IB History Cold War

implications for the region: Kennedy's Alliance for Progress

Alliance for Progress: In March 1961, President Kennedy proposed a ten year plan for Latin America: ...we propose to complete the revolution of the Americas, to build a hemisphere where all men can hope for a suitable standard of living and all can live out their lives in dignity and in freedom. To achieve this goal political freedom must accompany material progress...Let us once again transform the American Continent into a vast crucible of revolutionary ideas and efforts, a tribute to the power of the creative energies of free men and women, an example to all the world that liberty and progress walk hand in hand. Let us once again awaken our American revolution until it guides the struggles of people everywhere-not with an imperialism of force or fear but the rule of courage and freedom and hope for the future of man. The program was signed at an inter-American conference in August 1961. The charter called for: an annual increase of 2.5% in per capita income; the establishment of democratic governments; the elimination of adult illiteracy by 1970; price stability, to avoid inflation or deflation; more equitable income distribution; land reform and; economic and social planning.

Korean War and the United States and the Americas: Background

American involvement in the Korean War in the early 1950s reflected the American policy of containment of Communism. Japan had annexed the Korean peninsula before WWI; Japanese defeated in WWII. In 1945 - Allies agreed on a temporary solution: a temporary division of Korea at the 38th parallel. Soviet-occupied Northern zone, American-occupied Southern zone. (NSC-68) was a 58 page top secret policy paper by the NSC presented to President Truman on April 14, 1950. It was one of the most important statements of American policy in the Cold War. In the words of scholar Ernest R. May, NSC-68 "provided the blueprint for the militarization of the Cold War from the 1950 to the collapse of the Soviet Union at the beginning of the 1990's." NSC-68 and its subsequent amplifications advocated a large expansion in the military budget of the United States, the development of a hydrogen bomb, and increased military aid to allies of the United States. It made the containment of global Communist expansion a high priority. NSC-68 rejected the alternative policies of friendly detente or aggressive rollback of the Soviet Union. Soon a Pro-American government formed in South Korea and a Communist regime was established in North Korea. Koreans on both sides of the dividing line wanted to unify their nation. In June 1950: the Korean War broke out when North Korean troops invaded South Korea over the 38th parallel border - they were determined to reunite Korea by force

United States' involvement in Vietnam: the reasons for

American involvement in the Vietnam War also reflected the Cold War policy of containment of communism. Further, added fear was caused by the "Domino theory" : refers to the fear that if one southeast Asian nation fell to the communists, the others would also fall. Because of its geographic location, a communist takeover of Vietnam posed a threat to Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand Beginning in the 1950s and continuing into the early 1960s, the Communist government of North Vietnam attempted to install a communist government in South Vietnam by force. The United States helped South Vietnam resist The American military buildup in Vietnam began under President Eisenhower and President John F. Kennedy After Kennedy's Assassination in 1963, the military buildup was intensified under President Lyndon Johnson . August 1964: Johnson announced that North Vietnamese torpedoes had attacked U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin (international waters) Johnson asked Congress for authority to take action against North Vietnam - Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

Korean War and the United States and the Americas: military developments and diplomatic and political outcomes

American military forces led a United Nations counterattack that drove deep into North Korea itself Communist Chinese forces came into the war on the side of North Korea to push back UN forces Stalemate developed between the two sides Truce signed in 1953 left Korea divided at almost the exact same place as before the war - near the 38th parallel Truce signed in 1953 left Korea divided at almost the exact same place as before the war - near the 38th parallel Military Industrial Complex: Belief that the vested interests of the military and industry encouraged them to escalate tensions and the production of weaponry. President Eisenhower was concerned about the growing size and cost of the American defense establishment. Effects of Korean War: Enormous frustration in United States - 54,000 dead, 103,000 wounded for limited results. Resistance of Communist forces-containment without nuclear war, Integration of units in armed forces, Huge increase in military spending, Development of powerful Military-Industrial complex, Permanent mobilization of troops *OBVIOUSLY, the US got involved in the Korean war bc CONTAINMENT, DUH. They mostly wanted to protect South Korea and keep the North and the USSR out of the parallel that divided the two sections. Even though the public really did not want to be apart of any more wars.

implications for the region: Carter's quest for human rights and the Panama Canal Treaty

Carter's Foreign Policy- Human Rights: Basic ideas outlined in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights Carter expected friends and enemies alike to uphold the highest standards in the treatment of their citizens. Soviet Relations: Carter wrote to Brezhnev about his concerns with Soviet human rights issues. Brezhnev politely said that each country should mind their own business. Concluded SALT II talks in 1979 that limited nuclear weapons. Recognizing China: Formally recognized the government of the Communist People's Republic of China. Ended recognition of the Republic of China on Taiwan Panama Canal: American control of the Panama Canal had been a source of conflict between the two countries. In 1977 Carter and Panama's leader agreed that Panama would take control of the canal by the end of 1999. The Senate narrowly approved the treaties. For some Americans, loss of control of the canal represented a decline in American power. Camp David Accords: Greatest foreign-policy achievement. Conflict between Egypt and Israel continued. Egypt would not recognize Israel and Israel continued to occupy Egyptian territory. Carter guided Anwar el-Sadat and Menachem Begin to a historic agreement that came to be called the Camp David Accords. Panama Canal: In 1903, the United States received authority to build a canal in Panama and to control the Panama Canal Zone "in perpetuity," in exchange for annual payments to Panama. By the 1960s, Latin American resentment of U.S. power was growing. In 1977, newly elected President Jimmy Carter, fulfilling a campaign promise, set out to negotiate a new agreement with Panama. He believed that a new treaty was needed to correct what he saw as injustices. In spite of vocal opposition from Congress and the American public, Carter negotiated two new treaties: 1. The United States would retain the right to defend the canal forever. 2. The Canal Zone would be turned over to Panama in 1979, and a transfer of the operation of the canal would be complete by 1999. Panamanian voters approved these Carter-Torrijos Treaties in a special referendum. The U.S. Constitution empowers the President to make treaties with "the advice and consent" of the Senate. In the case of the Panama Canal Treaties, thirty-eight Senators—more than enough to prevent ratification —had expressed opposition to the new agreements. Public opinion was also against the Treaties. *The US took on another platform when it came to Latin America. Not only did they want to continue containment, but now they had a human rights campaign going on. However, they were not mindful of the Latin american culture, tradition, way of life, or policies. This is why many Latin Americans and the governments disliked the US. The US wanted to help, but mostly to benefit themselves and they wanted to do it their way. Latin American elites were also to blame for the insignificant amount of effort into fixing broken countries and economies. They funded small projects that would only help the upper class.

implications for the region: Nixon's covert operations and Chile

Chile had been calm in the 1960s. But in 1970 a left-center coalition sought electoral victory Salvador Allende U.S. businesses and the CIA tried - and failed - to prevent Allende from being elected president of Chile. Allende's first step was the nationalization of copper, Chile's biggest industry, which was still effectively under U.S. control. He pressed on with what he called his "Social Revolution." Chilean peasants began to seize land. The Chilean economy was increasingly put under state control - a move that upset overseas financiers. The World Bank in Washington cut off credits to Chile. The CIA was unhappy with Allende, and pursued a number of avenues in removing him from office Nixon authorized $10M to be put towards destabilising Chile and removing Allende from power. Inflation and economic problems mounted. CIA money helped pay for Chilean truck owners to bring the country to a standstill. On September 11, 1973, Allende was violently ousted by the head of his military, Gen. Augusto Pinochet. Allende was found dead after the Moneda, the presidential palace, had been set ablaze. Following the coup, Pinochet had hundreds of political suspects rounded up. Many were never seen again. Pinochet the Dictator: Pinochet billed himself as Chile's savior, and many Chileans agreed with him. As soon as he assumed power, Pinochet set out to kill or harass anyone who opposed his rule. The US ignored the flagrant human rights abuses suffered by Pinochet's enemies. Pinochet and the United States: The United States largely ignored Pinochet's wrongdoings, since his path to leadership had been paved with American dollars. Even when an American Journalist who "knew too much" was killed, the CIA did nothing, even going so far as to "black out" its knowledge of the event. Pinochet's Government: During the 1970s and 1980s, Pinochet continued to remove anyone who opposed him. In 1980, Pinochet wrote a constitution that allowed Chile to return to democracy by 1990. Once Pinochet was voted out, he assumed the position of "life senator," The Chilean people largely looked the other way during such abuses, because they felt that Pinochet had built their economy and nation into a powerful force within South America. Pinochet allowed American economists to exert considerable control over his economy. Chile's Economic Miracle For nine years, the Chicago economists experimented with Chile. It was a disaster. National banks crumbled, debt skyrocketed, and the citizens rioted. Over 40% of the nation lived in poverty (twice the pre-Pinochet levels). Reluctantly, Pinochet booted out the Chicago boys and returned to Keynesian economic interventions.

Truman: containment and its implications for the Americas

Containment was a United States policy using numerous strategies to prevent the spread of communism abroad. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge its communist sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam. The word containment is associated most strongly with the policies of United States President Harry Truman (1945-53), including the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact. The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy created to counter Soviet geopolitical hegemony during the Cold War. It was first announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947 and further developed on July 12, 1948 when he pledged to contain Soviet threats to Greece and Turkey. American military force was usually not involved; instead Congress appropriated free gifts of financial aid to support the economies and the military of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman doctrine implied American support for other nations threatened by Soviet communism. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy. It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union from détente (a relaxation of tension) to a policy of containment of Soviet expansion as advocated by diplomat George Kennan. It avoided the policy of rollback because it implicitly tolerated the previous Soviet takeovers in Eastern Europe. It dealt with Washington's concern over communism's domino effect, it enabled a media-sensitive presentation of the doctrine that won bipartisan support, and it mobilized American economic power to modernize and stabilize unstable regions without direct military intervention. It brought nation-building activities and modernization programs to the forefront of foreign policy.

Cold War in Cuba: reasons for foreign and domestic policies and their implementation

Cuba: By the end of the 1950s, Fidel Castro and Che Guevara had triumphed in Cuba - establishing a communist regime that soon allied itself with the Soviet Union Crises over Cuba The Cuban Dilemma Fidel Castro comes to power in 1959 Puts on mass public trials and executions U.S. denounces Cuba and accepts thousands of Cuban refugees Castro seizes U.S. businesses and Eisenhower cuts of imports of Cuban sugar 1960 - Cuba signs a trade treaty with the Soviet Union The Bay of Pigs: In March 1960 Eisenhower orders CIA to train Cuban exiles for an invasion of their homeland JFK continues with the plan The plan; day before the invasion, planes would attempt to wipe out Castro's air force, then exiles would land at the beach, and the Cuban people would rise up against Castro and overthrow him. Plan failed: JFK failed to provide the necessary resources to help the exiles and they were rounded up by Castro's men JFK goes ahead with a plan called Operation Mongoose in which government agents worked to disrupt the island's trade. About 100 Cubans were killed in the fighting. The disastrous operation was a great humiliation for the Kennedy administration and significantly increased Cold War tensions. Castro did not return the surviving Cuban exiles until the US sent millions of dollars in humanitarian aid to Cuba The Cuban Missile Crisis: In an attempt to counter any new American intervention and to improve the Soviet position in the nuclear arms race, Castro and Khrushchev devised a daring plan: installation of Soviet missiles and nuclear bombers in Cuba October 14, 1962 - U-2 flights showed 65 sites for offensive medium range ballistic missiles could reach the U.S in 3 minutes JFK ordered a naval quarantine of the island (used the word "quarantine" rather than "blockade" since blockade was an act of war) October 22 - went on national television informing the Soviets of American policy and demanded their retreat American forces around the globe went on alert For almost a week, the world was on the brink of nuclear war Khrushchev said that he would remove the missiles if the U.S. agreed not to attack Cuba and removed its missiles from Turkey Kennedy publicly agreed to the first and privately to the second *The US got involved with Cuba bc of their upcoming communist regime under Fidel Castro and his partnership with the Soviet Union. Tensions were at an all time high with events like the Bay of Pigs and the Cuban missile Crisis. It was basically Cuba + Soviet Union vs the USA. The leaders negotiated behind the scenes but things were still extremely tense, with a nuclear bombing at risk at all times.

The Cold War and its impact on society and culture

Domestic Policies: McCarthyism and the "Communist Witch Hunt," everyone is suspicious of one another and people are scared of losing their jobs in the event of being falsely accused. Added fear due to the HUAC, House Un-American Activities Committee, Loyalty oaths (taken in nearly all jobs, especially government), and Blacklists. Growing number of Bomb Shelters and Nuclear paranoia due to the arms race and overseas nuclear threat. Also overall a widespread fear of Communism across America. Culture was permeated with anti-communism-genuine fear among many that our way of life was threatened. Fear of losing our democratic principles OR our consumer/material values? Film: HUAC had the industry running scared. Turned out films that condemned communism (My Son John) also condemned nonconformity (The Wild Bunch) Significant allegorical work High Noon and The Crucible SciFi films- The Thing, Invasion of the Body Snatchers, The Day the Earth Stood Still Television: Growing influence, decline in newspaper readership. CBS birth of TV News, Murrow See it Now took on McCarthy. Westerns and game shows = us vs. them, materialism. Education: "Under God: added to pledge in 1954, Compulsory classroom patriotism, National Defense Education Act (1958), Indoctrination. Literature: Nuclear holocaust literature. *As with all wars, change waved in during the cold war era. People were paranoid of communism in the US, and nationalism was very high. The US governments main focus was containment and remaining a higher power in the world. Society was also impacted with the inclusion of communist propaganda in the film industry, some exposure that the government was not very found of, and shared fear of being attacked was also compared.

United States' foreign policies from Kennedy to Carter: the characteristics of, and reasons for, policies

Flexible Response: Flexible response was a defense strategy implemented by JFK in 1961 to address the Kennedy administration's skepticism of Dwight Eisenhower's New Look and its policy of Massive Retaliation When President Kennedy took office in 1961, he modified Eisenhower's policy of Massive Retaliation and adopted a stance of Flexible Response. This policy included the use of conventional forces in war and offered alternatives to total nuclear war. The alternatives consisted of an increase in conventional weapons systems and introduced the concept of limited nuclear war. Both JFK and his successor, Lyndon Johnson, determine that effective military power meant stronger conventional military forces and nuclear options short of global nuclear war.Flexible Response marked a shift away from the previous policy of Massive Retaliation. While Kennedy believed nuclear deterrence remained paramount, he also understood that limited wars and low intensity conflicts should be fought with conventional weapons. This led to a major shift in the US style of military.

Eisenhower and Dulles: New Look and its application; characteristics and reasons for the policy; repercussions for the region

John Foster Dulles served as U.S. Secretary of State under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959 He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world He carried out the "containment" policy during the Korean War, which had been established by President Truman He also spent considerable time building up NATO and forming other alliances as part of his strategy of controlling Soviet expansion by threatening massive retaliation in event of a war. In 1950, he worked with Richard Nixon to limit the French influence in Vietnam, asking the United States to attempt to cooperate with the French as well. Overtime, Dulles concluded that it was time to "ease France out of Vietnam" In 1950 he also helped instigate the ANZUS Treaty for mutual protection with Australia and New Zealand Dulles strongly opposed communism, believing it was "Godless terrorism" New Look: The New Look was the name given to the national security policy of the United States during the administration of President Eisenhower It reflected Eisenhower's concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments and financial resources of the United States The policy emphasized reliance on strategic nuclear weapons to deter potential threats, both conventional and nuclear, from the nations headed by the Soviet Union. According to Nevi Power (historian), "The New Look was Eisenhower's policy to reduce government expenditure on defense through a reorganization of the various sectors of the defense through a reorganization of the various sectors of the defense establishment in order to cut down on waste and duplication between services. Truman's defense budgets had been notoriously high through both the implementation of NSC-68 which called for a massive military build up in order to better challenge the Soviet Union and also because of the ongoing war in Korea." Central America, the Caribbean, and South America become the battleground for a test of wills between the United States and the U.S.S.R. - as the Cold War comes to America's "backyard" After World War II, growing nationalism in Central and South America led to greater resentment against the US, whose government and business interests dominated the region. At that time in Guatemala the railroad, the main port, telecommunications and about 500,000 acres of land were owned by the United Fruit Company of Boston Eisenhower's New Look kept monetary aid at low 9% In 1950, Jacobo Arbenz was voted Guatemala's president. Arbenz wanted to modernize Guatemala's backward society and started a land reform program, nationalizing thousands of acres of land - some of it owned by United Fruit Officials in Washington were alarmed and suspected communist infiltration of the Arbenz government. Arbenz wasn't a communist, but some of his allies were. The CIA organized an operation code-named "PB Success" which mobilized disaffected Guatemalan exiles and peasants into action. The PB Success campaign brought down Guatemala's government and drove Arbenz and his wife into exile. Some 9,000 of his supporters were arrested. Among those who fled Guatemala was a young Argentine doctor, Che Guevara - who went to Mexico, where he met Cuban rebel leader Fidel Castro. *Eisenhower and Dulles decided to take a more aggressive approach towards containment. Understandable since Dulles thought that communism was "Godless terrorism." However, the global view of the US was going down, Latin America especially hated the US because of their constant ignorant involvement.

the rise of McCarthyism and its effects on domestic and foreign policies of the United States

Joseph McCarthy was a Republican Senator from Wisconsin who is infamous for his attacks on suspected communists without sufficient evidence. His practice of accusing Americans who have no evidence of affiliation with Communists became termed McCarthyism. Particularly during the early 1950s, Senator McCarthy claimed that communist spies and supporters were infiltrating the federal government and spreading across the nation. Many Americans, due to the onset of the Cold War, believed him. And fervent anticommunist feeling spread. In 1954, the famous Army-McCarthy hearings took place, in which McCarthy lost much of his popularity. The event was publicized through the media, and the nation was able to witness McCarthy's lack of evidence against the accused Communists. During McCarthy's popularity streak, he was a growing threat to all politicians, especially liberals. Senators were hesitant to speak out against him fearing that their opposition would cause him to accuse them of being Communist. Being labeled as a suspected Communist would end any man's career. Further, since the Democratic party was among the accused, the left wing began to phase out, leaving mainly conservative control. There was a large amount of support to pass the McCarran Act, banning the Communist Party, because they wanted McCarthy on their side. McCarthy was never directly involved with the House Un-American Activities Committee, but he did have a great amount of influence on it. McCarthy was convinced that there were Communists in Hollywood, and soon enough HUAC investigated the Screen Actors Guild and developed the Hollywood Blacklist, or the Hollywood Ten. McCarthyism also influenced Truman's Executive Order 9835 (1947) established the Federal Employee Loyalty Program - FBI would conduct background checks on 2 million existing federal employees plus all new applicants. McCarthy manipulated the minds of many Americans with propaganda, convincing speeches, and the already existing fear of communism to gain people's support towards his "Communist Witch Hunt."

United States' involvement in Vietnam: the nature of and the involvement at different stages

Nearly 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War Battlefield conditions were difficult: Viet Cong (Communists guerrillas in South Vietnam) were familiar with landscape South Vietnamese seemed indifferent Couldn't trust anyone Intense heat, jungle climate Ground War: Viet Cong lacked sophisticated equipment, so they used guerilla warfare tactics Worked in small groups to launch sneak attacks Hid in elaborate underground tunnels Set booby traps like camouflaged pits and land mines Air War: Saturation bombing: huge B-52 American bombers dropped thousands of tons of explosives over large areas Chemical weapons: Napalm: a destructive chemical, splattered and burned uncontrollably when dropped from airplanes, including on human flesh Agent Orange - herbicide that killed leaves and undergrowth to expose Viet Cong hiding places; also killed crops and caused health problems Despite the Large United States presence in South Vietnam (536,000 by end of 1968), Communist forces intensified their efforts Tet Offensive: Major offensive launched by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese on January 30, 1968 Communists were extremely brutal, killing anyone they labeled an enemy. Viet Cong won psychological victory Massacre at My Lai: March 1968: U.S. infantry company entered My Lai (small village that was supposedly sheltering Viet Cong) U.S. soldiers found only women, children, and old men in the village - the U.S. soldiers massacred these civilians. More than 400 innocent Vietnamese died until a U.S. helicopter crew stepped in to halt the slaughter.

United States' involvement in Vietnam: domestic effects and the end of the war

Political Divisions: The country became bitterly divided over the Vietnam War. Some Americans supported the American military and the war effort, hoped for military victory. Other Americans believed the war was morally wrong, urged immediate withdrawal Student Activism : Active opposition to the war occurred especially on college campuses. Students were among the first to speak out against the Vietnam War. Nixon and "Vietnamization": After Johnson declined to seek re-election, President Nixon was elected on his pledge to bring the war to an honorable end He instituted the policy of "Vietnamization" - withdrawing American troops and replacing them with South Vietnamese soldiers, while maintaining military aid to the South Vietnamese End of the War: January 1973: U.S., South Vietnam, North Vietnam, and Viet Cong signed formal peace agreements. Ultimately "Vietnamization" failed when South Vietnamese troops were unable to resist invasion by the Soviet-supplied North Vietnamese Army. April 30, 1975 - North Vietnam completed its conquest of South Vietnam. North and South Vietnam merged under communist control. Impacts: More than 58,000 Americans dead, 300,000 Americans wounded, More than 2,500 MIA (missing in action) and POWs (prisoners of war). Longest and least successful war in American history United States spent at least $150 billion on the Vietnam War. More bombs dropped on Vietnam than on all the Axis powers in WWII. Divided the nation more than any other war besides the Civil War. *Fear of communism spreading and the domino theory pushed the US to get involved in the Vietnam war too. The American public was upset again due to the high number of casualties from the Korean War and there were many protests on college campuses. The US also spent tons of money on this war, another reason why the public hated it. In the end, North and South Vietnam came together, but under communist control, so was it all worth it? Was the US effective? I think not.

Korean War and the United States and the Americas: reasons for participation

Pres. Truman brought the issue of North Korean aggression to the United Nations. Wanted to defend North Korea to uphold containment policy, because South Korea was not prepared enough to defend itself from its northern counterpart without U.S. assistance. Truman ordered American air and naval support and ground troops to aid the South Koreans. Truman did NOT go to Congress for an official declaration of war. UN Police Action: The U.S. chose General Douglas MacArthur to be the commander of the UN forces. Americans made up roughly 80% of police action. Police action- a localized military action without declaration of war.