kids moved out of city center and close-in suburbs and in farther-out suburbs. Increasingly erratic weather events because of climate change are projected to contribute to future migration flows as peeps use migration as response to climate change. So-called climate change refugees from low-lying areas seek refuge elsewhere. Peeps think the num of climate refugees will be 150 to 300 mil from 40 countries in 2050. Places like Australia and Tuvalu are having freshwater shortages, wildfire rising, and intensive storms.

Overseas Chineese

European colonialism had impact on regional migration flows in Southeast Asia. Occupation of Southeast Asia of Europe gave econ opportunities for Chinese. 1800s to early 1900s, mills of Chinese laborers fled famine and political strife in southern China to be contract laborers in Southeast Asia. Many stayed and descendants still have Chinese minority in some of SA countries. Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore (least to most). Overtime, the Chinese became leaders in trade, commerce, and finance in the region, taking econ positions like South Asians in east and south Africa. They heavily invested in Hong Kong and growth industries in mainland China. The diff in wealth from SA China and locals can cause political and econ probs. 2014, there were violent protests after China showed plans to build an oil rig in an area in South China Sea, also claimed by Vietnam. Rioters attacked SA chinese settlements and businesses. 21 died.

Legal Status

Every country decides who can enter and under what circumstances. If you apply and get a work visa, you are legally allowed to live in the country and work there for visa time. Makes you authorized and documented. Immigration contributes to pop growth in the US. Foreign-born nationals contribute to positive net migration in the US and supplement the US TFR of 1.8 to help country's pop continue to grow and provide a labor supply and tax base. Of estimated 43.7 mil migrants in the US, 10.7 mil are unauthorized, lowest amount since pre-recession spike of 12.2 mil. Among all US migrants, are Mexican, are South Asia and East Asia. Two-thirds of unauthorized adult migrants (7 mil) have lived in the US for more than 10 years. The US sees where migrant labor is needed in econ and has policies encouraging legal, authorized migrants to work with tem visas to fill needs like medical doctors, comp engineers, construction, worers, or hotel cleaners and restaurant waitstaff. Authorized migrants working in the US and Canada also have temp visas to fill seasonal jobs in agriculture and forestry. The US has been building more fences, hiring additional border patrol agents. and installing new technology to intercept unauthorized migrants. As result, cultural landscape of border regions changing. Unauthorized migrants employ coyotes who smuggle peeps across border for big fees. Fences marked by empty water bottles and memorials to Mexicans who have died trying to cross border. Even though globalization has made freer flow of goods across world, free flow of peeps is not realized, Flow of unauthorized migrans slowed in recent years but may have more to do with changing econ circumstances than with walls. Unauthorized immigrants go great lengths to find ways into US like how US tries to deter them.

Gulags

Forced labor or prison labor camps. Most often associated with authoritarian countries.

Historic Forced Migration

Forced migrants don't weigh push and pull factors or have a say where they go. The absence of the migrants is felt in the home country.

Atlantic Slave Trade

From 1503-1867 and had around 12 mil Africans go to South America, Caribbean, and NA. Made an African diaspora of Africans through forced migration. More than 20% died crossing Atlantic. Slavery is a central role in US history and many US students assume that most enslaved Africans were taken to SE US but most went to Caribbean and Brazil. The descendants constitute majority of pop of many Caribbean countries with more than 90% in Saint Kitts and Nevis, Haiti, Jamaica, the Bahamas, Barbados, Turks and Caicos, and Antigua and Barbuda. Money motivated the trade and before trade evolved, Europeans bought sugar produced in North Africa on Mediterranean Sea but they realized they could outcompete Mediterranean sugar by producing more cheaper using slave labor on plantations. Huge profits and Brazil was first sugar colony in region but by 1600 the annual profit from sugar production in Brazil was 2 mil pounds sterling. Great Britain made its first sugar colony in Barbados with help of Dutch sugar producers from Brazil. British plantation owners deforested entire island of Barbados to map sugarcane and between 1627-1807, 387,000 enslaved Africans were taken to Barbados, mostly to labor in sugar production. The production diffused to Antigua in 1674 and British plantation owners drove out indigenous farmers susceptible to European diseases. They brought enslaved Africans to the colony to labor on sugarcane plantations and in sugarcane processing. The processing was grueling. Antigua had 150 windmills in the mid of the 18th century. The As would cut sugarcane and feed it to mill. The mill would crush it. The juice was heated and stirred by boiler tanks. Work was dangerous and time tight because sugarcane had to be processed before going bad. Colonizers forced As to work in 12-hr shifts 24 for days during processing. Growing demand for sugar, udsed as sweetener and distill rum, drove slave trade. The min of As rose as sugar production did. Spain, Denmark, France and Netherlands colonized islands in Caribbean, established sugar plantations, and brought enslaved Africans to labor in sugarcane fields. Portugese used enslaved As for coffee and banana plantations in Brazil and British used As for cotton and tobacco plantations in the now US. The Atlantic slave trade greatly impacted Africa and Americas. The As used their indigenous knowledge of agriculture to cultivate crops in Amricas, like rice production in Yazoo River delta in American South. Slave labor brought mils of pounds of gold and wealth to Europe in the 17 & 18 centuries and the wealth helped Europe start Industrial Rev. While Europe accumulated wealth, Africa lost mils of peeps and pounds of gold. A civ also lost contributions enslaved As would have made to societies and econs at home. It made an unequal power relationship between Africa and Europe that continued to 19 & 20 centuries, when Eurpe colonized Africa. It also made racism a part of the unequal power relationship in Americas and Europe.

Forced Labor by Governments

Govs like North Korea and China sponsor forced labor. Govs can control a segment of pop like China's southwest Muslims, or have country under dictator like North Korean gulags in forced labor. A cash-strapped country like North Korea can export citizens as forced labor and take cuts of their checks to bring money to econ. NK govs sponsor forced labor inside the country in gulags and in 20 countries outside NK. Kim Jong-UN (NK most repressive country) denies his NK gov sponsors state-forced labor in gulags, but satellite images and defectr accounts say otherwise. They sponsor forced labor in 4 big gulags where up to 130,000 NKs suffer. NK has sentenced to gulags for speaking out against gov or having family mem speak against gov. THe International Bar Association reported in 2017, citizens are sentenced to total control zones in gulags where they do labor until death or to revolutionizing zones in gulags where they are reduced to support gov and have a chance of being released. Many peeps in rev zonez die because of overwork, starvation, torture, disease, or execution. In globalied work, policies have unintended consequences because change in one place causes change in other. Unintended consequences of NK labor is increased num of NKs in forced labor abroad. In 2006, UN passed sanctions on NK in response to first nuclear test and has been continually increasing sanctions. Without income from selling goods abroad, NK uses forced labor. In 2017, peeps estimated that NK gov had at least 60,000 forced laborers working in 20 dif countries. Laborers generated between $200 mil and $2 bul a year for gov of NK. NK labor in oil and gas fields of Russia, work in around 1200 Korean restaurants, NK gov owns abroad and build soccer stadiums in Qatar to prepare for 2020 World Cup. Recent sanctions tried to lower overseas forced labor market, but it hasn't been effective yet.

Forced Migration

Has no option

Voluntary Migration

Have an option

Human Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation

Human Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation of women and girs accoutns for at least 95% of victims of human trafficking for sexual exploitation. The lack of power, agency, or value of women and girls in many countries makes them susceptible to abuse and violence. Accurate nums of victims of human trafficking for sexual exploitation are difficult to verify but reports of it are everywhere. A report found 67% of EU human trafficking is for sexual exploitation. Females forced into it through coercion and manipulation. Debt bondage is common because they take kids and women to other countries with promises of jobs, marriage, or citizenship but become in debt to traffickers and are forced into sexual exploitation to repay debt. It has similarities to domestic abuse like how they feel indebted or afraid of traffickers, depending on how they are manipulated. The traffickers can take identity papers making escaping impossible. In 2018, 7 mims of sex traff gang in UK sentenced to jailf for traffing at least 13 Romanian women by manipulation into believing they were in relationship with them or they had legitimate jobs secured for them in UK. Perpetrators advertised victims as fresh stock on porn websites and forced women into prostitution in brothels. Treated as commodities and moved to different brothel owners.

Europe (area of dislocation)

In 1990s, collapse of Yugoslavia and associated conflicts caused largest ref crisis in Europe since end of WWII. In 1995, UNHCR said around 6,000,000 refs left but num could have been inflated by Europe's interpretation. After ending of armed conflict and implementation of peace agreement (Dayton Accords), UNHCR still reports over 100,000 IDPs in area.

Political Conflict

It can generate major refugee flows and changing or making political borders does too. Peeps worry that their culture and traditions won't survive political changes and can migrate to where more peeps are like them and they can be safe. Ex. British gov colonizing South Asia in now Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh from 1857-1947. When leaving, they made colony into two countries: hindu-majority India and Muslium-majority Pakistan. They split Pakistan into a western section (present-day pakistan) and an eastern section (Now bangladesh). They drew borders in secrecy and then told everyone. 14 mill started to migrate to the religion area they were supposed to be. 1 mil died because of this. It also made split between India and Pakistan.

The Great Migration (under internal)

It is a significant period of internal migration in the US from 1900-1970. After Civil war, Southern states made Jim Crow laws, segregating. Although 14th amendment allows AAs to vote, southern govs didn't. Civil and political opps were restricted, econ poos for AAs in the South declined. Widespread use of mechanical cotton pickers in 1940s meant fewer agricultural jobs. In response to this and growth of manufacturing in Northeast and Midwest, 5 to 8 mil AAs left South for opps in the north and west. The car industry in Detroit, manufacturing, textile, and meat processing in Chicago, steel production in Pittsburgh, and agriculture in Cali boomed in early 1900s. The promise of good jobs, ex $5 a day at Ford fact in Detroit and relative freedom from oppressive laws pulled AAs there.

South Asia (area of dislocation)

It is third-ranking geographic realm, mostly from Pakistan and Iran took tons of Afghan refs. Lots of refs from soviet intrusion U.S. forces became retailing against terrorist bases in 2001. Civil war in Sri Lanka Bangladesh biggest climate change prob. Country vulnerable to flooding and typhoons because of low sea level. Prob made worse from humans like groundwater pumping, mangrove deforestation, and removing natural barriers against storm surges. For years, environmental refs move from Bangladesh to India, but India is building a wall.

Explain Migration as a Type of Movement

It's a type of movement that changes the places migrants leave and the places they go. The movement of the people on migrant paths makes networks and connections in places. Migration changes how people see them + others and increases spatial interaction and speeds diffusion of ideas and innovations in places connected through migration.

Rust to Sun Belt

Job opps are major motivator for voluntary migration. When econ shifts and a region loses jobs, peeps migrate to growing regions of country. In 1948, 131,700 peeps worked in coal mining in West Virginia and in 2018, fewer than 18,00 West Virginains did. Manufacturing jobs declined in the US from 19 mil in 1980 to 12-13 mil now. Location of manufacturing jobs shifted, too. In 1980, 41% of peeps in Midwest were employed in manufacturing and in 2015, only 13.1% Midwesterns did. Peeps move from areas in econ decline to growing areas. Manufacturing jobs in US shifted south to states with low union rates, employees who didn't demand higher wages, warmer climates and year-round air conditioning, and states with lower tax rates for businesses. The decline of Rust Belt happened during Sun Belt growth. Widespread use of air conditioning, businesses, schools, and factories made it possible for SB to grow since 1970s.

Bracero Program

Laws and agreements passed in the U.S. and Mexico in 1942 to encourage Mexicans to migrate to the US to work in agriculture.

Asylum Seekers

Migrant who claims the right to protection as a refugee in a country other than their home country. They arrive at a port or land border in country wanting asylum and then make a claim for asylum after arriving. The countries usually keep asylum seekers in a holding facility until asylum claim can be decided. When meeting with judge or official, they need to explain persecution and provide evidence. It can take time for cases to be heard and some are put in detention centers or temp housing. Govs can choose to grant asylum and they would get ref status. If asylum is denied, they send them back.

Guest Workers

Migrants who are invited to a country to work temporarily, are granted work visa status, and are expected to return to their home country at end of visas. Often from low-income countries. Often worked in agriculture or service industries, including hotels, restaurants, and tourist attractions. Invited when short supply of labor. GWs make an imprint on cultural landscape and open restaurants, shops, religious places, and business. Ex. Saudi Arabia, Japan 2018, Europe after WWII. The US helped through an initiative called the Marshall Plan. GWs filled void in Europe, but most of them stayed because they wanted to and were needed. 3-4 gens of Turks have been born in Germany since WWII. In 2005, Germany changed law so Turks could be citizens even though for decades they only like German descent. Can have low TFRs and not enough citizens in working-age pop, declining pop, shortage of labor after war and deaths,

Unauthorized Migrants

Migrants who do not have legal permission to stay in the country where they live. Unauthorized migrants can be those who enter a country legally, as authorized migrants with a visa, and then stay when the visa expires. They can also enter a country without permission by crossing a border without legal approval.

Refugees 2

Migrants who flee their country because of political persecution and seek asylum in another country. They have little possessions and often walk to neighboring countries, seeking protection from violence. 1951 Refugee Convention made international law saying who a refugee is and what their rights are. The main goal was to help European refugees at end of WWII. The UNHCR (UN high commissioner for refugees) helped return most of refs in Europe after WWII. The UNHCR, international red cross, and World Food Program work with other organizations and govs, especially in destination countries, to protect refugees and provide relief. The UNHCR funds international relief efforts and negotiates with gov and political groups for refugees. Refs have legal status under international law protecting them because their govs are threatening basic human rights. The UN declaration of human rights guarantees right to asylum (protected and temp able to stay in country not home one). UNHCR, International Red Cross, and World Food Prog give shelter and food, usually in ref camps, for refs in countries with asylum. IN camps, mills of refs what to go home, but instability in regions and countries led to gens of fams living in ref camps. The UN tries to ensure that refs aren't forcibly returned to home country with persecution. If violence decreases and conditions improve, they can do repatriation. Countries that aren't country of asylum can choose to take refs permanently like the US took 160,000 Keren fers from Myanmar living in ref camps in Thailand for 10 years. The refs receive help from non-gov orgs to get housing and acclimate to US.

Refugees

Migrants who flee their country because of political persecution and seek asylum in another country. Typically come from lower income countries and migrate to neighboring lower income countries.

Historic and Modern Forced Migration

Migration can be voluntary or forced (like imposed on a group). The distinction is not always clear. In 19th and 20th century, mils of Europeans migrated to US, and the European immigration is typically cited as voluntary migration even though some of it could have been seen as forced. When Great Britain colonized Ireland, it took almost all Irish Catholic lands and enacted Penal Laws to try to stop Catholics from practicing. It fined and imprisoned Catholics who went to Mass and had severe punishment like execution on Catholic priests who held Mass. Until 1829, British enforced laws preventing Irish Catholics from buying land, voting, or carrying weapons. It was political persecution. It led to widespread famine in 1840s to 1850s. Irish migration could be seen as forced. We can question if migration for something is forced or voluntary. The title: migrant, hides how complex decision making is and the decision-making ability the migrant has within the family where wiper is divided by gender and age, Gender and migration studies find that men are more mobile than women and migrate farther than women. Men have more choices of employment and earn more. One study found that Mexican patriarchal households tend to shield young women from migrating. The households without a strong patriarchy commonly send young, unmarried women to get jobs. Ultimately, the decision happens to an individual migrant within a household, place, country, region, and world with different dynamics.

Transhumance

Migration pattern in which livestock are led to highlands during summer months and lowlands during winter months to graze. It's in mountain areas where ranchers move livestock vertically from highlands in summer and lowlands in winter. It's Switzerland and around Somalia and Ethiopia. (under pastoralisim)

Reverse Remittances

Money flowing from home countries to migrants in their destination countries. The downturn in US econ after 2008 made this flow of money. Of $6.5 bil reverse remittances received in US in 2016, 1.75 bil came from Mexico.

Remittances

Money that migrants send back to families and friends in their home countries, often in cash, forming an important part of the economy in many lower income (peripheral) countries. Biggest incentives for international migration are safety and economic opportunities. Non-refugee migrants who come from lower income places looking for better econ opportunities in the semiperiphery and core they do in hopes of earning enough to send money back to families in home countries. In 2017, migrants sent $574 billion to family and friends in home countries which is about twice the amount sent in 2006. In 2017, migrants in US sent $184 bil to home countries, including to Mexico, China, and India (in order). Migrants in other countries sent $6.6 bil to the US in 2017. Money sent to lower income countries can account for a sig amount of that country's econ. Ex. Haitians in US sent $1.4 bil to Haiti, having the lowest GDP in Americas. Haitians in UK, Canada, and other places sent stuff too. It accounts for 32.37% of country's GDP. Estimated 1 in 5 fams receive money.

Distribution of Refugees

Most refs move by foot and UNHCR say most flee to country in same region as home country. Countries that have most refs and receive most are near each other. In 2018, Syria had 6.3 mil, Afghanistan 2.6 mil, and South Sudan 2.4 mil had most refugees. Turkey 3.5 mil, Pakistan 1.4 mil, and Uganda 1.4 mil got refs. Most first steps are foot, bike, wagon, boat, or caravan. They are suddenly displaced and have limited options. Most have few resources to invest. The majority of refs come from relatively low income countries and go to neighboring countries also lower income. Impact of refugee flow is felt most in lower income countries. In 1970, UN reported 2.9 mil refugees; majority are Palestinian Arabs dislocated by creation of Isreal and armed conflicts after. In 1980, the global ref total had almost tripled to over 8 mil. IIn 2018, there were 25.4 mil and 5.4 Palestinin Arabs still around from 1970. The UN and international law distinguishes between refs and IPDs.

Zionisim

Movement for the establishment of a national homeland for Jews in the land between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River.

Areas of Dislocation

North Africa, Southwest Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa also generate more than half of all refs in world. Most under UNHCR's responsibility, 60% fled conflicts in Afghanistan, Syria, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, and Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Gender, Ethnicity, and Race

Opps for jobs and personal safety in destination country depends on gender, ethnicity, and race. Hiring for jobs based on these makes power relationships visible and reinforces stereotypes. Ex. Women with higher econ status often hire female domestic helpers from different ethnic groups to differentiate themselves from those who work for them. A woman's ethnicity thus becomes a visible signal of who is in power in home and region. In study, it found that placement agencies in Tonto, Canada, use scripted stereotypes to describe women of different ethnicities. Like, agencies at first described migrant workers from caribbean as jolly and good with children but it changed to difficult, aggressive, and selfish. They portrayed women as hardworking and good natured.

Laws of Migration and the Gravity Model (Ernst Regenstein)

Over a century ago, Ernst Ravenstein (brit demographer) sought to answer why peeps voluntarily migrate. He studies data on internal migration in England and proposed several laws of migration, some still relevant today: *1) Every migration flow generates a return or countermigration 2) Most migrants move a short distance 3) Migrants who move longer distances ten to choose big-city destinations 4) Urban residents are less migratory than peeps in rural areas 5) Fams are less likely to make international moves than young adults.* *He also thought that the volume of a migration flow was a function of distance decay. This means the num of migrants who go to a destination declines as distance they travel increases. This model is an early observation of the gravity model.*

Internally Displaced Persons (IPD)

People who have been displaced within their home country and do not cross international boundaries. Their lives can be more unstable than refugees. They are often uncounted because they don't crisis international borders. IN 2018, UNHCR estimated that 40 mil were IDPs in their home countries, but not in their homes. 8.6% of world's pop is displaced.

(Activity Spaces)/ Activity Space Movement

Places within the rounds of daily activity. One form is daily routine movement in activity spaces. Average commuter travels around 30 minutes one way each day (usually to work) or 50-60 the whole trip. Crowded cities have longer commutes.

Intervening Opportunity

Presence of an opportunity near a migraine's current location that greatly diminishes the attractiveness of migration to a site farther away. There are new pull factors at each stage and migrants can decide that prospects at one of steps in process creates an intervening opportunity that provides a greater reason to stay than an uncertain pull to the intended destination. Migrants are likely to feel less certain about distant destinations than about nearer ones. It prompts many migrants to move to closer places than they originally plan to. According to Ravenstein's laws, a fam in rural Brazil is likely to move first to a village, then to a nearby town, later to a city, and then to a metropolis like Sao Paulo.

Migration

Purposeful movement from a home location to a new place with a degree of permanence or intent to stay in the new place. Usually move a significant distance within a country or across borders.

International Migration

Purposeful movement of people from one country to another with a degree of permanence or intent to stay.

Internal Migration

Purposeful movement of people within a country from one location to another with a degree of permanence or intent to stay. It can be rapid like 250,000 residents of New Orleans to Huston after Katrina flooded 80% of NO in 2005. It can be slow over history, too. The US began with 13 colonies along east coast and expanded west over time, taking over Indian lands, entering treaties with other countries, adding Alaska and Hawaii in 1947. As US expanded, the center of pop did, too.

Post-September 11

Since September 11, 2001, US gov imm policies have focused on security concerns. Before it, border patrol was concerned mostly with drug trafficking and human smuggling. New gov policies affect asylum seekers and autho and unauto migrants. After 9/11, gov designated 33 countries as places where al-Qaeda or terrorist groups operate, and under Operation Liberty Shield, go automatically detains peeps from the countries entering US looking for asylum. On March 25, 2003, Human Rights Watch criticised policy, contending that it makes suspicions for terrorisim based on nationality. In April 17, 2003, the Department of Homeland Security terminated it. Controls along US border are still tighter than before 9/11, with implications not just for flow of migrants but for business and commerce in border regions. After terrorist attacks in Europe and major bomings in Madrid in 2004 and London 2005, Eu govs have focused more on imms. The US gov had a hard approach, expanding imm controls after 9/11, while the free movement of peeps among most Eu countries led state govs to seek to limit unauthorized migration to larger Eu space while promoting internal policies tring to foster migrant buy-in to host society. Sometimes, migrants do an integration agreement before getting permanent status and social welfare progs. Ex. Austria's integration package has 300 hours of language training and a civic edu, often challenging for recently arrived migrants who need financial support from social welfare progs. Peeps and orgs opposed to US and Eu policies say they can do more harm than good because they intensify misunderstanding and hatred. Concerns about migration-terrorisim link will shape security police in US, Eu, and others.

Syria (area of dislocation)

Since outbreak of Syrian civil war in 2011, 5.6 mil have fled to Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq, places having already substantial refugee pops from other regional conflicts or own conflicts. The UNHCR built Zaatari temp ref camps in Jordan and has become more permanent living space (3sq miles) for over 100,000 refs living in harsh conditions tight spaces. 50,000 to 80,000 Syrian refugees fled to Arsal, Lebanon and they outnumber local pop in Arsal. The place is struggling to have enough resources for everyone. 6.6 mil Syrians are internally displaced, living in Syria but not in their homes.

Relocation Diffusion

Spread of an idea or innovation from its hearth by the act of people moving and taking the idea or innovation with them. Migration major source of this. Ex. Cubans been coming since before 1959 at first to NY and then to Miami with communism. After Castro way more came and now around 650,000 Cubans migrated to US. Part of our econ and buisnesses

American Indian Assimilation

Starting in 1870s, US gov forcibly removed Native American kids from homes as part of country's assimilation policy. Richard Pratt founded first Natvie boarding school and operated under philosophy "Kill Indian in him and save man." Gov school employees emboldened to bathe Native kids in kerosene to try to lighten skin color, to forcibly cut hair, to change names, to punish for speaking their language. Had tons of abuse with teachers and staff physically, mentaly, and sexually intimidated, threatened, and abused American Indian kids. It left gens of trauma. US gov kept practice of removing Native kids until Congress passed Indian Child Welfare Act in 1978.

Forced Removal of American Indians

The Trail of Tears is most well known. In 1838, the U.S. gov marched Cherokees from American South to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). Tens of thousands of Cherokees died in forced removal from lands. Many times the US gov removed Native Americans. Around 1846, the US gov removed Navajos from homeland in 53 forced marches called Long Walk of the Navajo. The marches took Navajos from homeland in what is now eastern Arizona across present-day New Mexico and held around 10,000 Navajos captive in internment camps for four years. Navajos demanded to be returned and eventually US gov entered a treaty to establish Navajo reservation in 1868.

Guest Worker Abuse

The employers can abuse guest workers unaware of their rights with long hours and low pay. They would continue to work, though, because money is better than they would ordinarily get and they are supporting home fams. The econs of home counties rely on the money and the home govs can work with destination countries and international labor orgs to protect rights of citizens abroad. They can pull guest workers or stop legal migration flow when conditions become dangerous. Ex. 1 mil Indonesians (most women) work as domestic servants in Southwest Asia and North Africa (middle east). The women are often abused physically and sexually in working homes and have little recourse where they work. Saudi Arabia has executed Indonesian domestic workers who kill Saudi abusers. In 2015, Indonesia banned citizens from going to 21 countries in the region. It didn't really work because recruiters still try to get people who don't know about the ban or don't care. Sending govs can try to stop GW flows, but receiving govs can increase num of guest worker visas if demand remains.

Country Migration Info (Mostly Europe and China)

The greatest migration in the past centuries was the flow from Europe to the Americas. Before 1830s, 2.75 mil Europeans migrated overseas. British peeps to NA, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Spanish and Portugese migrants went to South America. Across the Americas, Africa, and Asia, Europeans built up port cities with ethnic neighborhoods. The rate of European migration increased between 1835 and 1935 with around 75 mil leaving for colonies in Africa and Asia and for economic opportunities in the Americas. Mils went back to Europe, but the net outflow was enormous. You can tell from the large num of Canadians and Americans who identify as European ancestry. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Europeans rationalized forced migration of enslaved Africans as economically essential to European colonization and plantation agriculture. After slave trade ended, British, who colonized South Asia, transported tens of thousands of debt laborers from present-day India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka to Southeast Asia (epsecially Malaysia) and to East Africa to labor on plantations and in mines. Descendants of the South Asian migrants in eastern and southern Africa contral many businesses in South Africa, Kenya, and Tanzania. There was Chinese migration in 1800s going to NA and Southeast Asia. The migrants going to NA mostly became debt laborers who built railroads and worked in mines in the US. In Southeast Asia, they went to major cities, especially ports, and became business leaders and owners. Several gens later, people of Chinese descent in Southeast Asia are still called Overseas Chinese. There was also interior expansion migration in US towards westward expansion and forced migration of Native Americans. Eastward migration of Russians into central Asia and Siberia is because of tsarist policies to move Russians to outer parts of empire in 1800s and Sivuet policies to forcibly move political opposition to Siberia.

Israel Palestine (area of dislocation)

The land between Jordan River and Mediterranean Sea is sacred to Jews who had lived there until persecution during Rman Emipre, causing them to go to Europe around 70 ce. 600 years later, the land became sacred for Muslims because Muhammad went to heaven in a sacred place for Jews. After this, local tribes and peeps converetd to Islam. From 700 to 1900s, Muslims Christans, and Jews lived there. In 1910, less than 50,000 Jews lived there. Jews whose ancestors fled to Europe began to migrate back as part of a Zionist movement. Movement grew in late 1800s from increasingly common persecution, control, and fear of Jews in Europe. Holocaust in 1933, killing 6 mil Jews. 1919-1948, UK controlled Palestine like a colony. 1917 Balfour Declaration, a letter written by a British official to a prominent Jewish family, promised establishment of Jewish homeland in Palestine and encouraged Jewish migration. By 1948, 750,000 Jews had migrated. Britain gave control of Palesininan mandate to the UN and UN decided to make it into two countries: Palestine and Israel. The new borders made migration stream where 600,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were pushed out of new Isrealie territories. They became refugees in Jordan, Egypt, Syria, and others. Jordan and Palesinina refugees are permanent refugees, but for Lebanon, they are still in camos for resettlement. After 6 Day War in 1967, Israel expanded and built settlements for new Jewish immigrants in Palesininan territories. When Soviet Union stopped in 1991, 2 mil Jews migrated to Israel and now it has 7.8 mil, including almost 2 mil Arab Isralis. It's continuing to grow.

Major Migration Paths

The major migration paths since 1500 are movement from Europe (1) from N and W Europe to North America (2) from S Europe (Spain and Portugal) to South and Central America (3) from Britain and Ireand to Africa and Australia. The flows also have involuntary migration caused by Europeans including (4) enslaved Africans from Africa to the Americas (5) indentured laborers from South Asia to eastern Africa, Southeast Asia, and Caribbean America.

Gravity Model

Urban geography model that mathematically predicts the degree of interaction and probability of migration (and other flows) between two places. It assumes spatial interaction (like migration) increases as the size and importance of places become greater and decreases as distance grows. The balance between pop size and distance predicts likelihood of migration. So, migration potential can be calculated by multiplying the size of the pop of two places and dividing product by the distance between them. This calc had more meaning before airplanes and internet but there is still some relevance.

Legal Restrictions

Usually, obstacles placed in way of potential migrants are legal, not physical. In US, restrictive imm legislation goes back to 1882 when Congress approved Oreintal Exclusion Acts (1882-1907) to prevent immigration of Chinese peeps to Cali. With exception of legislation excluding Chinese, during 1800s US allowed imm. Most migrants came from Europe, especially northern like Scandinavia and western like Ireland, GB, Germany, and France). In later 1800s, great proportion of Europeans immigrated to US came from southern and eastern Europe (italy, Spain, Portugal, Russia, and Poland)/ After WWI, political tied in US went for isolationism. ALso, Congress feared growing migration from eastern and eoutern Europe. Many whites in US saw migrans from southern Europe as darker skinned and inferior. Congress passed restrictive legitionton in 1921, deterring imm from southern and eastern Europe. It set imm quotas to 3% of min given European country's nationals living in US in 1910. Since greatest proportion of migrants in US in 1910 were from northern and western Europpe, quotas allowed more migration from northern and westrn Europe than southern and eastern Europe. Isolationist Policy favoring staying out of entanglements abroad. In 1925, Congress changed Immigration Act by lowering quota to 2% and making 1890 base year, reducing annual total to 150,000 and discouraging eastern and southern European migration more. Before Great Depression, Congress passed National Origins Law in 1929, limiting imm to 150,000 year. It also tied imm quotas to national origins of U.S. pop in 1920; Resulting in Congress preventing substantial imm from Asia. With laws and GD, imm slowed to trickle in 1930s. After 1940, Congress changed restrictions.

Assimilation

When a minority group loses distinct cultural traits, such as dress, food, or speech, and adopts the customs of the dominant culture. Can happen voluntarily or by force.

Determine How Government Policies Impact Migration

With 8.6% of world in displacement state, migration makes new daily everywhere. Political parties use anti-immigration stances to encourage their base to vote. Border areas within countries have migration differently than rest of country, and perception of migration depend on where you stand and how often you interact with migrants at work, school, and social situations. Media, political debates, and political wrangling make us think that politicization of migration is new, but in 14th century, China built Great A wall as defense measure and as a barrier to keep Chinese in and Mongols out. GOvs have unfortunate history of including racism in migration policies. In 1901 Australia started Immigration Restriction Act, ending all nonwhite immigration, Policy targeted Japanese, Chinese, and South Asians. It also prohibited South Pacific Islanders working on Australia's large sugar plantations from immigrating. It's policies made what is known as the White Australia Policy, which stayed until 1970s.