Human Phys. Lab - Renal Physiology and Acid-Base Balance, Physiology Chapter 21, Physiology Chapter 20, Physiology Chapter 19, Ch. 23 Final review, Urinary System, Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach, 6e (Silverthorn) Chapter 22 Metabolism and E...

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If 140 liters of plasma are filtered in a day, and the filtration fraction is 20%: A. What is the renal plasma flow? B. If this person has a hematocrit of 30%[p. 517], what is the renal blood flow? C. If renal blood flow is 20% of this person's cardiac output, what is her cardiac output in L/min?

(a) 140 L/day is 20% of renal plasma flow (RBF), so plasma flow is 700 L/day. (b) Hematocrit is percent of blood occupied by packed red blood cells; the remainder (70%) is plasma. 700 L/day is 70% of RBF, so RBF is 1000 L/day. (c) If RBF is 20% of cardiac output (CO), then CO=5000 L/day or 3.47 L/min.

Match each of the following substances with its mode(s) of transport in proximal tubule reabsorption. A.Na+ B. glucose C. urea D. plasma proteins E. water 1. simple diffusion 2. primary active transport 3. indirect active transport 4. facilitated diffusion 5. movement through open channels 6. endocytosis 7. paracellular movement

(a) 2, 3, 5 (b) 3, 4 (c) 4, 7 (d) 6 (e) 5, 7

Match each of the following descriptions with the appropriate term(s): A. chyme is produced here B. organ where most digestion occurs C. initial section of small intestine D. this adds exocrine secretions to duodenum via a duct E. sphincter between stomach and intestine F. enzymes produced here G. distension of its walls triggers the defecation reflex 1. colon 2. stomach 3. small intestine 4. duodenum 5. ileum 6. jejunum 7. pancreas 8. pylorus 9. rectum 10. liver

(a) 2; (b) 3; (c) 4; (d) 7, 10; (e) 8; (f) 2, 3, 7; (g) 9

Hyperglycemia in a diabetic patient leads to osmotic diuresis and dehydration. Given the following information, answer the questions. Plasma glucose=400 mg/dL Normal urine flow=1 L per day GFR=130 mL/min Normal urine osmolarity=300 mOsM Glucose Tm=400 mg/min Molecular mass of glucose=180 daltons Renal plasma flow=500 mL/min How many milligrams of glucose filter into the nephron each minute? How many milligrams of glucose are reabsorbed each minute? How many grams of glucose are excreted in the urine each day? Assuming that dehydration causes maximal vasopressin secretion and allows the urine to concentrate to 1200 mOsM, how much additional urine does this diabetic patient excrete in a day?

(a) 400 mg glucose/100 mL×130 mL/min=520 mg glucose/ min filters. (b) Can reabsorb up to Tm so 400 mg/min reabsorbed. (c) Excreted=filtered−reabsorbed=120 mg/min×1440 min/ day=172.8 g/day excreted. (d) Convert grams to milliosmoles: 172.8 g×mole/180 g ×1000 mosmol/mole=960 mosmol glucose excreted/day. Concentration=amount/volume. 1200 mosmol/ L=960 mosmol/? liters. Will require 0.8 L additional volume.

Match each of the following cells with the product(s) it secretes. Items may be used more than once. A. parietal cells B. goblet cells C. brush border cells D. pancreatic cells E. D cells F. ECL cells G. chief cells H. G cells 1. enzymes 2. histamine 3. mucus 4. pepsinogen 5. gastrin 6. somatostatin 7. HCO3−HCO3− 8. HCl 9. intrinsic factor

(a) 8, 9; (b) 3; (c) 1, 3, 7; (d) 1, 7; (e) 6; (f) 2; (g) 4; (h) 5

A 45-year-old man visiting from out of town arrives at the emergency room having an asthma attack caused by pollen. (a) Blood drawn before treatment showed the following: HCO3 - = 30 meq>L (normal: 24), PCO2 = 70 mm Hg, pH = 7.24. What is the man's acid-base state? Is this an acute or a chronic situation? (b) Th e man was treated and made a complete recovery. Over the next ten years he continued to smoke a pack of cigarettes a day, and a year ago his family doctor diagnosed chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (emphysema). Th e man's most recent blood test showed the following: HCO3 - = 45 meq>L, PCO2 = 85 mm Hg, pH = 7.34. What is the man's acid-base state now? Is this an acute or a chronic situation? (c) Explain why in his second illness his plasma bicarbonate level and PCO2 are higher than in the fi rst illness but his pH is closer to normal.

(a) Acute respiratory acidosis (b) Chronic respiratory acidosis (c) Renal compensation has increased his pH by H+ excretion and HCO3 - reabsorption. His PCO2 is elevated because of his emphysema.

Define the following terms and explain their physiological significance: A.lipoprotein lipase B.amylin C.ghrelin D.neuropeptide Y E.apoprotein F.leptin G.osmotic diuresis H.insulin resistance

(a) Capillary endothelium enzyme that converts triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. (b) Co-secreted with insulin; slows gastric emptying and gastric acid secretion. (c) "Hunger hormone" secreted by the stomach. (d) Hypothalamic peptide that increases food intake. (e) Protein components of lipoproteins. Apoprotein B on LDL-C facilitates transport into most cells. (f) "Satiety hormone" produced by adipocytes. (g) Loss of water in the urine due to high amounts of urine solutes. Hyperglycemia causes dehydration through osmotic diuresis. (h) Target cells fail to respond normally to insulin.

Liddle's syndrome is an inherited defect of apical ENaC sodium channels in P cells. It is characterized by high blood pressure and hypokalemia. A. Are the defective ENaC channel proteins increasing or decreasing apical Na+ movement? Explain and relate your answer to the characteristic hypokalemia. B. Liddle's syndrome is considered a form of pseudohyperaldosteronism {pseudo-, false}. What test(s) would you run to distinguish Liddle's syndrome from primary or secondary hyperaldosteronism?

(a) ENaC activity is increased, bringing more Na+ into the cell. This increases activity of the Na+-K+-ATPase, which pumps K+ into the cell. The K+ then leaks out the apical channels into the urine, resulting in increased excretion of K+ and hypokalemia. (a) Run aldosterone and ANG II levels. They will both be normal in Liddle's syndrome.

Define, compare, and contrast the items in the following sets of terms: A. filtration, secretion, and excretion B. saturation, transport maximum, and renal threshold C. probenecid, creatinine, inulin, and penicillin D. clearance, excretion, and glomerular filtration rate

(a) Filtration and secretion both move material from blood to tubule lumen, but filtration is a bulk flow process while secretion is a selective process. Excretion is also bulk flow but involves movement from the kidney lumen to the outside world. (b) Saturation—all transporter binding sites are occupied by ligand. Transport maximum—the maximum rate at which carriers are saturated by substrate. Renal threshold—plasma concentration at which saturation occurs. (c) Creatinine and inulin—compounds used to determine GFR. Penicillin and probenecid—xenobiotics that are secreted. (d) Clearance—rate at which plasma is cleared of a substance (mL plasma cleared of substance X/min). GFR—filtration rate of plasma (mL plasma filtered/min). Excretion—removal of urine, mL urine/min.

Identify the following structures, then explain their significance in renal physiology: A. juxtaglomerular apparatus B. macula densa C. mesangial cells D. podocytes E. sphincters in the bladder F. renal cortex

(a) Found where distal tubule passes between afferent and efferent arterioles. Composed of macula densa cells in the distal tubule and granular cells in arteriole wall. (b) Macula densa paracrine signals control autoregulation of GFR and renin secretion. (c) Alter the size of filtration slits. (d) Specialized epithelial cells that surround glomerular capillaries. Changes in slit size alter GFR. (e) An internal smooth muscle sphincter that is passively contracted and an external skeletal muscle sphincter that is tonically (actively) contracted. (f) Outer layer of the kidney that contains renal corpuscles, proximal and distal tubules, and parts of the loop of Henle and collecting ducts.

Define, compare, and contrast or relate the terms in each of the following sets: A. glucose, glycogenolysis, glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis, glucagon, glycolysis B. shivering thermogenesis, nonshivering thermogenesis, diet-induced thermogenesis C. lipoproteins, chylomicrons, cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C, apoproteins D. direct and indirect calorimetry E. conductive heat loss, radiant heat loss, convective heat loss, evaporative heat loss F. absorptive and postabsorptive states

(a) Glucose—monosaccharide. Glycogenolysis—glycogen breakdown. Glycogenesis—glycogen production from glucose. Gluconeogenesis—glucose synthesis from amino acids and fats. Glucagon—hormone that increases plasma glucose. Glycolysis—first pathway in glucose metabolism for ATP production. (b) Thermogenesis—heat production by cells. Shivering thermogenesis—muscle twitches produce heat as a by-product. Nonshivering thermogenesis occurs in all cells. Diet-induced thermogenesis—heat generated by digestive and anabolic reactions during the absorptive state. (c) Lipoproteins—transport molecules. Chylomicrons—lipoprotein complexes assembled in intestinal epithelium and absorbed into lymphatic system. Cholesterol—steroid component of cell membranes and precursor to steroid hormones. HDL-C—takes cholesterol into liver cells, where it is metabolized or excreted. LDL-C—elevated concentrations are associated with atherosclerosis. Apoprotein—protein component of lipoproteins. (d) Calorimetry—measurement of energy content and a means of determining metabolic rate. Direct calorimetry—measuring heat production when food is burned. Indirect calorimetry—measures oxygen consumption or CO2CO2 production. (e) Conductive heat loss—loss of body heat to a cooler object. Radiant heat loss—loss from production of infrared electromagnetic waves. Convective heat loss—upward movement of warm air and its replacement by cooler air. Evaporative heat loss—heat lost when water evaporates. (f) Absorptive state—following a meal, when anabolism exceeds catabolism. Postabsorptive state—catabolism exceeds anabolism.

Describe (or map) the physiological events that lead to the following signs or symptoms in a type 1 diabetic: A. hyperglycemia B. glucosuria C. polyuria D. ketosis E. dehydration F. severe thirst

(a) Hyperglycemia results from the lack of insulin production and failure of cells to take up and use glucose. (b) Glucosuria results when filtered glucose exceeds the kidney's capacity to reabsorb it. (c) Polyuria results from osmotic diuresis caused by glucosuria. (d) Ketosis results from increased fatty acid metabolism. (e) Dehydration is a consequence of polyuria due to osmotic diuresis. (f) Severe thirst is a consequence of dehydration.

How does each of the following factors affect digestion? Briefly explain how and where each factor exerts its effects. A. emulsification B. neural activity C. low pH D. size of food particles

(a) Increases surface area for enzymes to work; stomach and small intestine. (b) Motility and secretion along the length of the digestive tract. (c) Acidic pH in stomach helps break down food and digest microorganisms. Must be neutralized in the small intestine. (d) Size determines the surface area upon which enzymes can act.

Mary Littlefeather arrives in her physician's office complaining of severe, steady pain in the upper right quadrant of her abdomen. The pain began shortly after she ate a meal of fried chicken, French fries, and peas. Lab tests and an ultrasound reveal the presence of gallstones in the common bile duct running from the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas into the small intestine. A. Why was Mary's pain precipitated by the meal she ate? B. Which of the following processes will be affected by the gallstones: micelle formation in the intestine, carbohydrate digestion in the intestine, and protein absorption in the intestine. Explain your reasoning.

(a) Ingestion of a fatty meal triggers contraction of the gallbladder to release bile salts, but the blocked bile duct prevented bile secretion, causing pain. (b) Micelle formation—decreased due to lack of bile salts. Carbohydrate digestion—decreased because pancreatic secretions with amylase not able to pass blockage. Protein absorption—decreased slightly because of low pancreatic secretion; however, brush border enzymes also digest protein, so digestion does not stop completely when the bile duct is blocked. Therefore, some digested proteins will be absorbed.

You have been asked to study kidney function in a new species of rodent found in the Amazonian jungle. You isolate some nephrons and expose them to inulin. The following graph shows the results of your studies. (a) How is the rodent nephron handling inulin? Is inulin filtered? Is it excreted? Is there net inulin reabsorption? Is there net secretion? (b) On the graph, accurately draw a line indicating the net reabsorption or secretion. (Hint: excretion=filtration−reabsorption+secretion

(a) Inulin is filtered, secreted, and excreted. No evidence for reabsorption is presented. (b) The line indicating net secretion will be close to the filtration line until the slope changes, after which the secretion line is horizontal (no further increase in rate due to saturation).

Define, compare, and contrast the following pairs or sets of terms: A. mastication, deglutition B. microvilli, villi C. peristalsis, segmental contractions, migrating motor complex, mass movements D. chyme, feces E. short reflexes, long reflexes F. submucosal plexus, myenteric plexus, vagus nerve G. cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases of digestion

(a) Mastication—chewing; deglutition—swallowing. (b) Villi—folds of intestine; microvilli—folds of cell membrane. Both increase surface area. (c) All patterns of GI muscle contraction. Migrating motor complex—move material from stomach to large intestine between meals. Peristalsis—progressive waves of contraction. Segmental contraction—contraction and relaxation of short intestinal segments. Mass movements—push material into rectum, triggering defecation. (d) Chyme—semidigested food and secretions, produced in the stomach. Feces—solid waste material that remains after digestion and absorption are complete; produced in the large intestine. (e) Short reflexes—integrated within the ENS. Long reflexes—integrated within the CNS. (f) Submucosal plexus—ENS in the submucosal layer. Myenteric plexus—ENS that lies between muscle layers of the GI tract wall. Vagus nerve—carries sensory and efferent signals between the brain and ENS. (g) Cephalic phase—digestive reflexes triggered by stimuli received in the brain. Gastric phase—short reflexes that begin with food entering the stomach. Intestinal phase—begins when chyme enters the small intestine.

Karen has bulimia, in which she induces vomiting to avoid weight gain. When the doctor sees her, her weight is 89 lb and her respiration rate is 6 breaths>min (normal 12). Her blood HCO3 - is 62 meq>L (normal: 24-29), arterial blood pH is 7.61, and PCO2 is 61 mm Hg. (a) What is her acid-base condition called? (b) Explain why her plasma bicarbonate level is so high. (c) Why is she hypoventilating? What eff ect does this have on the pH and total oxygen content of her blood? Explain your answers.

(a) Metabolic alkalosis, partially compensated. (b) After vomiting acid (H+),(H+), her body was left with HCO −3.HCO3 −. (c) Hypoventilation increases PCO2, HCO −3,PCO2, HCO3 −, and H+.H+. Increased H+H+ decreases pH (compensation). Hypoventilation also decreases arterial PO2PO2 and decreases the total oxygen content of blood

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is a mathematical expression of the relationship between pH, HCO −3 concentration, and dissolved CO2 concentration. One variant of the equation uses PCO2 instead of dissolved CO2 concentration: pH=6.1+log [HCO −3]/0.03×PCO2 A. If arterial blood has a PCO2 of 40 mm Hg and its HCO −3 concentration is 24 mM, what is its pH? (Use a log table or calculator with a logarithmic function capability.) B. What is the pH of venous blood with the same HCO −3 concentration but a PCO2 of 46 mm Hg?

(a) pH=6.1+log [24/(0.03×40)]=7.40pH=6.1+log [24/(0.03×40)]=7.40 (b) 7.34

What effect does insulin have on: A. glycolysis B. gluconeogenesis C. glycogenesis D. lipogenesis E. protein synthesis

(a) stimulates, (b) inhibits, (c) stimulates, (d) stimulates, (e) stimulates

Arrange the following structures in the order that a drop of water entering the nephron would encounter them: A. afferent arteriole B. Bowman's capsule C. collecting duct D. distal tubule E. glomerulus F. loop of Henle G. proximal tubule H. renal pelvis

(a), (e), (b), (g), (f), (d), (c), (h)

The following pressures exist at a glomerulus: PGC = 56 mmHg PBC = 14 mmHg πBC = 0 mmHg πGC = 32 mmHg What is the net glomerular filtration pressure?

+10 mmHg

Bowman's capsule

- a "globe-like" structure - jutting into it is a capillary network called the Glomerulus.

trigone of the bladder

- a triangular area of the posterior-inferior portion of the bladder wall - smooth walled as opposed to the rest of the mucous lining which appears to have many ridges & be very rough -outlined by 3 points - the entrance of ureter & exit point of the urethra.

Female urethra

- about 1 1/2 inches (short) - opens between clitoris & vagina opening within the vulva

Urinary Bladder

- hollow flask-shaped muscular organ - located anteriorly in the pelvic cavity - male: directly anterior to the rectum - female: directly anterior to the vagina

Kidneys

- reddish colored - kidney bean shaped - lies above the waist at the base of the posterior rib cage (about 1/2 covered by ribs) - lies posterior to peritoneum called "retroperitoneal" - about 5 inches & 2-3 inches wide - surrounding by 3 layers of connective tissue. - the concave portion of kidney-bean shape faces medially (toward aorta) called hilum. <- the area where blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerve enter & exit.

juxtaglomerular cells

- secretory cells - the middle layer of the afferent arterioles - located adjacent to the macula dense

male urethra

- the average is 8 inches (longer) - first pass through the prostate gland, urogenital diaphragm, penis. - they serve to transport semen during ejaculation in addition to its purpose of transporting urine during micturition.

Macula Densa

- the distal convoluted tubule is in close proximity to the renal corpuscle. - cells become columnar - appear to have secretory characteristics

Nephron

- the functional unit of the kidney. - each kidney is composed of 1-4 million nephrons

Urethra

- the muscular tube leading from bladder to exterior of the body - transport urine out of the body - epithelium: area of pseudostratified columnar & stratified squamous - muscular contain smooth muscle

Renal clearance is something that you can quantify if you know certain variables associated with the substance in question. Renal clearance is helpful in determining the glomerular filtration rate. The glomerular filtration rate will tell you the volume of blood that is filtered per unit time and will allow you to infer the efficiency of the kidney and its ability to properly filter the appropriate volume of blood on a daily basis. Renal clearance will also help you to determine how well the kidney processes a particular substance, which is especially important in the area of pharmaceuticals. Which of the following variables must be known in order to calculate the clearance of a substance?

-The excretion rate of the substance -The concentration of solute in the plasma

Ureters

-renal pelvis connecting the kidney & bladder -transmits urine via peristalsis -lined by transitional epithelium -surrounding by a muscular layer composed of an inner circular & outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle -the outermost fibrous coat of the ureter is connective tissue -ureter is retroperitoneal

Diagram the sodium-linked secondary active transport of glucose across the proximal tubule epithelium. (Fig. 19.8c)

...

Drag the labels onto the diagram to identify the processes of reabsorption in the tubular epithelium.

...

Given, Usodium = 10 mmole/L, Psodium = 140 mmole/L, V = 1.4 ml/min, what is the clearance of sodium?

0.1 ml/min ********FURTHER EXPLANATION OF THE ANSWER ****** Given, Usodium = 10 mmole/L, Psodium = 140 mmole/L, V = 1.4 ml/min, the clearance = 0.1 ml/min. Ux = urine concentration of a substance Px = plasma concentration of a substance V = rate of urine flow The formula for calculating clearance is: Clearance = (Usodium) X (V) (Psodium) Substituting in the appropriate numbers, we get, Clearance = (10 mmole/L) X (0.0014 L/min) = 0.0001 L/min or 0.1 ml/min (140 mmole/L) The clearance is less than 140 ml/min. The formula for calculating plasma clearance is Clearance = (Usodium) X (V) (Psodium) The clearance is less than 10 ml/min. The formula for calculating clearance is Clearance = (Usodium) X (V) (Psodium)

Darlene weighs 50 kg. Assume that her total blood volume is 8% of her body weight, that her heart pumps her total blood volume once a minute, and that her renal blood flow is 25% of her cardiac output. Calculate the volume of blood that flows through Darlene's kidneys each minute.

1 L/min

If plasma concentration of inulin=1 mginulin=1 mg inulin/mL plasma, plasma concentration of X=1 mg/mL,X=1 mg/mL, and GFR=125 GFR=125 (a) What is the filtration rate of inulin? Of X? (b) What is the excretion rate of inulin? Of X?

1 mg X/mL plasma×125 mL plasma/min=125 mg X filtered/ min. Same values for inulin. Inulin excretion=filtration= 125 mg inulin excreted/min. Cannot say what the excretion rate of X is because there is insufficient information.

List the six functions of the kidneys

1) Regulation of extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure 2) Regulation of osmolarity 3) Maintenance of ion balance 4) Homeostatic regulation of pH 5) Excretion of wastes 6) Production of hormones

What are the four major steps of hemostasis?

1) Vascular spam 2) Platelet response 3) Clotting response/ Coagulation 4) Clot removal

______1__ refers to the mass movement of fluid between the blood and the interstitial fluid as the result of ___2_____ or ___3____ pressure gradients. If the direction of bulk flow is into the capillary, the fluid movement is called ____4____. If the direction of flow is out of the capillary, the fluid movement is known as ___5_____

1) bulk flow 2) hydrostatic 3) oncotic 4) absorption 5) filtration

Sketch a concept map showing the factors that influence GFR.

1) net filtration pressure - renal blood flow and blood pressure 2) filtration coefficient - surface area of the glomerular capillaries and permeability of interface between capillary and Bowman's capsule

List the receptors that regulate osmolarity, blood volume, blood pressure, ventilation, and pH. Where are they located, what stimulates them, and what compensatory mechanisms are triggered by them?

1) osmolarity - osmoreceptors located in the hypothalamus-under high osmolarity, trigger thirst stimulation and vasopressin secretion-under low osmolarity, trigger decreased vasopressin secretion 2) decreased blood volume/pressure-carotid and aortic baroreceptors: - through the cardiovascular control center cause increased sympathetic output, decreased parasympathetic output; through the hypothalamus cause thirst stimulation and vasopressin secretion-atrial volume receptors - through the hypothalamus cause thirst stimulation and vasopressin secretion 3) increased blood pressure-carotid and aortic baroreceptors - through the cardiovascular control center causes decreased sympathetic output, increased parasympathetic output; through the hypothalamus cause thirst inhibition and vasopressin inhibition-atrial volume receptors - through the hypothalamus cause thirst inhibition and vasopressin inhibition 4) decreased pH (high plasma H+)-carotid and aortic chemoreceptors - respiratory control centers in the medulla - increase rate and depth of breathing-central chemoreceptors - respiratory control centers in the medulla - increase rate and depth of breathing

Match the nutrients on the left with the location in the GI tract where digestion of each nutrient begins: 1. carbohydrates a. mouth 2. lipids b. stomach 3. proteins c. duodenum

1-a, 2-a, 3-b

What do you see when the kidney is sliced open in a coronal section?

1. Cortex: outer region (1/3) consists of the filtering portion of nephrons. 2. Medula: inner, darker region (2/3) Medulla of collecting tubules where secretion and absorption occur. 3. renal pyramids: triangular arrangements containing straight renal tubules & blood vessels. 4. renal papillae: a piece of the pyramids. 5. renal pelvis: collecting area for all calyces prior to entering ureter. 6. major calyces: flow into the renal pelvis - collect urine from minor calyces - which in turn receive urine from collecting ducts in the pyramids. 7. renal columns: portions of cortical tissue which penetrates between the pyramid into the medulla. 8. Medullary rays: a portion of medullary tissue which appears to jut out into cortical portion of the kidney. Contains collecting tubules from nephrons in the cortex.

Function of urinary system

1. controls composition & volume of blood. 2. eliminates waste products in the blood. 3. made up of 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, bladder, and urethra.

What does endothelial-capsular membrane compose the?

1. endothelium of capillaries forming Glomerulus which contain pores 2. The basement membrane of Glomerulus which is glycoprotein matrix 3. Epithelium of visceral layer of Bowman's Capsule

What are the 2 sphincter of the bladder?

1. internal sphincter: involuntary smooth muscle continuous with detrusor 2. external sphincter: voluntary skeletal muscle which is at the level of the urogenital diaphragm.

what are the 3 layers of trigone?

1. mucosa (transitional epithelium): inner layer which can stretch 2. submucosa: the middle layer with dense CT 3. detrusor muscle: outer layer with the combination of 3 layers of smooth muscle.

The flow of fluid in Nephron:

1. only H2O & small solutes are filtered into the capsular space. 2. then to the proximal convoluted tubule in the cortex (simple cuboidal epithelium) (microvilli for reabsorption & secretion) 3. descending limb of Henle & dips down into the medulla (squamous epithelium) 4. Loop of Henle - squamous epithelium 5. tubule again become convoluted in the cortex = distal convoluted tubule cuboidal epithelium but no microvilli. 6. then flow to the collecting duct which flows through the renal pyramids of the medulla. (epithelium = cuboidal) 7. Duct empty into calyces via papillary ducts of Bellini which found in the renal papillae. (columnar) 8. depending on the distance of the nephron from the medulla, it is either called a cortical nephron or a juxtamedullary nephron.

What are the 3 layers of connective tissue in the kidneys?

1. renal (fibrous) capsule: fibrous CT coat continuous to the outermost layer of the ureter. 2. Adipose capsule: contains the perirenal fat-containing mass of adipose tissue surrounding the organ. May help to protect the kidney from trauma & temperature extreme. 3. renal facia: composed of fibrous CT. outermost layer that anchors the kidney to surrounding structures and posterior abdominal wall.

Each nephron consists of:

1. renal corpuscle or malpighion corpuscle composed of a glomerulus surrounding by Bowman's capsule. 2. proximal convoluted tubule 3. thin and think portions of Loop of Henle 4. distal convoluted tubule 5. collecting duct.

Blood supply to the kidney

1. right & left renal arteries 2. interlobar arteries 3. arcuate arteries 4.interlobular arteries 5. afferent arterioles 6. efferent arterioles 7. peritubular capillaries 8. Vasa recta 9. interlobular veins 10. arcuate veins 11. interlobar veains 12. renal veins 13. vena cava

How much urine on average leaves the body per day as urine?

1.5L/day

If the GFR = 150 mls/min, plasma concentration = 0.1 mmole/ml, the amount reabsorbed = 8 mmole/min, and the amount secreted = 3 mmole/min, what is the amount of solute excreted?

10 mmole/min

Compare the plasma entering the afferent arteriole to the composition and relative volume of the filtration fraction. (Fig. 19.4)

100% of plasma passes through the afferent arteriole. 20% of that gets filtered and < 1% us excreted into the environment

Mrs. Adler is participating in the clinical trials for a new memory drug tentatively called QuikSmart. Data collected from Mrs. Adler's trials have been placed in the table below. Use this data to answer the following two questions. What is Mrs. Adler's glomerular filtration rate (rounded to the nearest liter)?

126 L/day

Approximately how much plasma moves through the kidneys of an adult during a 24-hour period?

180 Liters

How much plasma on average enters the nephrons per day?

180L/day

Put the events associated with the mechanism of action of cholera in the correct sequential order. 1. Adenylyl cyclase is turned on, producing cAMP. 2. Cholera binds to intestinal cells. 3. CFTR channels are opened, increasing Cl-diffusion into the lumen of the intestine. 4. Cholera is brought into the cell via endocytosis.

2. Cholera binds to intestinal cells. 4.Cholera is brought into the cell via endocytosis. 1. Adenylyl cyclase is turned on, producing cAMP. 3. CFTR channels are opened, increasing Cl-diffusion into the lumen of the intestine.

At any given time, what percentage of cardiac output goes to the kidneys?

20-25%

Calculate the net filtration pressure if capillary hydrostatic pressure is 60 mm Hg, capillary osmotic pressure is 25 mm Hg, and capsular hydrostatic pressure is 10 mm Hg.

25 mm Hg (60 - (25 + 10) = 25 mm Hg. The two pressures that oppose filtration must be subtracted from the force favoring filtration.)

Calculate the net filtration pressure if capillary hydrostatic pressure is 60 mm Hg, capillary osmotic pressure is 25 mm Hg, and capsular hydrostatic pressure is 10 mm Hg.

25 mm Hg Yes, 60 - (25 + 10) = 25 mm Hg. The two pressures that oppose filtration must be subtracted from the force favoring filtration.

Match the following plasma proteins with the correct function. A. albumins B. globulins C. fibrinogen D. antibodies 36) contribute(s) significantly to osmotic pressure of plasma 37) help(s) defend the body against germs 38) essential to the process of blood clotting 39) a category that includes clotting factors and enzymes

36) A 37) D 38) C 39) B

In extreme dehydration, urine can reach a concentration of 1400 mOsM. If the minimum amount of waste solute that a person must excrete daily is about 600 milliosmoles, what is the minimum urine volume that is excreted in one day?

429 mL (600 mosmol/? L=1400 mosmol/L)

The urinary bladder can hold about ______________ mL.

500mL

The normal pH range for most body fluids is ________

7.38 to 7.42

In which segment of the nephron does most reabsorption take place? When a molecule or ion is reabsorbed from the lumen of the nephron, where does it go? If a solute is filtered and not reabsorbed from the tubule, where does it go?

70% occurs in the proximal tubule. Reabsorbed molecules go into the peritubular capillaries and the systemic venous circulation. If filtered and not reabsorbed, a molecule is excreted in the urine.

Given the following data, renal blood flow is __________. PPAH = 4 mmole/L UPAH = 950 mmole/L V = 2 mls/min hematocrit = 48%

913.5 mls/min

115) List the four basic processes of the digestive system, and describe each.

: 1. Digestion is the chemical and mechanical breakdown of foods into smaller units. 2. Absorption is the active or passive transfer of substances from the lumen of the GI tract to the extracellular fluid. 3. Motility is the movement of material in the GI tract as a result of muscle contraction. 4. Secretion refers to both transepithelial transfer of water and ions from the ECF to digestive tract lumen and the release of substances synthesized by GI epithelial cells. Section Title: Digestive Function and Processes Learning Outcome: 21.11

: Level II: Reviewing Concepts (Bloom's Taxonomy: Application) 72) What are the two ways of bicarbonate reabsorption in the proximal tubule?

: 1. convert HCO3- into carbon dioxide, then back into HCO3- 2. through the metabolism of glutamine (see Fig. 20.17) Section Title: Acid-Base Balance Learning Outcome: 20.15

: Level III: Problem Solving (Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis) 83) Diabetes mellitus produces many homeostatic imbalances, including acidosis. The pH imbalance is due to ketoacidosis, which results from excessive accumulation of by-products of fat metabolism, as the body cannot meet energy needs from carbohydrate metabolism. Sally is a teenaged diabetic who sometimes rebels by not taking her insulin. Her body is beginning to develop ketoacidosis as a result. Create a chart to indicate and explain how her blood pH, HCO3-, and PCO2 react, by indicating "increase," "decrease," or "no change." 1. ketoacidosis has just developed 2. respiratory compensation occurs 3. renal compensation occurs

: 1. pH decreases by definition, HCO3- decreases as the carbonic acid reaction shifts to the right, PCO2 is unchanged because the excess is expelled by the lungs due to the higher gradient. 2. pH increases and HCO3- decreases as exhaled CO2 drives the carbonic acid reaction to the right, and PCO2 decreases as it is exhaled. 3. pH increases as H+ is excreted, HCO3- increases as it is reabsorbed, and increases as respiration returns to normal. Section Title: Acid-Base Balance Learning Outcome: 20.18

: Level II: Reviewing Concepts (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension) 70) What three stimuli control vasopressin secretion? The most potent stimulus for vasopressin release is ________.

: 1. plasma osmolarity 2. blood volume 3. blood pressure; an increase in plasma osmolarity Section Title: Water Balance Learning Outcome: 20.2

125) One way to determine the total energy in calories of a food is to burn it in a device called a bomb calorimeter. The heat produced during combustion minus the heat added to begin the combustion is the total calories in the food. The typical human digestive tract does not absorb all of the calories in food; thus it is not 100% efficient. Furthermore, calories in undigestible organic compounds may not be absorbed at all, and thus can be considered to be zero calorie relative to human nutrition. Artificial sweeteners and fats are designed to produce desired sensation in the mouth without being absorbed. These are organic compounds that would release heat in a bomb calorimeter, thus they technically have calories. A. What does this suggest about the accuracy of the bomb calorimeter in determining available food calories for humans? What would be the results of bomb calorimetry of human feces? B. What is it about a particular food substance that may prevent absorption of its calories? C. What happens to the "zero-calorie" molecules as they pass through the digestive tract? What are the potential effects on defecation?

: A. Bomb calorimetry is not 100% accurate, because it does not take into account that some calories are not absorbed. Human feces would be determined to contain some calories. B. In order for nutrients in a food to be usable by the body, they must be chemically digested and absorbed. Digestive enzymes exhibit specificity, so they do not digest molecules that are different in structure from their substrate. If an artificial food additive is undigestible, this simply means that the body lacks the appropriate enzyme. C. Gut bacteria may be able to digest and absorb these compounds. Extra organic solute present in the gut may cause retention of water and production of bacterial gas as the bacteria digest the substance in question. This can lead to distention, discomfort, and diarrhea. Section Title: Digestion and Absorption Learning Outcome: 21.10

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge) 70) A diet of pure carbohydrate would produce an RQ of ________.

: 1.0 Section Title: Energy Balance Learning Outcome: 22.2

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension) 46) The normal pH range for most body fluids is ________.

: 7.35 to 7.45 Section Title: Acid-Base Balance Learning Outcome: 20.14

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension) 42) A person who suffers from emphysema will exhibit signs of A) respiratory acidosis. B) respiratory alkalosis. C) metabolic acidosis. D) metabolic alkalosis. E) None of the answers are correct.

: A Section Title: Acid-Base Balance Learning Outcome: 20.18

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension) Match the following structures with the appropriate description. A. appendix B. colon C. duodenum D. ileum E. jejunum 45) located at the ventral end of the cecum

: A Section Title: Anatomy of the Digestive System Learning Outcome: 21.1

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension) A. pancreas B. pylorus C. rectum D. small intestine E. stomach 48) organ that adds exocrine secretions to the duodenum via a duct

: A Section Title: Anatomy of the Digestive System Learning Outcome: 21.11

8) The layer of loose connective tissue beneath the digestive epithelium is the A) lamina propria. B) muscularis mucosae. C) submucosa. D) submucosal plexus. E) myenteric plexus.

: A Section Title: Anatomy of the Digestive System Learning Outcome: 21.2

91) Put the following steps of fat digestion and absorption in order: 1. Bile salts coat fat droplets. 2. Cholesterol is transported into cells. 3. Chylomicrons are formed. 4. Chylomicrons are released into lymphatic system. 5. Monoglycerides and fatty acids move out of micelles. 6. Pancreatic lipase and colipase break down fats. A) 1, 6, 5, 2, 3, 4 B) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 5 C) 2, 6, 5, 1, 3, 4 D) 6, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5 E) None of the answers are correct.

: A Section Title: Digestion and Absorption Learning Outcome: 21.10

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension) 40) Which of the following statements is true? A) Glucose and galactose absorption uses an apical Na+-glucose SGLT symporter. B) Fructose moves across the apical membrane by active transport. C) Glucose and galactose use different transporters in absorption. D) A basolateral GLUT5 transporter moves glucose out of the intestinal epithelial cell. E) None of the statements are true.

: A Section Title: Digestion and Absorption Learning Outcome: 21.10

A. gastrin B. cholecystokinin C. secretin D. motilin E. gastric inhibitory peptide 110) blocks cholesterol absorption

: A Section Title: Digestion and Absorption Learning Outcome: 21.10

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension) A. enzymes B. HCl C. HCO3- D. mucus E. more than one of these 59) brush border

: A Section Title: Digestion and Absorption Learning Outcome: 21.2

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge) 32) Bile is A) secreted by hepatocytes only. B) manufactured by the gallbladder only. C) released into the stomach only. D) secreted by hepatocytes and manufactured by the gallbladder. E) secreted by hepatocytes, manufactured by the gallbladder, and released into the stomach.

: A Section Title: Digestion and Absorption Learning Outcome: 21.8

137) In the body, 80% of all lymphocytes, a type of immune system cell, are thought to be present in the A) small intestine. B) large intestine. C) appendix. D) stomach. E) mouth.

: A Section Title: Digestive Function and Processes Learning Outcome: 21.1

: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge) 9) The respiratory quotient is ________ for consumed carbohydrates compared to proteins and fats. A) highest B) lowest C) the same