Human Growth and Development
Define the following family therapy terms: alignment, boundary, closed system, open system, coalitions, conjoint, cybernetics, and enmeshment.
Alignment - the alliances, either short or long-term, formed among family members as they move toward homeostasis Boundary - a limit or border. In family therapy the term refers to membership in the subsystems (parents, siblings, students, etc.) within the family and can be summed up as "who does what with whom." Closed system - a system that is self-contained, has impermeable boundaries and does not interact with other systems. Open system - a system with permeable boundaries that allow interaction with other systems. Coalitions - alliances, either short or long term, among family members against other family members. Conjoint - therapy in which the counselor works with two or more family members at together. Cybernetics - the study of the flow of information through feedback loops. Enmeshment - a family organization pattern in which family members are over-concerned and over-involved in each other's lives, thereby limiting each member's autonomy.
Explain how spirituality influences a person's personality development.
A person may see himself or herself as spiritual even though he or she does not practice any particular organized religion. According to some surveys, more than 90% of the U.S. population believes in some sort of divine power or a force greater than himself. A person's sense of self, his relationships with others, his perception of society, and his reaction to problems are all influenced by his spirituality. Counselors find it helpful to identify a client's spirituality issues and address how they affect his situation. A counselor may find it necessary to examine his own spirituality as he learns about how such issues affect his clients. In some religions, such as Buddhism and Hinduism, the development of the person is included in the belief system.
Define Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Gesell's maturationist theory, and the behaviorism learning approach.
Abraham Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, developed a theory of motivation, which he called a hierarchy of needs. According to this theory, a person must first satisfy basic needs such as the need for food and shelter before he can turn his attention to higher needs. In order from basic to higher the needs are: physiological, security/safety, belonging/love, esteem, and self-actualization. Arnold Gesell advanced the maturationist theory, which holds that development is a biological process that proceeds in an orderly and predictable manner and is independent of environmental influences. According to the behaviorism theory of learning, learning is a change of behavior brought about by the consequences of behaviors - the child is rewarded for a desirable behavior or punished for an undesirable one. Punishment can be active, such as the denial of a privilege, or passive, in which case the behavior is ignored. The work of John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Edward Thorndike has been important to behaviorism. Thorndike formulated the "law of effect" which states that a behavior followed by a reward is strengthened and more likely to be repeated.
Describe the basic elements of the Oedipus and Electra Complexes.
According to Freud, the Oedipus Complex in boys and the Electra Complex in girls occurs during the phallic stage of development, usually between the ages of three and five. The complexes involve the child's usually subconscious sexual feelings toward the parent of the opposite sex. The feelings include jealousy of the same-sex parent and may include a desire for the death of that parent. Successful resolution of the complex is achieved when the child identifies with the parent of the same sex and internalizes the parental values. The process ends in the development of the conscience or superego.
Define the following: accountability, paralanguage, contextualism, ACA, culture versus society, and therapeutic surrender.
Accountability is being responsible or accountable for ones actions. For a counselor, accountability means being able to explain or justify treatment decisions and activities used with a client. Paralanguage is the use of nonphonemic properties of speech such as intonation, pitch, tempo, and gestures to convey attitude or meaning. Contextualism is the concept that behavior, decisions and actions must be understood in context. ACA (The American Counseling Association) is a not-for-profit organization that promotes the educational and professional growth of counselors and establishes professional and ethical standards. Since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the organization has encouraged cross-cultural counseling. Culture is the shared norms, values, arts, beliefs, and institutions of a community or population. A society is a population that occupies a defined territory and had shared interests and institutions. All members of a society may not share the same culture. An example would be a Native American culture inside the United States. Therapeutic surrender occurs when a client psychologically surrenders himself or herself to a counselor from a different culture or class. The relationship must involve trust and rapport, resulting in the client becoming open with his thoughts and feelings.
Describe the following: balance theory, sleeper effect, Milgram's experiment, and Robber's Cave experiment.
Balance theory as proposed by Fritz Heider is a motivational theory of attitude change. It explains relationships in terms of people striving for cognitive balance in their likes and dislikes. Sleeper effect is the concept that the effect of communications increases after some time has passed. Communications between a counselor and the client may have little initial impact, but the effect may increase as time passes. Stanley Milgram is known for his research into obedience to authority. In his 1961-62 experiments, he found that 65% percent of his subjects would administer powerful electric shocks to others when told to do so by an authority figure. Robber's Cave, a summer camp in Oklahoma, was used in an experiment by psychologist Muzafer Sherif that demonstrated the importance of co-operation on shared goals in resolving conflict peacefully.
Describe the basic precepts of the psychoanalytic and psychosexual development theory.
Based on the work of Sigmund Freud, the psychoanalytic theory postulates that all humans have instincts to satisfy their needs for food, shelter, and warmth. Satisfaction of these instincts produces pleasure and leads to the development of sexual drives. The two basic drives are sex and aggression or life and death. Freud divided human development into five stages: birth to 18 months, he designated as oral; 2 to 3 years, anal; 3 to 5 years, phallic; 6 years to puberty, latency; and puberty to adulthood he called genital. Incomplete development at any stage he called fixation. The stages are based on his belief that the child focuses on different areas of the body in each stage. These areas are known as erogenous zones and include the mouth, anus, and genitals. Psychological defenses that help a person control or prevent undesirable or inappropriate emotions or behaviors include denial, repression, suppression, projection, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, and sublimation. Castration anxiety and penis envy are psychological factors that can impact the personality. Other theories include the pleasure principle and the reality principle.
Define the terms: behavioral rehearsal, fixed role therapy, sensate focus, implosive therapy, and flooding therapy.
Behavioral rehearsal - a role-playing strategy in which a client acts out a behavior he wants to change or acquire. Can be quite useful in assertiveness training. Fixed role therapy - a treatment method created by George Kelly in which the client is instructed to read a script at least three times a day, then act, speak and think like the script's character. Sensate focus - a series of exercises for a couple in which they take turns paying attention to their own senses. Implosive therapy - a method for decreasing anxiety by exposing the client to an imaginary anxiety stimulus. The method is risky because overexposure can actually increase anxiety. Flooding therapy - the exposure of the client to the actual anxiety stimulus in conjunction with response prevention. Care is necessary to insure that overexposure does not increase anxiety.
List the three levels and each stage of Kohlberg's theory.
Building on the work of Jean Piaget, John Dewey and James Mark Baldwin, Lawrence Kohlberg's studies of moral development led him to identify 3 levels of moral development with 2 stages within each level. The preconventional morality level is the period in which a child is influenced by reward and punishment. Stage 1 - Obedience And Punishment Orientation. The child sees authority as handing down the rules on right and wrong. Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange. The child begins to perceive that there is not just one right way. The conventional morality level is the period when the person strives to meet standards set by the family and society. Stage 3 - Good Interpersonal Relationships. The person is usually a teenager in this stage. During this period the person is motivated by such feelings as love, empathy and concern for others. Stage 4 - Maintaining the Social Order. The person becomes more concerned with society as a whole. The postconventional morality level is the period of self-accepted principles. Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights. The person begins to think about what makes a good society and what any society should value. Stage 6 - Universal Principles. The person has a concern for justice and its impartial application to everyone.
Describe the concepts of centration, egocentrism, epistemology, and symbolic schema.
Centration in Piaget's preoperational stage is the focusing on one feature of an object while ignoring the rest of the object. An example would be seeing an alligator's teeth but not its eyes or nostrils. Egocentrism in Piaget's preoperational stage is a child's ability to see the world from only his own viewpoint. The child's viewpoint is current and not influenced by remembering features or details seen at an earlier time. Epistemology is the theory of knowledge. Piaget was a genetic epistemologist. His theory was that children learn from their own actions and experiences with their peers rather than from adults. Symbolic schema is Piaget's term for language and symbolism becoming a part of play during the preoperational stage when the child is two to seven years of age. This process allows a child to substitute one object for another, such as when a box becomes a car with a paper plate for the wheel.
Define the following: co-dependents, mediation, assertiveness training, and androgyny.
Co-dependents are people in relationships with addicted or troubled persons. The addiction can be to drugs, alcohol, or self-destructive behavior. Some form of psychological dysfunction may also be involved. The relationship may be that of lovers, spouses, family members, friends, or co-workers. The codependent becomes an enabler or rescuer for the other person. He or she makes excuses for the person or may deny that there is a problem. Mediation is the resolution of a conflict between two or more parties by the intervention of a neutral party. Assertiveness training is a psychotherapy method that helps a person to learn to state both negative and positive feelings directly. The method does not encourage aggressive behavior. Androgyny is defined as having both male and female characteristics.
Define consultation and list the models of consultation.
Consultation is voluntary and has the goal of building attitudes and skills that will help the client to function more effectively in interpersonal relationships. Counseling skills are used in consultation, but the role, function and context differ. In content-oriented consultation the consultant imparts information to the client. Process-oriented consultation uses communication theory, attribution, change or motivation theory. Bergan's behavioral model emphasized verbal interaction involving the identification and analysis of the problem plus plan implementation. Bandura's social learning model assesses the interplay of behaviors, cognitions, and environment in identifying problems with solutions involving modeling, rehearsing, and changing cognitions. Schein's doctor-patient model is a diagnostic process and identifies interventions. Caplan's mental health model is a consultation between two professionals in which the discussion may involve the client, the consultant and the client, the program, or the consultant and administration. A nine-stage consultation process was described by Splete.
Explain the difference between diagnosis, prognosis, intervention, recommendation, statistical norm and cultural norm.
Diagnosis is the identification of a disease based on the symptoms or through laboratory tests. Prognosis is the prospect of recovery from a disease based on its usual course or the particularities of the specific case. Intervention is the introduction of services, activities, or products in an effort to cause change or improvement. A recommendation is a counselor's statement of the recommended course of treatment. The statistical norm is a mathematical distribution that can be used to measure the average expectation of how a group of people will act. A cultural (or social) norm is the expectation of how a population will or should behave, as opposed to what they actually do.
Provide the basic tenets of the following theorists: Durkheim, McDougall, Berne and Parsons.
Emile Durkheim is considered to be the founder of French sociology and is credited with making sociology into a science. He studied social values and alienation and believed technology and mechanization were threats to ethical and social structures. William McDougall, an opponent of behaviorism, advocated the idea that behavior is goal oriented and purposive. His term for this theory was "hormic psychology." In his book Games People Play, Eric Berne introduced the concept that games are ritualistic behaviors that can indicate hidden feelings. He developed transactional analysis (TA) as an alternative to the psychoanalytic techniques in use in the 1950's. Frank Parsons, known as the father of vocational guidance, advanced the theory that personality traits should be matched to job factors.
Explain the difference between emotion and mood, ego-dystonic and ego-syntonic, and clinical assessment and diagnosis.
Emotion is a mental state arising spontaneously as a reaction to some stimulus and is usually accompanied by physiological changes in the person's body. Mood is a state of mind, which can be caused by emotions, events, or a combination of the two. Ego-dystonic pertains to behaviors, values, and feelings, which are inconsistent with the person's basic concept of his self (ego) and can lead to a psychological disorder. Ego-syntonic pertains to behaviors, values, or feelings that are consistent with the person's ego. Clinical assessment uses tests and tools to determine the psychological, biological, and social factors that are the cause of a psychological disorder. Diagnosis determines whether or not the problems meet the DSM criteria for a psychological disorder.
Define the following terms: empiricists, organicism, and psychodiagnostic
Empiricists maintain that experience is the only source of knowledge. The doctrine of empiricism was formulated by John Locke and is the forerunner of behaviorism. Organicism is the theory that the total organization of an organism is the determinant of life processes. The Gestalt psychologists, such as Kurt Goldstein, subscribe to the theory. Psychodiagnostic is a type of testing that assesses how a patient's thinking and emotions may affect his or her behavior.
Explain the following: epigenetic, cephalocaudal, in vivo desensitization, instinctual, ethology, psychometrics, and psychopharmacology
Epigenetic theory state than an individual is formed by successive development of an unstructured egg rather than by the growth of a preformed entity. Kohlberg, Erikson, and Maslow used epigenetic principles in developing their theories of human development. Cephalocaudal means from head to tail and can be used to refer to the head of a fetus developing before the legs. In vivo desensitization is a behavior therapy technique in which a person is gradually exposed to something he fears. Instinctual is an adjective derived from instinct and refers to behavior that is innate rather than learned. Ethology is the study of animals in their natural environment and makes use of Darwinian theory. Ethology research findings can be applied to humans as "comparative psychology." Psychometrics is the design, administration and interpretation of tests that measure intelligence, aptitude and personality characteristics. Psychopharmacology is the study of the effects of drugs on psychological functions.
Describe the Erikson's 8 stages of development
Erik Erikson described human development as eight stages of psychosocial development. According to him each stage involves a psychosocial crisis, which mush be resolved before the person can successfully move on to the next stage. The stages are: 1. Infancy or Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope) - 1 to 1.5 yo 2. Toddler or Autonomy vs Shame (Will) - 1-2 yo 3. Preschooler or Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose) - 2-6 yo 4. School Age or Industry vs Inferiority (Competence) - 6-12 yo 5. Adolescence or Identity vs Diffusion (Fidelity) - 12 to 18 yo 6. Young adulthood or Intimacy vs Isolation (Love) - 19-40 yo 7. Middle Adulthood or Generativity vs Self-Absorption (Care) - 40-65 yo 8. Late adulthood or Integrity vs Despair (Wisdom) - 65 yo to death
Define the following terms: free association, catharsis, preconscious mind, repression, reaction formation, and sublimation.
Free association - a therapy strategy in which the client responds with whatever comes to mind to clues given by the therapist. Catharsis - the purging of emotions. Preconscious mind - the portion of awareness that includes information of which a person is aware but to which he is not currently paying attention. Repression - the involuntary forgetting of an incident in order to protect oneself from anxiety. Reaction formation - a defense mechanism in which a person acts in the opposite manner from an impulse he or she cannot accept. Sublimation-a defense mechanism in which a person uses a socially acceptable behavior to act out an unconscious impulse.
Discuss the concept of generativity versus stagnation.
Generativity is the ability to recreate or produce offspring Erikson, in his "Stage 7 - Middle Adulthood uses the term to refer to a person's ability to care for another. He relates it to parenting and social responsibility. A person with generativity will not be self-centered in these middle years (35 to 65) a person is most concerned with creative and meaningful work and family issues. According to Havinghurst. stagnation is the opposite state in which the person will demonstrate self-absorption.
For the following theorists, list the theory associated with them and their view of human nature: Glasser, Adler, Jung, Skinner, Frankl, and Williamson.
Glasser - Reality Therapy: People have physical needs such as food and shelter plus the need to feel worthwhile and be successful. Adler - Individual Psychology: People are essential good. Birth order determines much of a person's behavior. Jung - Analytic Psychology: People strive for self-fulfillment. Skinner - Behavioral/Cognitive Behavioral Modification: Humans are machines that cannot make free-will decisions. Behavior is learned from a person's environment and the reinforcement he receives from others. Frankl - Existential: People are good and rational, and have the freedom to choose their behavior. Williamson - Trait-factor: The potential for both good and bad is innate.
Describe imprinting in terms of the work of Konrad Lorenz
Imprinting refers to the way newly hatched ducks and geese instinctively follow the first moving object they see. This is usually the mother but may be any living or non-living thing Konrad Lorenz worked with goslings and applied his results to the principle of "critical periods." The critical period is the concept that certain behaviors must be learned at specific stages of development or they may not be learned at all. Heredity and environment are both important in critical periods of development
Discuss Stage 2 and Stage 3 of theory development
In Stage 2, the Modification Stage, Jung, Adler, Patterson, and Bandura adapted Freud's Original Paradigm. Adaptation was necessary because the Original Paradigm of development theory did not adequately answer all of the questions raised. Jung had a more restrained viewpoint regarding Freud's bisexual theories. Adler had a more social viewpoint regarding Freud's theories. Modification Stage theorists worked to add to the developing paradigm without making revolutionary changes. In Stage 3, the Specificity Stage, changes to counseling tactics were initiated by Berne, Jourard, Genlin, Beck, and Krumboltz. Berne replaced Freud's superego, id, and ego with adapted terms referring to the parent, child, and adult. Berne's new nomenclature allowed Freud's work to remain intact, except for minor alterations in terminology.
Discuss Stage 4 and Stage 5 of theory development.
In Stage 4, the Experimentation Stage, Strupp, Mitchell, Aron, Ellis, Beutler, Wexler, and Lazarus initiated changes to the rules for conducting counseling sessions. Experimentation Stage theorists began making abstract structures, practices, and paradigm-linked procedures. Stages 1 to 3 of theory development were greatly altered. Old parameters were disregarded by radical behaviorists who accepted more humanistic, cognitive processing theories. Humanists adopted relaxation techniques common to the behaviorist theories. The models found in Stage 4 are inconsistent, without the foundational supports of previous paradigms, and are not reconciled with a philosophy. Stage 5, Paradigm Consolidation, is in its infancy. There are more developments along its horizon.
Discuss the difference between intelligence and emotional intelligence
Intelligence is "the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge." It can also be thought of as the ability to reason, think in abstract terms and understand abstract ideas, plan and acquire language and knowledge. Piaget's definition specified adaptive thinking or action. Intelligence is not determined solely by genetics; it also involved a person's environment, experiences, and culture. A major criticism of intelligence is that it is often culturally biased and measures things some people have not had the opportunity to learn. Emotional intelligence according to Daniel Goleman is self-motivation and self-awareness and persistence. The emotionally intelligent person also has strong interpersonal skills.
Define the following terms: introjection, projection, displacement, sour grapes rationalization, sweet lemon rationalization, and insight.
Introjection - the process by which a child adopts the values of another person. Projection - attributing a person's own characteristics to others. Displacement - a defense mechanism in which a person does not display anger at the time of the anger-inducing incident but displays it later and directs it toward a different person. Sour grapes rationalization - a defense mechanism by which people rationalize that they did not really want something they did not get. Sweet lemon rationalization - a defense mechanism by which a person rationalizes a distasteful event into an acceptable one.
Describe Bowlby and Harlow's theories on why attachment or bonding is necessary for normal development.
John Bowlby believed that bonding with an adult before the age of three is vital is a person is to lead a normal social life. According to him, the lack of bonding, or a bond that is severed during infancy, can cause abnormal behavior or psychophathology. His opinion is that the mother should be the primary caregiver for the child with the father in the role of emotional supporter for the mother. Harry Harlow's work with monkeys led him to believe attachment to be an innate tendency. He saw monkeys raised in isolation develop autistic and abnormal behavior. Placing those monkeys with normally reared ones could somewhat reverse those behaviors.
Describe the theories of Leon Festinger, Kubler-Ross and Masters and Johnson.
Leon Festinger developed the concept of cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort that arises when a person does something that connects with his beliefs or normal behavior or when he holds conflicting opinións Festinger presented his theory in his 1957 book A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Elisabeth Kubler-Ross in her book On Death and Dying described five stages people go through when faced with death or other catastrophic changes. The five stages are denial, anger, bargaining for time, depression, and acceptance. Pioneers in the field of research into human sexuality. William Howell Masters and Virginia Eshelman Johnson advanced the ideas that sexuality is a healthy human trait and that pleasure and intimacy during sex are socially acceptable goals. They made several discoveries about human sexual response and wrote several books on the subject.
Define the terms: mandalas, eidetic imagery, TAT, archetype, extinction, and chaining,
Mandalas - drawings Carl Jung called protective circles representing self-unification that he used to analyze himself and clients. Eidetic imagery - the ability to recall minute details of something a person has observed. TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) - a projective test introduced by Henry Murray, in which a client tells stories about pictures the therapist shows him or her. Archetype - an ideal model of a person, thing, or concept; a stereotype or a defining example. Extinction - the withholding of reinforcement for a behavior as a means of eliminating the behavior. Chaining - behaviors that occur because of a cue from an earlier behavior.
Describe the following: nature vs. nurture, genotype vs. phenotype, tabula rasa, plasticity, and resiliency
Nature vs. nurture is the question of whether a person is more influenced by nature (genetic and hereditary traits) or by nurture (learning from parents and others in his environmental and social setting). Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism. Phenotype is the physical or biochemical characteristics determined by genetics and the environment of an organism. Tabula rasa is John Locke's philosophy that a child is born with an unformed mind that develops through experience. This is sometimes referred to as a "blank slate". Plasticity is the smooth transition of a person from one stage of development to the next. Resiliency is the ability of a person to deal successfully with adverse conditions and adapt effectively.
Explain the basic principle underlying the beliefs of Karen Horney, Erich Fromm and Harry Stack Sullivan.
Neo-Freudian psychoanalysts, Horney, Fromm, and Sullivan placed emphasis on the ego as the driving psychological force in development. Horney identified the major motivational factor as security. She found that a lack of security caused anxiety and that irrational ways of mending disrupted relationships may cause neurotic needs to develop. According to Fromm, society offers opportunities for mutual love and respect. He found that people need to join with others in order to develop self-fulfillment. Otherwise they become lonely and nonproductive. Sullivan's studies of the social systems used an interpersonal approach and were an effort to understand human behavior. He believed behavior must be examined in respect to social interactions rather than as mechanistic and linear.
List the major DSM-5 classifications.
Neurodevelopmental disorders Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders Bipolar and related disorders Depressive disorders Anxiety disorders Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders Trauma- and stressor-related disorders Dissociative disorders Somatic symptom and related disorders Feeding and eating Disorders Elimination disorders Sleep-wake disorders Sexual dysfunctions Gender dysphoria Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders Substance-related and addictive disorders Neurocognitive disorders Personality disorders Paraphilic disorders Other mental disorders Medication-induced movement disorders
Explain object relations theory.
Object relations theory is based on psychoanalytic concepts and posits that interpersonal relationships shape a person's current interactions with people. The relationships in question can be real or fantasized. Four broad stages occur during the first three years of life. They are: 1. Fusion with the mother during the first 3-4 weeks. 2. Symbiosis during the third to the eighth month. 3. Separation/individuation starting in the fourth or fifth month. 4. Constancy of self and object occurring by the thirty-sixth month. Progress through these stages helps the child develop trust that his or her needs will be met. Otherwise the child may develop attachment, borderline or narcissistic disorders. The work of Margaret Mahler, Heinz Kohut and Otto Kernberg has been important in the development of this theory.
Describe the scheme developed by William Perry.
Perry developed his "Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development" based on his studies of college students. The scheme consists of four general categories with 3 positions within each category. Category 1 is Dualism and is divided into Basic and Full. Students in the basic position believe authorities know the truth, but in the full position begin to realize that not all authorities know all the truth. Category 2 is Multiplicity and is divided into Early and Late positions. Students in this category come to believe that any opinion is as good as any other and realize that there is more than one approach to solving a problem. Category 3 is Relativism and is divided into Contextual and Pre-commitment. Students here realize that knowledge is subject to change and that opinions develop from values, experience and knowledge. Category 4 is Commitment and has three positions: Commitment, Challenges to Commitment, and Post commitment. In these positions the student focused on moral, ethical and identity development.
List the key concepts in Jean Piaget's theory of development.
Piaget described the cognitive development of children using the key concepts of schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Schemas include both the categories of knowledge and the process by which the knowledge is obtained. Schemas change as new experiences add to knowledge. Assimilation is the adding of new information to existing schemas. Accommodation is changing existing schemas to fit new information and experiences. Piaget called the balance between assimilation and accommodation equilibration. Piaget's stages of cognitive development are: sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) during which the child learns about himself and his environment through sensory perceptions and motor activities; preoperational (2 to 7 years) in which language develops and the child is egocentric; concrete operational (7 to 11 years) during which the child begins to think logically but still has trouble with abstract concepts; and formal operational (11 or 12 years to adulthood) during which the child develops the capability of logical thought, deductive reasoning and systematic planning.
Define the following: psychological dysfunction; etiology; equifinality; comorbidity and adaptive functioning
Psychological dysfunction is a breakdown in a person's thought processes, emotional functions or behavior. A diagnosis of psychological dysfunction must consider the patient's cultural context, his personal distress and the extent to which his ability to function is impaired. Etiology is the study of the causes of disease or abnormal conditions, whether the cause is biological, psychological, or arises from the patient's social environment. Equifinality can be defined as multiple paths leading to the same outcome. An example of equifinalilty in abnormal human behavior would be physical injury or illness, the loss of a loved one or alcoholism leading to depression. Comorbidity is the coexistence of two or more diseases or disorders such as alcoholism and depression. The conditions may have a causal relationship with each other, or there may be an underlying predisposition for both or all of them. Adaptive functioning is coping with stressful situations through defense mechanisms such as anticipation, humor and sublimation, Persons who fail to adapt can develop a breach with reality.
For the following theorists, list the theory associated with them and their view of human nature: Rogers, Berne, Freud, Ellis and Perls.
Rogers - Person-Centered: People are essentially good and under the right conditions will move themselves toward self-actualization. Berne - Transactional Analysis: Each person has the 3 ego states of parent, adult and child. Freud - Psychoanalysis: Biological instincts and development through psychosexual stages control people. Ellis - Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy: A person's instincts are both rational and irrational, but different reactions can be taught. Perls - Gestalt: People are whole and complete but are affected by their environment. Learning and change result from how a person organizes experience.
Discuss the scholarly motive, the ethical motive, and the curative motive.
Scholarly motive is one of the three motives of psychotherapists noted by Rychlak. Rychlak believed this rationale for performing psychotherapy was best characterized in the works of Freud, where the psychotherapist is a scientist who records the inner workings of the mind, instinctive drives and actions, and analyzes the data. Ethical motive is the counselor's desire to help the client grow and express strong feelings and opinions about his or her life problems. Curative motive is when the psychotherapist wants to initiate the healing process for the patient by engaging in such a way as to help modify those behaviors detrimental to the patient's success in society.
Define the following family therapy terms: sculpting, homeostasis, identified patient, joining, nuclear family, strategic, structural, and triangulation.
Sculpting - creates a picture or representation of family relationships. The representation is often made by the family members' physical placement of each other. Homeostasis - a dynamic state of equilibrium; a balanced system. Identified patient (IP) - the member of a family who is the primary focus of treatment Joining - the strategy of the therapist entering a family system in order to explore and modify dysfunctions. Nuclear family - the basic family unit of father, mother, and child(ren) living together in one household. Strategic - a therapeutic method in which the therapist devises strategies and interventions to resolve the problem. Structural - a therapeutic method of realigning the family in order to change dysfunctional interactions. Triangulation - when two members of a family have a problem with each other, one or both may turn to a third person.
Provide information on the following theories: social exchange theory, complementarity theory, and assimilation-contrast theory.
Social exchange theory links behavioral psychology and economics. According to the theory positive relationships are characterized by profit. As long as the rewards of the relationship exceed the cost, the relationship will continue, Complementarity theory states that relationships strengthen when the personality needs of each member of the couple enhance those of the other. The theory advances the idea that the couple together makes up for what each member lacks. Assimilation-contrast theory is the idea that when there are similarities between the client and the counselor, the similarities will be viewed as being more like the client's own (assimilation), and dissimilar attitudes will be exaggerated. The more respect the client has for the counselor and the more trustworthy he or she believes the counselor to be, the more the client will accept the counselor's statements.
Define the terms: stress inoculation, racket, "collecting trading stamps," retroflection, attending, and the three types of empathy.
Stress inoculation - an effective technique for dealing with stress developed by Donald Meichenbaum as part of his "Self-Instructional Therapy." It has three phases: educational, in which the problem is identified and the client is given information about what to expect, rehearsal, in which the client practices the stressful event or behavior while using relaxation techniques, and implementation, in which the client uses the new skills to deal with the stressful situation. Racket - in Transactional Analysis a set of behaviors that originate from a childhood script. Collecting trading stamps - in Transactional Analysis, the saving up of enduring, non-genuine feelings, then "trading" them for a script milestone such as a drinking binge or an anger outburst. Retroflection - doing to oneself what one would like to do to someone else. Attending - the attention the counselor pays to the client during a session, includes listening to the client and both verbal and nonverbal interaction. In task-facilitative attending behavior the counselor's attention is on the client. In distractive attending behavior the counselor's attention is on his or her own concerns. Empathy - the ability to recognize, perceive, and understand the emotions of another.
Define the DSM
The Diagnosis and Statistical Manual is the standard classification of mental disorders used by mental health professionals in the United States. It is used by practitioners in clinical, research, administrative, and educational fields. The information consists of three major components: the diagnostic classification, the diagnostic criteria, and the descriptive text. The DSM assigns each disorder a code consisting of five digits with a decimal point after the third digit. The manual does not include treatment information. It is also a classification system with periodic revisions. The DSM also takes cultural context, cultural belief systems, and cultural differences between client/worker into account and includes Culture-Bound Syndromes.
Describe the major theme in Levinson's The Seasons of a Man's Life.
The book is based on a study Daniel Levinson did with adult males that led him to formulate a comprehensive theory of adult development. He divided life into four periods: preadulthood, early adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood, with a major transition occurnng as the person moves from each period or stage to the next. He believed the transitions occurred at about 17 to 22 years as the person moved into young adulthood, between 40 and 45 years into middle adulthood, and between 60 and 65 as the person became an older adult. He identified three sets of developmental tasks: (a) build, modify, and enhance a life structure; (b) form and modify the single components of the life structure; and (c) tasks necessary to becoming more of an individual, Levinson believed that 80 percent of the men he studied experienced midlife crisis during the transition period into middle adulthood, as they questioned their life structure, including their career.
List the broad categories used to categorize the theories of human development and how growth and development changes are viewed
The categories of human development are: learning, which includes behavioral, social learning and information processing theories; cognitive, which is concerned with obtaining knowledge; psychoanalytic, which is the method of investigating psychological phenomena developed by freud; and humanistic, which explains development through reasoning and the scientific method. Human growth and development changes are viewed as qualitative, which involves and change in structure such as sexual development; quantitative, in which measurable charges occur such as intellectual development; continuous, which denotes sequential changes that cannot be segmented, for example personality development; discontinuous, which are changes in abilities and behaviors such as language that develop in stages; mechanistic, which places behaviors in common groups, such as instinctual or reflexive; and organismic, in which new stages of development use cognition and includes moral and ethical development.
Discuss the 5 stages of theory development and the basic motives of theory development.
The five stages of theory development are: Stage 1: The Original Paradigm, in which Freud's psychoanalysis, client centered therapy, and behavior therapy are found. Stage 2: Paradigm Modification by Jung, Adler, Patterson, and Bandura. Stage 3: Paradigm Specificity by Berne, Jourard, Genlin, Beck, and Krumboltz. Stage 4: Paradigm Experimentation by Strupp, Mitchell and Aron, Ellis, Beutler, Wexler, and Lazarus. Stage 5: Paradigm Consolidation by Lazarus, Seay, and Beutler.
Explain how ego and id interact and state the theories based on the id and ego.
The id is the component of the personality most concerned with primitive instincts such as hunger, sex, and aggression. The id is not concerned with the consequences of actions. The ego is the personality component responsible for balancing the id and the superego or conscience. The ego has most immediate control over behavior and is most concerned with external reality. The id and ego, along with the superego are one part of Freud's theory of personality. He believed people are born with an id, which helps the baby get it needs met. By the age of three, the child begins to develop an ego. Based on the reality principle, the ego meets the needs of the id while taking the child's reality into consideration.
Describe the basic tenets of the psychoanalytic counseling theory.
The psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud is based on his theory of personality involving the id, ego, and superego. The id is the unconscious motivation ruled by the pleasure principle. The ego is ruled by the reality principle and the superego provides internalized ethics. Psychoanalysis makes use of the concepts of transference and countertransference. Transference is the projection of the emotions of the client onto the counselor and countertransference is the reverse. The object of the therapy is to help the client work through to his unconscious and uncover the source of conflicts and motivations. Among the techniques used are free association and the interpretation of dreams.
Discuss the work of Jean Baker Miller, Carol Tavris, Nancy Chodorow, Harriet Lerner, Carol Gilligan, and Gail Sheehy.
The work of these theorists deal with the development of women. Nancy Chodorow saw psychoanalytic theory as using gender stereotyping with male-imposed standards. In her view and it devalues feminine qualities and contributes to women's status as second-class citizens. Jean Baker Miller defined "care taking" as helping others to develop emotionally, intellectually, and socially. In her opinion care taking is the main factor that differentiates women's development from that of men. Harriet Lerner's writing expressed the idea that women need to achieve a healthier balance between activities that center on others and those that center on themselves. She believes that women need to show strength, independence and assertiveness in their intimate relationships. Carol Tavris believes that society "pathologizes" women and judges them according to how they fit into a male world. She sees women as not really different from men but perceived as different because of the roles the male dominated society has assigned to them. Carol Gilligan's opinion is that women develop "in relationship" to other women and that their communication patterns are different from those of men. Women make moral judgments based on human relationships and caring, while men use justice and rights. In her book, Passages, Gail Sheehy wrote of the transitional, crisis periods between the stages of a woman's life that provide opportunities for growth.