IHRM

The main reasons for an IJV

-Gain knowledge and transfer that knowledge -Host government insistence -Increase economies of scale -Gain local knowledge -Obtain vital raw materials -Spread the risks (e.g., share financial risks) -Improve global competitive advantage -Provide an efficient and cost-effective response required by the globalization of markets

IHRM international HR activities

-International taxation -international relocation and orientation -administrative services for expatriates -host-government relations (immigration) -language translation services

IJV development stages

-Partnership role -Change facilitator and strategy implementer -Innovator -Collaborator

Barriers to international markets by SMEs

-Shortage of working capital to finance exports -Identifying foreign business opportunities -Limited information to locate/analyze markets -Inability to contact potential overseas customers -Obtaining reliable foreign representation -Lack of managerial time to deal with internationalization -Inadequate quantity of and or untrained personnel for internationalization -Difficulty in managing competitors' prices -Lack of home government assistance/incentives -Excessive transportation/insurance costs.

localization factors

-cultural environment more social context-> more complete balance of extrinsic & intrinsic rewards more individual or fast-changing personal & social context -> more extrinsic rewards -institutional environment (country-of-origin & HC) -mode of operation abroad (ownership type) -subsidiary role- global innovator, integrated player, implementer

Morgan's 3D definition of IHRM

1) The broad HR activities of procurement, allocation, and utilization 2) The countries where IHRM occurs: Host- country where subsidiary may be located, Parent- country where firm is headquartered, other countries that may be source of labor, finance and other inputs 3) The employees of an international firm: HCNs (Host country nationals) PCN (parent country nationals), TCN (third-country nationals)

HRM activities

1) hr planning, 2) staffing (recruitment, selection, placement), 3) performance management, 4) training & development, 5) compensation & benefits, 6) industrial relations

Three ways HR develops with international growth:

1. Centralized HR firms large and well-resourced; typically, product-based or matrix structures 2. Decentralized HR firms small group, mostly for senior mgmt. at corp. HQ; mostly product- or regional-based structures 3. Transition HR firms medium-sized corp. HR with a small staff at HQ; decentralized, product-based structure

Industrial relations policies and practices of MNEs

1. Degree of inter-subsidiary production integration 2. Nationality of ownership of the subsidiary 3. International HRM approach 4. MNE prior experience in industrial relations 5. Subsidiary characteristics 6. Characteristics of the home product market 7. Management attitudes towards unions

Best Practices in Management of Virtual Teams

1. Develop an e-mail protocol 2. Select appropriate members 3. Identify a team leader 4. Keep virtual team projects focused on the task 5. Provide time to build the trust necessary to work well 6. Celebrate the reaching of targets and goals 7. Identify barriers to collaboration 8. Provide cultural mentors to deal with cross-cultural problems 9. Identify what people should do when a crisis occurs 10. Identify the ground rules for virtual teamwork

Three trade union responses

1. Form international trade secretariats (ITSs)to achieve transformational bargaining by 1) research and information 2) Calling company conferences 3) Establishing company councils 4) Companywide union-management discussions 5) Coordinated bargaining 2. Lobby for restrictive national legislation 3. Regulate MNEs with international organizations 4. Mobilize or have a corporate campaign against the MNE (NGOs)

Hall & Halls' 4 dimensions

1. High vs. Low Context Communication 2. Spatial Orientation: actual distance between people when communicating 3. Monochrome vs. Polychrome Time: sequential processes vs. parallel actions 4. Information Speed: high or low information flow during communication

Trade unions limit MNE strategies:

1. Influence wage levels 2. Constrain the ability of MNEs to vary employment levels at will (plant closures) 3. Hinder or prevent global integration of operations of multinationals (sub-optimization) 4. Campaigning and mobilizing against multinationals

The 8 culture dimensions of GLOBE

1. Institutional Collectivism - encourage and reward collective distribution of resources 2. In-Group Collectivism - pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness 3. Uncertainty Avoidance - relies on social norms, rules, and procedures 4. Power Distance - power distribution 5. Gender Egalitarianism - the degree to which minimizes gender inequality 6. Assertiveness - the degree to which indiv are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive 7. Performance Orientation - encourage and reward group members 8. Humane Orientation - fair, altruistic, generous, and caring

Schein's 6 underlying assumptions

1. Nature of reality & truth - what is real/not 2. Time dimension - defined, how important 3. Effect of spatial proximity and distance -private/public, 'personal space' 4. Nature of being human - good/bad, change and develop 5. Type of human activity- relationship to the environment 6. Nature of human relationships - social order dominate

Firms should rely on three conceptual tools with M&As

1. Resourcesmoney, people, brands, relationships 2. Processesactivities used to convert resources into valuable goods and services 3. Values the way employees think about what they do and why they do it

Trade union concerns about MNEs

1. have formidable financial resources 2. have alternative sources of supply 3. can move production facilities to other countries 4. have a remote locus of authority 5. have production facilities in many industries 6. have superior knowledge and expertise in industrial relations 7. have the capacity to stage an 'investment strike'

THE ROLE OF IHRM

A key reason for the high failure rate in acquisitions is lack of attention to HRM issues: Preparation—HRM professionals should help their firm prepare for potential liabilities and incompatibilities in the merger Content—general people issues that impact the whole organization and all employees, language skills/concerns, and specific IHR issues Process of integration—firms must plan and implement the integration of the firms

The role of IHRM

A key reason for the high failure rate in acquisitions is lack of attention to HRM issues: Preparations- HRM professionals should help their firm prepare for potential liabilities and incompatibilities in the merger Content-general people issues that impact the whole organization and all employees, language skills/concerns, and specific IHR issues. Process of integration- firms must plan and implement the integration of the firm

Describe a personal situation that was impacted by a cultural difference. Include the Cultural Wizard dimension it aligns with and why.

A time I was in a situation that was impacted by cultural differences was the when I was going over to my boyfriends house for dinner. My family is very fluid with their time and very informal especially with meals, so I am used to family meals being very casual and not always waiting for everyone to get home to eat. However my boyfriends parents are very formal and time controlled and being 10 minutes early is still considered late. Due to how my family usually does things I arrived a couple minutes late which was definitely frowned upon and I could tell his mom was upset when I walked in. They aligned with the formal end for formality since they have etiquette and expectations for meeting new people.

Extraterritorial laws are laws that:

Apply beyond the country borders of the country that enacted them.

Corporate Codes of Conduct

Are corporate codes of conduct effective? Impact of OECD guidelines Commission of the EU - translate the codes of conduct into law Social Accountability 8000 » A social certification standard for factories and organizations across the globe came into being in 1997 » Social responsibility reporting has become important in recent times for accountability, transparency, and good business practice reasons. Boycotts of products and companies» Spotify- 2022» Fruit of the Loom - 2010

Schein's concept of culture include:

Artefacts, Values and Underlying assumptions

Poor subsidiary performance tends to:

Be accompanied by increased corporate level involvement in industrial relations

Standarization

Code of conduct Mission- budget accommodation Quality standards for product/service Imagery in marketing Performance standards

Three types of law systems:

Common law Built on legal precedent established by judges as they resolve individual cases; those case opinions have the force of law and strongly influence future decisions. (the US) Civil code or law Comprehensive, continuously updated legal codes that specify all matters brought to court - categories of law Substantive law - civil or criminal prosecution Procedural law - action evaluation = criminal act Penal law - penalty for breaking laws Religious law Ethical and moral codes taught by religions. E.g., Christian canon law, Islamic sharia, Jewish halakha and Hindu law.

Dangers of oversimplification

Concern that the focus on country differences falls short on two levels: It provides little explanation of within-group differences, i.e., it treats countries or cultures as homogeneous wholes, with everyone within the country or culture being alike It provides little understanding of how cultures change, i.e., it tends to treat cultures as a given—impermeable and static MNE vs. National Culture: often organizational values take precedence over country cultures, particularly when there is a conflict between the two

Understand international labor standards and regulations that apply to MNCs that operate in more than one country.

Conduct analysis of labor and employment laws in all countries in which the MNC operates. Analyze labor and employment issues that are common to all MNCs

Why globally standardize HRM?

Consistency, Transparency, and Alignment of a geographically fragmented workforce around common Principles and objectives *foster a feeling of equal treatment among cross-border managers operational efficiencies

Summarizing emerging issues

Consult with unions/employee representatives Manpower planning, considering the scope for employee redeployment Contribute to internal communication strategy Identify training needs Design new jobs generated by offshoring operations Highlight potential risks, such as the implications of employment regulation both in HC &in foreign locations

Original country of birth

Country of origin, Country National, Citizen

How are non-US Citizens covered by US Extraterritorial laws?

Covered the same as a US Citizen when working within the US for a US company

Schein's concept of Culture

Culture has 3 level 1) artefacts - visible 2) values - intermediate level of consciousness 3) underlying assumptions- invisible, unconscious

Cross-cultural management studies focus on

Cultures, working behaviors, relationships between employees and management

5 dimensions of networked MNEs

Decision-making authority is delegated to appropriate units & levels Key functions are dispersed geographically across units in different countries Fewer organizational levels Formal procedures are less bureaucratic Work, responsibility, & authority are differentiated across the networked subsidiaries

regionalization

Development of a global approach to managing HR within regions that provides global systems consistency while allowing local autonomy Achieving a balance between centralized consistency and de-centralized autonomy requires continual evaluation and discussion Many firms strategically organize around specific clusters of countries or regions as one market

HRM related to global code of conduct may include

Drawing up and reviewing codes of conduct Conducting cost-benefit analysis to oversee employee and relevant alliance partners' compliance Championing the need to train employees and alliance partners in the code of conduct Checking that performance and rewards include compliance to codes of conduct

Localization

Dress code policy Compensation & benefits Holiday/time off Training and development Religion Work hours Workplace safety Lunch break Food offerings Workplace harassment Severance/termination

Internationally, matrix is difficult

Dual reporting can cause conflict and confusion Many communication channels can create information logjams Overlapping responsibilities can produce - turf battles - loss of accountability Distance, language, time, and culture barriers make it difficult for managers to resolve conflicts and clarify confusion

In the 2020 'Memo to HR' the article shared the HR outcomes: Shifting from today to tomorrow, which item below was not discussed:

From having co-located teams to having virtual teams

Main reasons for an IJV

Gain knowledge and transfer that knowledge Host government insistence Increase economies of scale Gain local knowledge Obtain vital raw materials Spread the risk Improve global competitive advantage Provide an efficient and cost-effective...

GLOBE is an acronym for:

Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness

IJV challenges include

HR must manage relations at the interfaces between IJV and parent companies Different rules can create critical dualities HR must develop appropriate HRM practices and strategies for the IJV itself. HR must recruit, develop, motivate,retain human resources at IJV level

councils

Have the right to receive information and to be consulted relative to decisions the firm makes that will have social and economic consequences for employees. Best example is in Germany. Labor agreements a national level unions with national employer associations...work councils adjust the new agreements to local level needs.

8 dimensions

Hierarchy: Hierarchical - Egalitarian Group: Group Oriented - Individualistic Relationships: Interpersonal - Transactional Communication: Indirect - Direct Time: Fluid - Controlled Change: Change Adverse - Change Tolerant Formality: Formal - Informal Motivation: Work Life Balance - Status

IHRM is more complex than domestic HRM

IHRM has 1) more HR activities 2) a need for a broader perspective 3) more involvement in employee's personal lives 4) changes of emphasis as the mix of expatriates and locals varies 5) more risk exposure 6)broader external influences

Culture matters

IHRM needs to be aware of cultural differences Goals of the institutions (Values) How the institution operates (Attitudes) Reason for their policies (Beliefs) How members behave (Behaviors) Because culture can be 'invisible', it is often difficult to detect Beware of using stereotypes! Being culturally aware or informed to recognize differences does NOT mean judge the differences Using the Culture Wizard to research the differences Keep in mind a U.S. National raised in China has a different 'culture' than a U.S. National raised in the U.S.

Strategic IHRM

IHRM strategy focuses on creating and implementing IHRM policies and practices that help achieve an MNE's international strategy Strategic planning process? Mission, vision, goals Environmental scanning Strategy formation Strategy implementation Evaluation and control Involves the strategic management of the IHR function and department itself

Unusual Laws Around the World

Illegal: To chew gum in Singapore To run out of gas on the German Autobahn To hike naked in Switzerland To feed Pigeons in Venice, Italy Wear a Winnie the Pooh t-shirt in Poland To ride a cow while drunk in Scotland No selfies with Buddha in Sri Lanka To fly a kite in Victoria, Australia, and Buenos Aires, Argentina To be shirtless in Barcelona To swear in the U.A.E.

Major issues of IHRM

Immigration and visas: Every country exercises control over its definition of citizenship and immigration. Japan- very limited, Canada and US- large immigration but strong control on who- based on a passport, not a company, Must have current visas Data privacy and protection: Constitutional protection and cultural values- EU very strong controls- design company rules based on most strict-Tik Tok Anti-discrimination and harassment: Many countries have laws and regulations but use different definitions and coverage Termination and reduction in force: Employment contracts or labor agreements- limits on who, how, and when. High severance is some countries- Ireland 6.5 weeks of pay for each year of service Protection of intellectual property: AI, software code, copyright protection -China

divergence

Institutional, national, and business values are deeply integrated and embedded in society and resist change to accommodate policies and practices introduced from the outside - national culture is a dominant force Divergence between and within a region with two possibilities: • More divergence between regions than within a region or; • Less divergence between regions than within a region • Other HRM issues diverging, e.g., the influence of labor unions

Comparative Labor Relations

Labor relations strategies vary greatly from country to country—the strategy used in one country is sometimes irrelevant or of limited value in another. Several factors can account for this: Economic development of the country Entry strategies must often be modified Changes in the political environment Strike activity Other differences are more regional Historical differences in labor relations and trade unions

extraterritorial laws

Laws that apply beyond the sovereign territory of the nation that enacted them exceptions might exist if they conflict with host country laws (foreign complusion defense)

country-of-origin effect:

MNE are shaped by the institutions existing in 'parent country'

Beyond networks: meta-nationals

Meta-nationals have 3 types of units: 1. Sensing units. Uncover widely dispersed engineering & market insights 2. Magnet units. attract and create a business plan to convert innovations into products and services 3. Marketing and production units. market and produce adaptations of these products and services around the world

Factors underlying historical differences in trade unions

Mode of technology and industrial organization at critical stages of union development Methods of government union regulation Ideological divisions within the trade union movement Influence of religious organizations on trade union development Managerial strategies for labor relations in large corporations

It has been suggested that organizations of the 21st century are:

Moving to more flexible international organizational structures

Non-equity cross-border alliances

Operate as separate legal entities and bears its own liabilities Operate as separate legal entities and bears its own liabilities

Three key aspects of working with US workers include

Optimistic and empowered, task focused, and change tolerant

Convergence

Over time organizational structures and business practices and values in differing countries and regions will become similar - embrace common attitudes and behaviors There may be more convergence: • HRM policies than in practices • Shift to a more performance-driven HRM function

An employee who currently works at the 'home office' and has accepted an assignment to subsidiary C is considered:

Parent Country National (PCN)

Define National Cultural:

Patterns of thought, feeling and action acquired during childhood

Process of acculturation

Portfolio - maintain separate cultures. Managers in both companies retain autonomy Blending - choose the best elements from each culture. The new organization retains the best aspects of the original partners New creation - develop a new culture that fits the new organization. The new organization is different from both original partners Assimilation - assign legitimacy to one culture and expect assimilation by members of the other culture.

Equity

Purchase of shares of an enterprise in a foreign country Greenfield- personalized, exactly what you want. Downside- you really need to be savvy about what you're going into. Born global firms- tech firms IJV- two joint ventures that combine Mergers and Acquistion's

equity

Purchase of shares of an enterprise in a foreign country greenfield born global firms IJV Mergers & acquisitions

MNEs that standardize

Pursue multinational or transnational corporate strategies Supported by corresponding organizational structures Reinforced by a shared worldwide corporate culture may not be appropriate for entire workforce:focus on management, cross-border leaders, etc.

The law establishes rules for behavior, usually enforced through a set of institutions.

Shapes government, economics, and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people, people and organizations, and between organizations. Each legal systems has their own methodology for creating and enforcing laws.

Organizational structures typically change due to

Strain imposed by growth and geographical spread Need for improved coordination and control across business units Constraints imposed by host-government regulations on ownership and equity

Convergence perspective is considered:

Suggest that over time organizational structures and business practices and value in differing countries and regions will become similar

Beyond the matrix org. structures

The Heterarchy (pg 64)MNEs have different kinds of centers apart from 'headquarters' The Transnational (pg 65)resources and responsibilities are interdependent across national boundaries The Network (pg 66)subsidiaries are nodes, loosely coupled political systems **At this stage, there is less hierarchy and nostructure is considered inherently superior.

Briefly describe the Personal Cultural Profile tool

The Personal Cultural Profile is a tool that uses a wide variety of questions (40) to assess an individuals about their preferences which also allows them to see how they can compare to both countries and people they work with in regards to culture. After you finish the questions you can see your results on a range for 8 different categories. The different categories are hierarchy, group, relationship, communication, time, change, formality, and motivation. Each category has a range so individuals are able to see where they land. For example, the category "communication" has a range from indirect and direct and the questions you answered will place you corresponding to where you fit.

Use and Management of Virtual Global Teams

The complexity of global business requires the interaction and networking of people with multiple competencies from many different locations, most use VIRTUAL TEAMS Save money: no or limited travel or to relocate the team Use of technology for 'meetings'

Stahl-Björkman-Morris def. of IHRM

The field of IHRM covers All issues related to firm outcomes A wide range of HR issues facing MNEs in different parts of their organizations

IHRM features in SMEs

The founder or owner has a large impact Recruitment, selection, and retention: SMEs struggle because of perceptions Yet SME requirements are similar to those of large organizations Human resource development: the challenge of learning Expatriate management Limited resources of the HR department and outsourcing

IHRM features in SMEs

The founder or owner has large impact Recruitment, selection, and retention:SMEs struggle because of perceptions Yet SME requirements are similar to those of large organizations Human resource development: the challenge of learning Expatriate management Limited resources of the HR department and outsourcing

codetermination

The legal requirement that employees participate on supervisory boards or boards of directors Requires management to obtain their agreement when major strategic decisions are to be made. 'right to vote for representation' 1. Reduce workplace conflict 2. Increase bargaining power of EE 3. Correct market failures through public policy

Cultures change

There is increasing 1. international connectedness 2. global economy coordination 3. harmonization of laws and regulations 4. migration Cultures are not confined to given territories. This means new challenges of HRM

Coping with multiple legal systems require the understanding of the legal systems so they know what to expect, how to behave with: management and HR policies and practices.

These legal systems apply not only to management in terms of operations and decisions but also to the employees and families in their everyday lives. Organizations/HR leadership, as well as expats, should know local laws, police authority, court system.

Example US laws with Extraterritorial Intent

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act Age Discrimination Act Americans with Disabilities Act Foreign Corrupt Practices Act

All of the following are Trade unions responses to multinationals EXCEPT:

To agree to a major contractual request by MNEs

Why locally responsive HRM

To respect local Cultural values, Traditions, Legislation, Government policies, Education systems regarding HRM and work practices

Trade unions may constrain the strategic choices of a MNE by:

Trade unions may limit strategic choices of MNE in three ways (pg 249): Influencing wages Constraining the ability of MNE to vary employment levels at will Hindering or preventing global integration of the operations of MNEs.

Typical cross-border M&A problems

Within the first year of a merger, up to 20% of executives may be lost The percentage lost gets worse over a longer time frame Personnel issues are often neglected, delayed, or not made a priority A high number of M&As fail or do not produce the intended long-term results

union

an organization that represents the workers and in collective bargaining has the legal authority to negotiate with the employer and administer the labor contract.

International relocation involves

arranging for pre-departure training providing immigration and travel details providing housing, shopping, medical care, recreation, and schooling information finalizing compensation details such as : delivery of salary overseas, determination of various overseas allowances, benefits, taxation treatment

The top management's role in a heterarchy is

catalyst and architect

Which of these does NOT drive the localization of HRM in MNEs?

corporate culture

Strategic IHRM is the part of IHRM that focuses on

creating and implementing IHRM policies and practices to achieve international objectives

HRM should be locally responsive to respect to _____ regarding HRM and work practices.

cultural values, government policies, education systems (all of the options)

Kluckhohn & Kroeber def. of culture

culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling& reacting. acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts. The essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and their attached values.

culture shock

emic ≠ etic convergence hypothesis research tends to focus on macro level (etic) divergence hypothesis research tends to focus on micro level (emic) *the international HR manager must be aware of cultural differences

U.S. union density and coverage is the highest it has been since the 1950's.

false

Born Global Firm

from their beginnings, have a global focus and commit their resources to international ventures

a groups culture

gies a sense of who they are and how to behave provides the capacity to adapt and transmit knowledge to next generations affects every aspect of a management process *National culture, business culture, occupational and organizational culture all influence MNEs

Wal-Mart wants to operate in Germany and knows that as a foreign MNE in Germany they are not free to choose their own pay levels. Rather, they are regulated by collective wage agreements, typical for the German environment. This situation represents what aspect of the institutional environment

host-country effect

comparative law

immigration and visas data privacy & protection anti-discrimination & harassment termination & reduction in Force Protection of Intellectual property

National Culture

is the characteristic way of behaving and believing that a group of people have developed over time and share Values attitude behaviors

greenfield venture

is the establishment of a new wholly owned subsidiary in a foreign country by constructing its facilities from start.

Matrix requires managers who

know the business in general have good interpersonal skills can deal with ambiguities of responsibility and authority have training for presenting ideas in groups **HR planning in matrix MNEs is more criticalthan in traditional organizations.

A centralized HR is described as

large, well resourced HR departments with a wide range of responsibilities and activities

Demtri is a HR Manager for a production division located in the UK (EMEA region). The MNE headquarters is in Mexico (Latin America region). Demtri reports to an IHRD in the EMEA region and a Product Division leader in the UK. This is an example of:

matrix global structure

An organization that use a matrix reporting structure typically:

may have culture barriers that make it difficult to resolve conflicts

IHRM is more complex than domestic HRM due to:

more involvement in employee's personal lives

Develop policies and practices that stay within the laws and regulations of each country

need to be familiar with the laws, regulations and enforcement mechanisms (or rely on legal consultants).

AT&T has made a strategic decision to open a global mobility management center in Philippines because of cost-savings. This means all global mobility activities and expatriate support will be moved from their U.S. location(s) to Philippines, but the company still wants to maintain control over the employees and work so they will continue to be AT&T employees and HR is responsible for them. At the same time, AT&T has decided to open a call center in India to handle all complaints for the company and they will work with a customer service company to staff and manage the human resources in that operation. The global mobility operations in Philippines can be considered _________________, while the situation in Ireland is considered _________________.

offshoring, outsourcing

Non-equity cross border alliances

operates as separate legal entities and bears its own liabilities Share profits, responsibilities, and resources according to specific contractual relationships

Why does and MNE fail?

primarily because of a lack of understanding of the differences in managing HR, at all levels in foreign environments

Define IHRM

relatively new as a profession and an academic area.

The issue of social 'dumping':

that firms would locate in those member states that have lower labor costs, (relatively low social security) to gain a competitive advantage

collective bargaining

the process whereby formal labor agreements are reached by union and management representatives; it involves the negotiation of wages, hours, and conditions of employment and the administration of the labor contract.

Trade unions responses to multinationals

to achieve regulation of MNEs by international organizations, to form international trade secretariats, to lobby for restrictive national legislation

Home Country effect

transfer HR policies to foreign locations

offshoring

transferring some of a company's recurring interval activities and decision rights to an outside provider in another country asset in a contract. The provider can be a subsidiary or a non-affiliated vendor. -affiliated firm, non-affiliated frim

An 'investment strike' is a trade union concern about multinationals refusing to invest additional funds in the plant/site.

true

Non-union worker representation is seen in the formation of 'work councils'

true

Social dumping is defined relocating work to lower cost labor markets to gain a competitive edge.

true

labor relations in teh US

unions- one of the lowest rates (& fastest falling) of unionization in developed nations opposed by American management more so than in other countries less tied to politics than in other Western nations

Outsourcing

when a company contracts a specific process out to a third party (domestic or international), finding someone who specializes in the specific task(s). The employees working in the outsourcing center are not AT&T employees. -HR, global mobility, pension management, call center

A job in a country that is not the employee's country of origin

• Assignment• International Assignment• Global Mobility Assignment• Secondment• Deployment

individual on an assignment

•Assignee •International Assignee (IA) •Global Mobility assignee •Expatriate •Secondee •Employee (EE) •Inpatriate