ILRLE4450 Final

higher more

gender gap could be largely explained by career family trade off including work force interruptions by women and fewer weeks worked by women, women sought more flexibility, large wage penalties for taking any time off work. men's slight academic advantage in their MBA progress (_____ GPA and ____ finance courses taken) contributes to the gap also. After accounting for various factors, men still earned 7% more. Under-representation of women in the more lucrative STEM fields and the negative impact of career/work tradeoffs on the gender gap in earnings. Female MBAs have a more difficult time combining work and family than female physicians, Ph.D's and lawyers. MBA's have less workplace flexibility.

births to older mothers

rise in birth rates among women age 35+ since 1980. also fairly high in 9170 earlier years- older mothers tended to be women with large families who started child bearing in 20's and continued to have children into 30's and 40's even with associated to education attainment, women are now more likely to begin childbearing at later ages.

union wage advantage

the difference between the wages of union and nonunion workers (17-18% since 1970s)

occupational segregation

the tendency of women and men to be concentrated in different occupations

differences in occupation by gender

Major occupations don't tell the whole story Further insights require looking at detailed occupations • But there are over 400 detailed occupations—how can we summarize the gender differences => Index of segregation

The Failed Walmart Class Action Suit

a company wide policy of giving individual store managers discretion to make their own decisions was vulnerable to gender stereotypes and had resulted in discrimination against women. case was struck down because the plaintiffs had identified no specific employment practice, must less on that ties all their 1.5 million claims together. decision did not address whether or not walmart had discriminated against women, but only determined that the case could not proceed as a class action suit. class action cases are generally more efficient to challenge an employer's practices than proceeding with cases on behalf of one individual at a time. they allow plaintiffs to pool resources and rulings that affect a much larger class of workers.

rationales for government intervention

Assumes discrimination exists and market forces won't eliminate it) • Equity • Efficiency - Misallocation of resources - Underemployment - Feedback effects/incentives - Externalities

the rising college wage premium

College grads have fared much better than the less educated in recent decades • Among men, real wages have actually declined for those with less than a college degree • Among women, real wage gains have been much higher for college grads

detailed occupations

However, to fully grasp the magnitude of the dissimilarities, we need to examine gender differences at the level of more than 400 ______ _____ for which the government also provides data.

dual earner single parent

U.S Labor forced was once composed almost entirely of workers with few if any responsibilities for homemaking. the majority were married men with wives who were full time homemakers, while most of the others were single. today, the labor force includes a growing proportion of workers from ____-_____ families, in which both husband's and wives participate in the paid labor force and from ______ parent families- generally mothers and their children

direct costs

expenditures on items such as tuitions, fees and books

costs, benefits

from the perspective of the individual, the factors influencing the investment decision are not affected by the reasons for the upward-sloping tenure earnings profile. it is the magnitude of ____ versus ____ that is the individual's principal concern. even if the upward sloping tenure earnings profile reflects an incentive structure offered to the worker by a particular firm, the situation is similar to firm-specific training in that the higher earnings will only be available to the work if he or she remains at that firm.

independent contractors

individuals who provide a good or service directly to a firm and most often self employed

work experience tenure less narrowed

has two dimensions- general labor market experience, sometimes referred to simply as work experience, which refers to the cumulative length of time that a worker spends in the labor force. and ______- which refers to the length of time that a worker spends with a particular firm. if one were to sum up a worker's ensure at all firms, this would be equal to the worker's general labor market experience. on average, women in the labor market have ____ work experience than me but gender differences have been ____ considerably since 1980.

lower breastfeeding

growing share of the workforce has family responsibilities. burden of balancing the competition demands of work and family is still largely borne by the individuals. but, government and employers offer some policies to assist workers. individuals confront a trade off between doing full justice to their job and fully meeting family responsibilities. balancing these demands is generally most difficult for employed women with families. before they start work and after it ends, they typically do most of the housework as well as child care, essentially working a second shift. employed wives spend 1.5x as much time in housework as their husbands. this appears to ____ their wages, perhaps by limiting the energy and the time they are able to spend on market work also, the need for elder care, mainly provided by women is placing increasing demands on women's working time. size of the U.S. population age 65+ will more than double between 2010-2050. as a result of improve health care and nutrition, the size of the population 85+ will more than triple over the same period. this group is even more likely to require care. demands are especially great for those who are responsible for both elder and child care, typically those who delayed child bearing until 30s and 40s. some women respond to these demands yb taking part time rather than full time jobs, putting careers on hold. those who do work full time are more securely attached to the labor force and earn higher incomes, but many undoubtedly face a time squeeze. low income single mothers are likely to face the most severe time squeeze. those on welfare are required to work for pay for no fewer than 30 hours a week and they earnings even supplemented by the EITC are often inadequate to pay for essentially such as child care. their jobs often offer less flexibility, limiting their ability to tend to sick children or to go parent teacher conferences. pregnant women must be careful to avoid heavy lifting and excessive physical exertion. if employers do not accommodate the needs of pregnant women in hobs where this is required by assigning them to alternative duties, these women may not be able to keep their jobs. ________ is often impossible or at least difficult for employed mothers.

effectiveness of government's anti discrimination efforts

impact of the equal pay act is minimal because men and women rarely do the exact same kind of work in the same firm, and this law does not address discrimination in hiring, promotion, training programs and so on. occupation segregation has decline and more women and men were working side by side, the protection offered by this law has likely grown more important and may be expected to continue to grow more important in the future if there are further reductions in occupation segregation male-female pay gap gave no indication of a notable improvement in women's economic status in the immediate post 1964 period that might be attributable to the effects of the government's anti discrimination effort, the gender pay ratio remained basically flat through 1980 after which it began to increase. african americans experienced considerable increases in their earnings relative to whites in the immediate post 1964 period due to anti discrimination law passage. positive effects of the governments policies on women's earnings and occupations, modest employment gains due to affirmative action policies boost the relative wages of women, because establishments using affirmative action are higher paying, and because sex differences in women's wages are smaller in these establishments. maybe the policies took some time to have an effect and this is why an improvement was not seen until 1980. direct effect of improving the treatment of women in the labor market and in response to that, the indirect effect of increasing the incentives for women to train for non traditional jobs. 1980s- government scaled back its anti discrimination enforcement efforts, number of cases brought by the EEOC fell 1991 law makes it more lucrative for private law firms to represent employees alleging discrimination, before this, monetary redress was usually limited to back pay, now it is possible to sue for distress, humiliation, and punitive damages. new law allows discrimination to be argued before juries, who tend to be more favorable to plaintiffs, also increasing the incentives for private firms to take them on. after the passage, number of class action and other employment discrimination cases increase substantially. 2000, charges filed by the EEOC also began to rise, reaching a record high in 2011.

general training

increased the individual's productivity to some extent in all or a large number of firms

firm specific training

increases the individuals productivity only at the firm that provides the training.

nonstandard work

refers to an arrangement where the time place and quantity of work is unpredictable or where employment is arranged by an intermediary

on call workers

such as substitute teachers and construction workers, supplied by a union hiring hall

Muller v Oregon

supreme court upheld laws limiting hours and regulating other terms of employment when they applied to women, arguing that individual rights may be abridged because the state has a legitimate interest in the possible social effects of women's work. in time, the concern shifted from protection to equal opportunity.

index of segregation

the percentage of female or male workers who would have to change jobs in order for the occupational distribution of the two groups to be the same. The index would be equal to 0 if men and women across occupational categories were identical. It would equal 100 if all occupations were either completely male or completely female.

supplemental poverty measure

threshold is calculated using info on expenditures on food, clothing, shelter and utilities for those of the 33rd percentile of income distribution with additional allowance for discretionary expenditures. figure is adjusted for regional differences in housing costs as well as for whether the family owns or rents. includes the model of value for food stamps and the EITC and by deducting work related expenses such as the cost of child care and out of pocket medical expenses. SPM assumes that cohabiting couples are a single unit, akin to a married couple, and therefore that the cohabiter's incomes are pooled. will be tracked along side the official poverty rate but the official poverty rate will continue to serve as the major indicator of economic well-being (2010- 16% using SPM, 15.2 using official)

underestimated

we lack info on all the possible qualifications of individuals that are associated with potential productivity. some of the factors that affect earnings such as motivation, work effect or willingness to compete cannot be easily quantified. in general, it is not possible to include all relevant job qualifications in a study of gender differences in wage. if men are more highly qualified with respect to the factors that are omitted from the analysis, the extent of the labor market discrimination is over estimated. some of the unexplained gender differential may in fact by sue to men being more highly motivated or gender differences in college major. also possible that women are more highly qualified in some respects not taken into account. then, labor market discrimination would be _____. some lower qualifications of women may themselves be a direct result of labor market discrimination- underestimates discrimination

quit

where statistical discrimination is accompanied by feedback effects employer behavior that is based on initially incorrect assessments of average gender differences may persist in the long run and be fairly impervious to competitive pressures. there is a view that women are more likely to ____ than men. when a women worker is contracted with the same incentives to remain on the job in terms of wages, advancement opportunities, etc, a women is no more likely to quit than a comparable male worker.

arguments against government intervention

• Equity - Reverse discrimination? • Efficiency - Doubt that discrimination exists - Doubts govt intervention to be effective - Concerns there significant negative unintended consequences • Red tape • Unqualified individuals • Poor incentives

temporary workers

"temps", those are individuals who do not have a direct contract with their employer nut work for a temporary help agency.

self employed rate men lowest less more penalty

% of workers who are self employed in 2011, this was much higher for ____, gender gap in self employment has been relatively stable in recent decades. it is attractive to women because it may provide greater flexibility to combine work and family responsibilities and could be a potential avenue of escape from a glass ceiling that limits women's advancement in wage and salary sector. Suggested as a possible route out of poverty for low income women, a modest amount of technical and financial assistance available to low income workers/women in starting their own business. higher rates of self employment for men have also been found for an extensive set of race and ethnic groups. rates of self employment among AA remain the _____ of any group. this is because blacks have fewer assets and less access to credit. business ownership tends to "run in the family" and since black women and men are less likely to have a self employed parent, they are also less likely to be self employed themselves. Female self-employed workers earn ___ than their wage and salary counterparts with the same qualifications. Women in professional occupations appear to earn _____ for self employment even after accounting for marital status and children. self employment reflects an expansion in career opportunities. Self employed women in non-professional occupations experience an earnings _____. Self employment may serve as a means to increase workplace flexibility. For men, some studies find that self-employment boosts earnings. But, one detailed analyses reporting a negative effect. Many women and possibly men forgo some income in exchange for greater freedom in determining their own hours and working conditions, however the lower earnings of the self employed may be considered a compensating differential.

declines in gender gap in college educational attainment

*Explain using human capital model: changing expectations of labor force participation - To work more continuously over the life cycle - Shift into nontraditional (higher paid) occupations Legalityandacceptanceof"thepill"forsingle women—late 1960s, early 1970s - Allowed women to plan their futures - Facilitated postponement of marriage median marriage age rising median marriage age rises with educational attainment Rising college wage premium (also returns to ed tend to be higher for women than men) • Title IX--1972 -prohibiting discrimination in educational institutions; government anti- discrimination laws and regulations—in employment—mid 1960s • Family-related income gains Lower nonpecuniary costs of investment for girls - Girls have traditionally gotten higher grades in HS than boys and put in more time studying - Boys have a much higher incidence of disciplinary and behavioral problems (including ADHD) Why? Not known for sure, possibly: - Later maturation - More adverse effect of absent fathers for boys • "the slower social development and more serious behavioral problems of boys...allowed girls to leapfrog over them in the race to college."

sex exempt

1972- congress passed title IX of the educational amendments to the civil rights act of 1964. title IX prohibits discrimination on the basis of ____ in any educational program or activity receiving financial assistance and covers admissions, financial aid and access to programs and activities and employment of teachers and other personnel HS- all courses and programs must be available to both males and females. University- non discrimination in admissions and in faculty hiring and equally available scholarship and fellowships, assistantships, research opportunities and housing private single sex undergraduate schools are ______ from the non discrimination in admission requirement. once any women, or male, are admitted, no discrimination in admissions is permitted. likely that this contributed to the changes in the participation of women in higher education and in their fields of study we have reviewed. support and facilities for women athletes have greatly increased and so have women's participation in athletic programs of both the HS and college level. positive effects on female athletes. some argue that due to classroom issues, such as the tendency for males to dominate the class discussion, women may benefit from single sex schooling. boys may be adversely affected by the distractions of having girls in the classroom. statements demonstrate an exceedingly persuasive justification for any official action that treats men and women differently. private schools not affected by these decisions. all male private colleges are now quite rare, all female private colleges are more prevalent. HS- number of single sex public schools are growing, in addition, an increasing number of co educational public schools offer some single sex class rooms.

weak college wage risen

A ____ economy may boost your returns to college and thus college enrollment. This is because the opportunity cost of attending college is lower when the economy is weak (lower probability of getting a job and reduce forgone earnings in the investment period) On the other hand, financial resources like parental income may be negatively affected by a weak economy, making it more difficult to send kids to college. most studies find that a weak economy does increase school enrollment, including in community colleges, college and grad school. _______ _______ premium- the difference in the wages of a college educated and a high school educated worker. tuition has increased but the benefits to a college education in terms of higher education earnings have also ____ substantially. Return to a college education was estimated to be above 15% and to have been at approximately that level for the past three decades. College graduates fare better not only with respect towage but also in terms of their considerably higher probability of being employed. great recession- college education young people fared better than non college educated young people

corporate board quotas for women

Adopted or proposed in a number of European countries; under consideration by the European Union • Rationale: representation of women on boards low (US 17%), higher representation of women at the top would help other women • Opponents worry about interference with market and less qualified board members Some evidence that adding more women resulted in fewer work force reductions - Lower short-term profits - But may increase long-term profits (worker productivity • Evidence of impact on stock market value of firm mixed • New approach, more research needed to learn its effects

gender earning ratio

After decades of near constancy at around 59% (F/M), the gender ratio started to increase around 1980 • Progress very dramatic during the 1980s • Progress slower and less consistent since • But cumulative gains substantial - Annual earnings: 59% (1981) => 77% (2011) - Weekly earnings: 61% (1978) => 82% (2011) gender earnings ratio decreases with age gender earnings rato tends to increase with education gender earnings ratio increasing for all races except asians Ratio higher among blacks and Hispanics than for whites and Asians • Women gaining in all groups except Asians (little data) Blacks and Hispanics have considerable earnings gap with whites; Asians do not • Among Blacks and Hispanics, women do better relative to whites than men do • Black gap narrowed substantially for about 10 years after the passage of the Civil Right Act in 1964; little progress since then • Hispanic/white gaps have been widening since the mid-1970s (when data became available Traditionally a much higher share of male workers were unionized than women workers • The share of workers who are unionized has declined precipitously since 1970, especially for men • Female declines have been slower Male decline in unionism reflects shift in industrial structure away from heavily unionized areas like manufacturing • Female rates have declined less because women are more concentrated in the public sector where unions have done better As a result the gender gap in unionization has been greatly reduced (almost eliminated) Women's access to union leadership positions still an issue - Similar problems in access leadership positions in business, politics, academia - Glass ceiling? participation rates rise with education for men in 2011, not strongly the case in 1970 participation rates rise with education for women in 2011 and 1970

Family-Friendly Policies: Other Policies

Alternative work schedules (part-time, 4 day week, flextime) - This and other areas, need to avoid "mommy track" • Flexible benefits • Policies to assist couples - Locating two jobs - Concern about nepotism - Fairness to singles Pregnancy Discrimination Act: forbids discrimination based on pregnancy - Reasonable accommodation? If a woman is temporarily unable to perform her job, the employer must treat her in the same way as it treats any other temporarily disabled employee - Upcoming Supreme Court case: UPS driver, Dr restricted her to packages under 21 lbs. She was placed on unpaid leave Sharing of childcare - Recent study, Harvard MBAs (age 26-31) • 1⁄4 of women expected their partners careers to be more important than theirs BUT 1⁄2 of men said their careers will be more important • 42% of women expected they would handle more of childcare BUT 2/3 of men expected their wives would Models assume men and women are equally qualified and in the absence of discrimination would be equally productive

Family-Friendly Policies: Child Care

Arguments for government involvement - Externalities - Redistribution: well-being of single moms; equal start of kids - Gender equity • Arguments against include encouraging moms to work, increasing birth rates • US government—some subsidies to low income families; tax credits Potential policies: - Universal government provided child care • Unlikely but pre-K gaining ground - Increased government subsidies • shouldtheybetargeted? - Greater government regulation (to assure quality)

overcrowding model

Assume men and women potentially equally productive • There are two jobs, M jobs and F jobs • But initially there is no segregation by sex no wage difference Now what if there is employer discrimination that excludes women from M jobs • Or there could be female preferences that result in no women in M jobs • Then, under certain circumstance, F jobs will be "overcrowded" lowering pay in F jobs relative to M jobs

statistical discrimination

Assume uncertainty and poor information • Employers may base hiring and wage decisions on perceptions of the average characteristics of the group • What if employers' beliefs are incorrect? - This is discrimination, but it is argued that it is not a good reason for persistence of employer discrimination in the long run What if employer beliefs are correct? - Some argue this is not discrimination in economic sense (wage diffs are explained by productivity diffs, on average) What if employer beliefs are correct? - Some argue this is not discrimination in economic sense (wage diffs are explained by productivity diffs, on average) But women do quit for different reasons • Greater quitting for family-related reasons lowers their wages relative to men

girls increased decreased 1980's fewer, fields of study, smaller

At HS level, ____ achieved higher class rank than boys and did better than boys in reading, but they took fewer courses in math and natural sciences and laggard substantially behind boys in math achievement test scores. In recent years, girls not only continue to have higher grade point averages but have _____ their lead in reading and _____ the test score gap with boys in math. Taking more HS math has been found to increase the wage of female college graduates, as well as their likelihood of entering technical and nontraditional fields. The trend toward gender integration, primarily the result of women entering traditionally male fields, was most rapid through the _____'s and have slowed since then. The considerable increase in women receiving first professional degrees reflects large gains in their representation among students in traditionally male fields, such as medicine, law and business. Nonetheless, women remain extremely under-represented in some college fields relative to their proportion of total bachelor's degrees. Such as STEM fields, these occupations are among the highest paying. Attracting talented individuals into these areas, both women and men, is believed to be important if the US is to remain competitive in high tech fields. Traditionally, girls are more likely to complete high school but more men would complete 4 years of college. Girls took _____ math and science courses than boys in high school and college men and women differently greatly in their __ of ___. Gender differences have changed changed in recent years. HS academic progresses of girls and boys in math and science courses now tend to be equally challenging. Young women are more likely to get a college degree than men. Gender differences in fields of study are _____. Gender differences in fields of study that remind are on concern because they negatively impact women's earnings and occupational attainment.

deciding to invest in education

Benefits of college investment = higher earnings than otherwise (i.e., if stop with HS) • B > C by a sufficient amount undertake investment • Why does individual require a return on the investment - Other investments pay a return - More fundamentally, "reward for waiting" Benefits of college investment = higher earnings than otherwise (i.e., if stop with HS) • B > C by a sufficient amount undertake investment • Why does individual require a return on the investment - Other investments pay a return - More fundamentally, "reward for waiting" Undertake the investment if: PV Benefits ≥ PV of Costs • Rationale—future values must be discounted; why? What is B0 today worth in period 1? B1 = B0 + rB0 = B0(1+r) • Present Value of B1 = The value today of the promise to pay B1 in period 1 PVB1 = B0 = B1/(1+r) Multiperiod, PV of a stream of income: PVB = B1/(1+r) + B2/(1+r)2 + ... + BT/(1+r)T net present value = PV(B) - PV(C) If net present value > 0, undertake the investment • Alternatively, solve for the internal rate of return = the discount rate that exactly equates the present value of costs to the present value of benefits If above the individual's target rate of return, undertake the investment

bad less rose

It has been found that those who graduate college in a ____ economy suffer significant long term negative wage effects compared to those who graduate during better economic conditions. given the higher life time earnings and employment probability of college graduates compared to their less educated counterparts, college is still a good investment. the earnings of college grads lie above those of high school graduates, of the same sex and moreover the earnings profiles of college graduates of both sexes were steeper than those of HS counterparts. Women earn ____ than men within each education group. Earnings profiles tend to be flatter than men's. College wage premium ___ between 1970-2011. Rising returns to skills like education over this period, doesn't take into account costs, only earnings

child outcomes- maternal employment

Consensus: children 2 to 4 tend to do better in center day care both intellectually and socially • Evidence more mixed for infants but quality of alternative care may not be adequately controlled for • Quality of alternative care does matter • Higher income (due to moms' working) benefits children • School aged children—impact largely favorable (tho supervision issue)

What does theory say about the trends in marriage and divorce rates?

Declining gains from specialization predict a decrease in marriage and an increase in divorce • However, other benefits are unaffected and benefits of shared consumption may even increase as men and women become more similar • Thus, impact of these developments and of rising female labor force participation on marriage and divorce—unclear theoretically Other Factors (besides comparative advantage and LFP) - Lack of "marriageable" men, especially less educated and minorities (related to point made above) - Welfare - ***Changing attitudes, especially towards divorce, cohabitation, sex outside of marriage, out-of-wedlock births Empirically: Appears net effect—falling marriage rates, principally due to rising lfp of women and changing attitudes - Some of the decline reflects postponement more likely to be currently married if you have a higher education Rising female lfp and declining comparative advantage reduce gains to staying married • Rising female lfp also makes exiting marriage more financially viable • But other advantages of marriage not affected and gains to shared consumption may be increased

decreases sex increase, decrease decrease service blue collar

Definitions of occupations and jobs themselves change over time. Main difficulty is that the definition and number of occupational categories often undergo significant changes. Data are not entirely compatible over the years. Starting in 1970, there were significant ______ in occupational segregation. Falls at a diminished pace with each successive decade. Reduction of 14 percentage points in the segregation index between 1970-2009. Changes in the extent of segregation result from two factors: 1. changes in the _____ composition of individual occupations as a result of the integration of previously male or female jobs. 2. shirts in the occupational mix of the economy, as the size of some occupations ______ while the size of others _______ Women enter previously male dominated occupations or men enter formerly female dominated occupations. Decreases in occupational segregation over the past few decades was mainly due to changes in the ___ composition of occupations. Movement of women into formerly male dominated jobs. There was little reverse movement of men into formerly female jobs. Women were especially successful in entering formerly male white collar occupations, particularly professional and managerial occupations. During the period, shirts in the occupation mix of the economy played a lesser role but on net also served to ____ segregation. Female dominated administrative support occupations and male dominated production occupations. During the 2000s, the impact of these trends was somewhat offset by growth in some sex segregated female ___ jobs. Numerous predominantly single sex occupations remain. Many of the male dominate jobs are ____ _____ occupations. Female dominated categories include a number of jobs in the administrative support and service area

subtle barriers

Discrimination may not be conscious or overt • Just as in educational institutions there may be subtle barriers - Absence of role models - Exclusion from mentor-protégé relationships - Exclusion from informal networks (male clubs) • This may reduce women's chance of being hired, their productivity and their pay

statistical discrimination

ERs differential treatment of men and women on the basis of their perceptions of average gender differences in productivity or job stability. can restrict opportunities for career oriented as well as non career oriented women, if employees cannot easily distinguish between them. Labor market discrimination may indirectly lower incentives to invest in one's self by decreasing the rewards for doing so.

young ages

Earnings ratio began to rise as early as the 1970s for ____ women but even for this group, the 1980s gains were considerably larger. Younger women also experienced the largest cumulative increases Increases in the earnings ratio that occurred for each age group suggests that one mechanism by which women have narrowed the aggregate gender earnings gap is the entry of new cohorts of women who have higher relative earnings than their predecessors. May reflect educational attainment, the choice of more lucrative majors and occupations, greater commitment to market work, and perhaps less discrimination against them as well. We tend to see a fall off in the pay ratio as the cohort ____, although the magnitude of the decline varies and there was little decrease in the pay ratio for this cohort between 2000 and 2011. Declines in relative earnings with age tend to be less pronounced at older ages and there are at least two periods, 1980-1990, 2000-2011 where there are no decreases. To the extent that a decrease in the gender earnings ratio with age does occur, it is likely due, in part, to women accumulating less work experience than men, on average, as they age. It may also reflect greater barriers to women's advancement at higher levels of the job hierarchy. Thus, stronger evidence of declines in the ratio between ages 25-34, 35-44, which correspond to primary child-bearing years may particularly reflect the negative consequences of family related work force interruption for this age group. However, there are also important ages for climbing the job hierarchy so they reflect lessor progress for women than men along this dimension as well.

Effectiveness of the Government's AntiDiscrimination Effort

Effect might have been delayed • Women weren't initially expected to be included in the law • Impact on women's human capital investments • Large increase in the supply of women might have camouflaged the effect Evidence from micro-studies of Title VII - Increased women's earnings and employment in male occupations where more enforcement activity Evidence on Affirmative Action - Increased women's employment in covered sector and raised wages (because firms government contractors pay more) - Did not result in hiring of less qualified workers Government has scaled back its enforcement efforts since the 1980s • But class action suits increased after 1991 when a law was passed that permits women to get punitive damages for intentional discrimination (racial minorities already had such rights) • Desirability of class action suits

Family-Friendly Policies: Rationales for Government Intervention

Efficiency - Externalities (e.g., children) - Increasing human capital of women - Adverse Selection (rationale for government mandates) • Equity and redistribution - Child outcomes; gender equity • Mandates or government provision

is there a glass ceiling

Female representation thinner at the top— business, academia, government - 2012 Fortune 500 Companies, % Female: • 14% of executive officers; 8% of 5 highest paid positions • 3% of CEOS (2011) • 16.6% of seats on board of directors - Sample of 5 highest paid execs in S&P 1500, women earned 45% less; mostly due to lower likelihood of being CEO, chair or president and working for smaller firms In government, women were 20% of Senators and 18% of members of the US House; 10 percent of governors; 24% of state legislators - In academia, women less represented at the higher ranks (Associate and Full Professor) - In unions, e.g., 15% only of AFL-CIO executive council members were women There is some evidence of lower promotion rates of women and unexplained gender differences in promotion • But is it preferences, unmeasured characteristics or discrimination? Special issue here: pipeline

Family-Friendly Policies: Reasons for Firm Provision

Firms will provide to the extent benefits outweigh costs • Growing employment of women overall and in jobs with firm-specific training increases employer incentives • Large firms generally at forefront—can reap economies of scale

OJT investment decision

First look at the general decision whether or not to invest in OJT • Then consider reasons for gender differences There are two types of training - General training (completely transferable) - Firm-specific training (nontransferable) • They differ in who (employer or worker) bears the cost of the training and who (employer or worker) reaps the returns General training - Worker bears the costs and reaps the returns Firm-specific training - Worker and firm share the costs and the returns Key => expected work life - Women's shorter expected work life means it will not be profitable for women to invest in some cases when it would be profitable for a man who expects to be continuously attached to the labor force - Firm-specific training especially problematic Discrimination - Anticipation of discrimination and other barriers can discourage women's entry to "male" jobs - Statistical discrimination for jobs requiring specific training • Subtle Barriers Human capital explanation suggests women and men will sort into occupations based on earnings profiles (importance of on-the-job training)

customer discrimination

For discriminating customer/client dc = discrimination coefficient • price of a service if it is provided by a man = p • price of a service if it is provided by a woman = p + dc • Woman will sell less, be less productive • = > Employers will be reluctant to hire women or hire them at a discount

employer discrimination

For discriminating employer, dr= discrimination coefficient - full cost of hiring a man = wm - full cost of hiring a woman = wf + dr • Discriminating employer will be indifferent between hiring a man or a woman if: wf + dr = wm or wf = wm-dr Will employer discrimination cause a market-wide pay gap between men and women? • Depends on: - number of nondiscriminatory employers - how many women looking for jobs - size of discriminatory employers' discrimination coefficients Employer discrimination consistent with empirical evidence - Gender pay gap - Segregation by occupations - Segregation by firms (if employers tastes differ) How can discrimination persist in the face of competitive forces? - Lack of competitive pressure • monopoly • monopsony—imperfect information and search costs - Implicit/unconscious discrimination - Statistical discrimination/feedback effects - Discrimination due to employees or customers/clients

tastes tastes for discrimination nonpecuniary discrimination coefficient

Gary Becker- conceptualized discrimination as a personal prejudice or what he termed as a _______ against associating with a particular group. in this model, employers, coworkers, and customers may all potentially display such ____ for ____. the issue for gender may be more one of the socially appropriate roles than of the desire to maintain social distance. if such discriminatory tastes reflect a dislike for interacting with women in these positions, rather than beliefs that women are less qualified than men for traditionally male pursuits, they are appropriately analyzed as a taste for discrimination. in order for such discriminatory tastes to result in negative consequences for women's earnings and employment, tastes must actually influences people's behavior. individuals with tastes for discrimination against women act as if there are non pecuniary costs of associating with women. ____ _______ cost- a non monetary cost such as the feeling of dictate experienced when an individual has to associate with a women who holds what is viewed as a socially inappropriate role. the strength of the individual's discriminatory tastes is measured by his or her ____ _____ (size of these costs in money terms)

the effect of sexual orientation on earnings

Gay men lower earnings than heterosexual men - Lesbian women higher earnings than heterosexual women

equity vs. efficiency

Government policies to combat labor market discrimination against woman can be justified on two grounds- equity or fairness- may be rationalized as an effort to assume equal treatment for all participants in the labor market, regardless of gender, race, or ethnic origin unequal treatment on the basis of gender may result in an inefficient allocation of resources. too much production of female manufactured goods underutilization of women's talents and abilities costs of increased government intervention in society that may be necessary to produce this result.

women less transportation asians, more, asians, asian more more STEM

However, in the recession, financially strapped state and local government cut jobs and since ___ disproportionately held such jobs, they experienced a larger adverse effect and thus a slower employment recovery. However, substantial differences exist in the employment of men and women by firm or industry even with occupation categories, further contributing to the observed industry differences by gender. African Americans and Hispanics were _____ likely than non-Hispanic whites of the same sex to be employed in higher paying managerial and professional positions and were overrepresented (relative to whites) in service-jobs, which tend to be lower paying. Black and Hispanic men were also more heavily concentrated in _____ jobs and a particularly high share of Hispanic men worked in construction occupations. ______ were about as likely as whites of the same sex to be employed in management and among males, ____ likely then whites to be employed as professionals. ____ men were less likely to be in blue collar occupations. ____ women were more likely than white women to be in production occupations. Women of all races/ethnicities were heavily represented in office and administrative support and were more likely than men to be in service occupations. Except only asians, women were more likely than men to be in professional occupations, women tended to be underrepresented in blue collar occupations although minority women are more likely to work in production jobs than white men. Black and hispanic women are ______ likely than black and hispanic men to be managerial or sales workers. Sales- women are _____ likely to be cashiers, real estate brokers, and telemarketers whereas men are more likely to be securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents, and wholesale and manufacturing sales representatives. Women's representation in detailed occupations varies considerably more than it does for the major occupation categories. Many of the jobs in the professional category are either predominantly female or predominantly male. Women- dietician, nutritionists, librarians, teachers- preschool and kindergarten, elementary and middle school, RNs, social workers Men- engineering, clergy, architects, Chem E's, CS, systems analysts, dentists. This indicates that there are considerable occupational differences by gender within the professional category. By 2011, women constituted 20 % of workers in such formerly highly male occupations as architects, chemists, Chem E's, CS, and systems analysts, dentists, lawyers, pharmacists and physicians Most of the occupations where women continue to lag fall in the broad category of ______.

empirical evidence on gender pay gap

Groups: college grads, lawyers, MBAs • By looking at more homogeneous groups, provide more convincing evidence of discrimination (minimize gender differences in unmeasured characteristics) • Also provide deeper insights into supply- side factors and how their importance may vary across subgroups Recent college graduates in 2009— graduated a year earlier (Corbett and Hill 2012) - Advantages of study • Recent grads unlikely to have children or to have taken time out • Extensive data including college major, GPA, type of institution (public/private, selective), plus occupation, hours, employment sector, age, marital status Women earned 18% less • College major and occupational differences important factors [Underrep in STEM fields] • But controlling for all factors women still earned 7% less Examined earnings of two cohorts of graduates of U of Michigan Law School 15 years after graduation • Early cohort: graduated 1972-78 • Late cohort: graduated 1979-85 • Relatively homogeneous group; extensive controls, e.g., law school GPA, extensive work history, job setting Job setting and hours worked important reasons for women's lower pay • But controlling for all variables (grades, family characteristics, hours worked, experience, job setting), men earned: - 11.1 % more in the early cohort and - 12.5% more in the late cohort MBAs who graduated from U of Chicago between 1994 and 2006 • Small gender differentials early in career • Averaged over sample (out 1-16 years), men earned 33 percent more • Gap largely explained by: workforce interruptions and lower weekly hours (+ small role for GPA and finance courses) - Authors emphasize huge penalties for taking any time out • But controlling for all factors, men still earned about 7% more

screening, signaling statistical discrimination

HC theory postulates that earnings rise with additional education because of the productivity enhancing effects of education. education impacts a variety of skills and knowledge that could be useful on the job. Education behaviors may also teach behaviors that are valued on the job (punctuality, following instructions, predictability, and dependability) an alternative interpretation of the observed positive relationship between education and earnings that has been suggested is that education functions as a _____ device or a ______- employers have imperfect information on worker productivity and thus seeks ways to distinguish more productive applicants before hiring them. also, more able (productive individuals find the psychic and monetary costs of acquiring schooling lower than the less able. perhaps because they find their studies less arduous or because they are awarded scholarships. If the more able incur lower costs, an educational investment may be profitable for them when it would not be for the less able. in an extreme version of the signaling model, education is rewarded solely because it signals higher productivity to the ER and not because of any skills it imparts. From the individual's perspective, it does not matter whether education raises earnings by increasing productivity or by signaling greater ability. thus, this decision making process would be unaffected. If ERs believe that a given level of education signals lower productivity than for a man, women may begin to have higher education credentials than men to obtain the same job- ________ _______

increases tenure retirement

HC theory suggests that the reason earnings tend to increase with experience in the labor market is that on the job training _____ worker productivity critics of the human capital explanation argue that is is not clear that the productivity enhancing effects of OJT actually cause these higher earnings, particular controversy has centered on the reward to ______ with the firm- whether these boosts earnings above and beyond labor market experience and if it does, whether this is due to the productivity enhancing effects of firm specific training. the rise in earnings with tenure may simply reflect the widespread use of security arrangements which appear to govern wage setting to some extent in that non union as well as the union sector. does not explain why firms would adhere to this practice if more senior workers are not more productive. another alternative to human capital explanations is that upward sloping earnings profiles, which reward experience with the firm/tenure raise workers productivity because employees are motivated to work hard so as to remain with the firm until ______ and thus reap the higher earnings that come with longer tenure. this relationship is in the interest of both workers and firms because the resulting increased productivity makes plausible both higher earnings and higher profits. even though workers are not induced to put forth extra effort and be more productive, their higher productivity is not due to training, and productivity does not rise with firm tenure.

employee/ coworker discrimination

How can discrimination persist in the face of competitive forces? - Lack of competitive pressure • monopoly • monopsony—imperfect information and search costs - Implicit/unconscious discrimination - Statistical discrimination/feedback effects - Discrimination due to employees or customers/clients Theoretical issue: why not just segregation? why a wage differential? - Kenneth Arrow: personnel investment (like firm investment in firm-specific training) = > wage differential and tendencies toward segregation There is evidence of segregation by firm within occupations - But women concentrated in low paying firms (pay less for both men and women) • Coworker discrimination may be important in predominantly male jobs, including blue collar jobs, and at higher echelons Additional motivations for employee discrimination - Identity Model (Akerlof and Kranton) - Also, Pollution Theory of Discrimination (Goldin)

segregation competitive monopsony competitive perfect

If employers taste for discrimination vary by occupation, occupational ____ can also occur. discrimination is not costless to the employer who forgot the opportunity to hire more of the lower priced female labor and less of the higher priced male labor. less discriminatory firms should have lower costs of production. such a competitive advantage would allow them to expand and drive the more discriminatory firms out of business in the long run. As the less discriminatory firms expand, the demand for female labor would be increased and the male-female pay gap would be reduced. if there were enough entirely non discriminatory firms to absorb all the women workers, the gender pay gap would be eliminated. then, how can discrimination, which represents a departure from profit maximizing behavior, withstand the impact of competitive pressures? discrimination may persist from a lack of ____pressure in the economy. discrimination would be less severe in competitive than monopolistic industries. unions may also to some extent be considered a barrier to competition in that wages may be set above the competitive level in the union sector. unions are more likely to arise in less competitive industries. women are less highly represented in unionized employment, although such gender differences have decreased substantially. women did not benefit from the wage advantage of unionism to the same extent as men. declining gender differences in union representation have boosted the wages of women relative to men. monopsony power by employers in the labor market plays a role in producing and perpetuating the gender pay differential. ______ power- means that a firm has some power to set wages of its workers, which means a firm has some power to settle the price of its product. one way in which firms gain monopsony power is when it is large buyer of large relative to the size of a particular market. employers hold greater monopsony power over women then men due to factors such as occupational _____ that may limit women's options. women who adopt more traditional roles will tend to seek jobs that are close to home thus potentially giving their employers some degree of monopsony power. firms may gain monopsony power if workers lack ____ information about employment opportunities. in a competitive labor market with perfect information, even a slightly higher wage at another firm will induce workers to move to that better opportunity. when info is imperfect, workers must search song employees for a good job match, thus incurring search costs.

feedback effects

Impact of discrimination magnified by feedback effects

males decline men men's college more

In 2011, gender differences in educational attainment were not large in the US. Gender differences are considerably narrower then educational differences between minorities and whites in theUS, as well as narrower than gender differences in educational attainment in many parts of the developing world. the major development in recent decades has been a reversal of the _____ advantage in higher education. rising educational attainment of both men and women as indicated by a falling share of the population that has not graduated from high school and particularly for women, a _____ in the share with less than 4 years of high school. a somewhat higher proportion of ____ than women had less than 4 years of HS but gender differences were small. category "4 years of school only" increasingly includes individuals who earned GED certificates, many of whom earned this certificate while in prison, included after released. Evidence suggests that a GED certificate is worth less than a high school diploma in the labor market, and so grouping certificate earners with HS graduates increasingly overstate ______'s educational qualifications at the lower end of the educational distribution. Overall, HS graduation rates of young people stagnated between 1970-2000, halting what had previously been a steady upward trend in secondary education in the US through the twentieth century. In the late 1960s, the US ranked 1st in HS graduation rates among countries in the OCED, by 2000, it ranked 13th out of 19th for OCED countries, since 2000, the upward trend in high school completion has resumed, but graduation rates in other countries also increased, and, as a result, the US rate remained well below the OECD average in 2010. Large increase in ______ education for men and women. Traditionally, men were considered more likely than women to get a college education or a higher degree. By 1980, young women caught up to young men in college graduation and in subsequent years, they surpassed them. Young women are now substantially ____ likely to graduate college than young men. the proportion of women who had completed four or more years of college was slightly higher than the proportion of men. more recent cohorts in which women were better educated, continue to replace earlier cohorts, in which men were better educated. US ranks 4th among 37 OECD countries in the percentage of 25-34 year olds with higher education, after having been one of the world leaders in the past. Growth in college education has been particularly sluggish for males. College graduation rates are picking up, even for young men. US does not provide much financial support for higher education as other economically advanced countries. Odds that a young person in US will be in higher education if his or her parents have low levels of education are among the lowest in the OECD. Gap has risen largely in the past 30 years between low/high income family students.

lesser

In general, men have entered female professions to a far _____ extent then women have entered male professions. Nursing is an exception with a large increase in males.

family friendly policies

In the US, the government plays a much smaller role in social policy than in many other economically advanced countries. nevertheless, US has initiated some ____ ____ ____ to help families judge family and paid work, including mandated family leave and a variety of subsidies for child care. on the employer side, firms may offer periodic or unpaid leave, assist workers with child care, and perhaps provide other family friendly policies or benefits such as alternate work schedules, flexible benefit plans, and policies to assist couples.

productivity lowers less feedback

In the absence of discrimination, profit-maximizing employers in a competitive labor market pay workers in accordance with their ______. for similar reasons, they also find it in their economic self-interest to make other personnel decisions, such as hiring, placement or promotion, on this same objective basis. An individual's gender would be an irrelevant consideration. If labor market discrimination exists, it is expected to adversely effect the economic status of women directly by producing difference in labor market outcomes between men and men that are not accounted for by differences in their productivity relative characteristics or qualifications. men and women who would be equally productive and would receive the same pay or be in the same occupations, do not receive equal rewards. such gender disparities may occur because women are paid less than their marginal product due to LMD. LMD directly ____women's productivity as well as their pay, for example when a women is denied access to an ER sponsored training program or when customers are reluctant to patronize a female sales person. LMD may also indirectly lower a women's pay or occupational attainment. if discriminatory differences in treatment of equally qualified men and women are widespread and persistent, the behavior of women themselves may be adversely affected. Productivity differences among workers reflect, in part, decisions they make about whether to continue their schooling, participation in training programs, remain continuously in the labor market, etc faced with discrimination, the returns to such human capital investments are ____, women have less incentive to undertake them. ________ effects- indirect effects, adversely effect economic outcomes of women compared to men.

experience earnings profile

Initially, we focus solely upon the pecuniary costs and benefits of investing in education, although later we invest in non pecuniary costs and benefits as well. The investment decision entails a comparison between the _______ ________ profile- the annual earnings at each level of education and labor market experience- associated with types of schooling.

increase increase more

Investment in a college education is believed to ____ productivity and earnings above what we could have earned if we entered the labor force directly after high school. the earnings of both high school and college graduates are expected to _____ with labor market experience over much of what is the individual's work life. HC theory attributes this increase to the productivity enhancing effects of on the job training. College graduates acquire ______ training informally and formally. (profile increases more steeply) Incremental costs and the incremental benefits associated with graduating from college.

feed back effects

LMD or unequal treatment of women in the LM may adversely affect women's own decisions and behavior. HC theory and other supply side explanations of gender differences in economic outcomes tend to emphasize the role of the gender division of labor in the family, in causing differences between men and women in the LM outcomes. this relationship exists but such explanations tend to neglect the impact of labor market discrimination in reinforcing the traditional division of labor. even a relatively small amount of initial LMD can result in greatly magnified effects it is discourages women from making human capital investments, weakens their attachment to the labor force and provides economic incentives for the family to place priority on the husband's career. LMD is not responsible initially for causing the traditional division of labor in the family. it may perpetuate it by inhibiting more rapid movement toward egalitarian sharing of household responsibilities today. discrimination against women in the labor market reinforces traditional gender roles in the family, while adherence to traditional gender roles by women in the family provides a rational for LMD. this means that effective policies to end LMD can be expected to have far-reaching effects, particularly when combined with changes in social attitudes towards women's roles. a decrease in labor market discrimination will have feedback effects as the equalization of market incentives between men and women induces further changes in women's supply side behavior. these changes in turn are likely to further encourage employers to reduce statistical discrimination against women. as more women enter previously male dominated fields the larger number of female role models for young women is likely to induce still further increases in the availability of women for such jobs.

what is on the job training

Learning skills on the job either through formal programs or informally • Labor force experience is key factor

singe parent families- poverty problem

Lower ratio of adults to children • Tend to be less educated • Women tend to earn less than men • Never married moms fare particularly poorly; less likely to get income from the father, younger and less well educated • Lack of child support payments. Not always awarded child support many awarded don't receive the full amount; or receive no payment

Yahoo

Marissa Mayer, became CEO of Yahoo in July 2012 •Mayer announced in February 2013 that she was abolishing Yahoo's work-from-home policy Mayer defended her decision by first acknowledging that "people are more productive when they're alone," and then stressed "but they're more collaborative and innovative when they're together. Some of the best ideas come from pulling two different ideas together." Yahoo followed by increasing parental leave • Paid leave— - Moms get 16 weeks for a new child via childbirth (up from 8) - Moms and Dads get 8 weeks for adoption, foster child or surrogacy - $500 for expenses (house cleaning, groceries, babysitters)

field experiments

Most of the evidence in gender differences in psychological attributes and their effect on labor market outcomes has been observed from laboratory experiences. in a lab experiment, an outcome is observed after subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups and other environmental influences are carefully controlled. _____ experiments- performed in the real world and blend experimental methods with field focused research, relaxing certain controls over environmental influences to better simulate real world interactions. might be regarded as providing more generalizable results, but there may be questions about how well a researcher can set up the experiment to duplicate what would occur in a real world setting. It is essential not to let the study of gender differences in various traits led to stereotypes of girls or boys or men or women. there is considerable variation among men and women around the average. stereotypical views may thus adversely impact behavior and outcomes for both men and women who conform to stereotypes. highly qualified individuals may be discouraged from entering a particular profession because they belong to a particular group that is on average less qualified. stereotypes, themselves may adversely affect the performance of individuals further compounding negative effects

women glass ceiling

Not only do men and women work in different occupations, they also tend to be employed at different levels of the hierarchy within occupations. Managerial jobs- _____ representation is sparse. Women face a ____ _____ or a set of subtle barriers impeding their efforts to move up the hierarchy.

major occupations

Occupational differences were strongly associated with gender differences in wages. When considering the occupations of men and women, we can get a general idea of the extent of differences by comparing the distribution of make and female workers across the ten _________ _______ for which the government provides data.

gender differences in math test scores

On average boys used to score higher than girls, tho gender differences have been declining or eliminated • But still evidence of gender difference at top performance levels Considerable evidence of importance of social factors in math difference - Within the US, extent of gender differences vary by state - International differences in the size of the gender gap • Associated with gender equality index Gender differences in math scores may be magnified by the pressure of the test-taking situation • Women shy away from competition • Also competition has a less positive effect on female than male performance - Also "stereotype threat" Lab experiment: male and female college students matched for background and interest in math are given a difficult math test (no gender differences in easy test) - 1⁄2 subjects told the test had shown gender differences—women scored lower than men - 1⁄2 subjects told the test was gender fair—men and women scored equally Different treatment, subjects just told math test is a standardized test—women scored lower than men • Similar findings African-Americans and Hispanics intellectual tests, white men in sports situations

less steeper widening

On average, women have ____ labor market experience than men. because earnings tend to increase with experience, women's lesser experience decreases their earnings relative to men's. Men are expected to undertake more substantial investments in OJT and have _____ earnings profiles. this means they experience larger increases in earnings for additional years of experience. after the crossover point, this difference in returns producing a _____ gap between male and female earnings with increasing labor market experience

inefficiency efficiency slow

One's perception of the differences in mens and women's talents, tasks and motivation and how relevant they are to their occupational distribution and achievements. on one side are those who argue that segregation is natural and appropriate. In this view, efforts to change the existing situation will merely lead to economic __________ and personal frustration. Its proponents emphasize the similarities within each sex and the differences between two groups. Those who emphasize the similarities between men and women and the variations among individuals within each sex group are on the other side. In this view, if men and women were not constrained by gender stereotyping and various barriers to individual choice, but were free to follow their own inclinations, they would be far less concentrated in separate occupations. In this case, removing existing barriers would increase ______ and decrease frustration because individuals could seek work move suited to their particular aptitudes. However, even if the present level of occupational segregation is deemed excessive, it would be unreasonable to conclude that the optimal situation would necessarily be a precisely proportional distribution of men and women. Past socialization and the prevalent allocation of household responsibilities would make such an outcome unlikely for sometime to come. In addition, the rate of change is limited by the time it takes for more people to be trained and hired. Large numbers of people cannot be expected to change jobs on short notice, as the computation of the segregation index perhaps implies. The most that could be reasonably expected is that the underrepresented group would be more highly represented among new hires, to the extent that they are qualified for the available positions than among the presently employed in the occupations, at least, it is a ____ process.

supply side

Points to important supply side factors - Underrepresentation in STEM fields - Work-family issues influencing work force interruptions and hours worked • Some other evidence suggests problems worse for MBAs than MDs, lawyers and PhDs • Findings also consistent with discrimination playing a role (unexplained gap)

Family-Friendly Policies: Family Leave

Pregnancy discrimination act of 1978 • Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) - 12 weeks of unpaid leave - To be covered: must work 1250 hours for at least a year in a firm with 50+ workers = >covers just under 1⁄2 of private sector workers - Some proposals advocate increasing length and/or coverage Impact of family leave on women's wages and labor force attachment unclear a priori - Increase attachment and wages by enabling tie to firm - Decrease attachment and wages by encouraging longer time out (especially in other countries where leaves longer and often paid) - Employers might reduce women's wages to pay for leave - Employers might discriminate in employment if believe women more likely to avail themselves of leave Empirical findings - In US, FMLA, if anything, modest positive effect on employment and no effect on wages - Internationally, recent research by Blau and Kahn suggests generous leave policies on other countries boost women's employment relative to the US but possibly at the cost of reducing gender equality within the labor market (mommy tracking, and discrimination) Policy Implications - US could probably expand leave period (from current 12 weeks, unpaid) without serious negative effects on labor market outcomes - Might be desirable for leave to be paid (replacement ratio)but via social insurance rather than employer mandate Other potential benefits - Potentially promotes gender equity by sharing of childcare • Dad's tend not to take leave even when it is available to both parents • Recent research by Patnaik suggests that "daddy only" leave can increase father's participation in leave - Increased parental time during infancy (externalities)

labor force participation less increase rise decreased decrease

Prior to 1980, the average level of experience for all women workers fell slightly, this was the case even though during that time, women's labor force attachment rose and employed women increased their average labor market experience within each age group. the average l;even of experience for all women workers nonetheless fell slightly because of large increases in ____ ____ ___ of young women during those years. even with women in each age group working more than previously, because younger women have ____ experience than older women, this change in age mix resulted in a small decline in average experience for women as a whole. Yet, it is precisely this pattern of growing labor force attachment for women during childbearing years that would subsequently cause women's average experience to ______ By the 1980's overall female experience levels unambiguously began to _____ relative to males. The gender gap in full time experience _____ by more than 2 years between 1979-1989 and decline nearly another year by 1998. The gender difference in tenure has ____ as well. the share of long term workers, those with tenure of 10 or more years was only slightly higher for men than for women.

less higher increased asians women higher asians increased

Race and hispanic origin- within each group women earned ____ than men in 2011, but the gender pay ratio is ____ among African americans, hispanics then among non-hispanic whites. asians are similar to whites. Whites- gender pay ratio, decreased 1955-1965, changed little 1965-1980, rapidly decreased through 1990. Then progress was slower and more erratic. the gender earnings ratio among AA's _____ consistently starting in mid 1950's, full 30 percentage point increase by 2011. Hispanics-23% increase since 1970s. _____ have a high gender pay gap and there are no particular patterns. Since most hispanics are white, the inclusion of this growing low earning group, among whites, would artificially inflate the relative progress of minority groups. Blacks and hispanics of both sexes earned less than whites in 2011 but the difference was considerably smaller among ___ then men. In contrast, the median earnings of asian men have been about the same as those of white men since 2000 and asian women's earnings have consistently been ______ than their white counterparts. May reflect the higher educational attainment of ____ than whites. Earnings ratio for black women to white women ______ substantially from mid 1980s. During this period, men also gained relative to white men, although not as rapidly. There has been no further convergence in earnings for black women or men since then and on the contrary, a noticeable decline for black women compared to1975 high point

less decreased management technological

Recent reduction in occupation segregation have differed by education and so not all women have benefited to the same degree. More substantial progress was made by highly educated women who succeeded in moving in to formerly male managerial and professional occupations. Gains were ____ for less educated women, reflecting the slower progress in blue collar occupations. The LFPR of less educated women and men ___ substantially relative to the more highly educated. In addition, single headed families increased considerably more among less educated women than among their more highly educated counterparts. In some cases, firms have responded to government pressures by placing women in token _____ positions that involve little responsibility and little contact with higher levels of management. in other instances, jobs became increasingly female when skill requirements declined because of _______ changes. In the latter case, integration may turn out to be a short run phenomenon, as resegregation occurs and women increasingly dominate some jobs.

gender differences in experience

Relationship to labor force participation trends complex - Since 1980 the gender experience gap has narrowed: 1979 6.6 years 1989 4.3 years 1998 3.5 years tenure (= time with a specific employer) • What are the trends? - The gender tenure gap: 1966 2.4 years 2012 0.1 years - And, in 2012, share of workers with 10+ years of tenure very similar for men (35%) and women (33%) Conclusion on evidence - Women have less experience than men on average but the gender difference has narrowed significantly since 1980 - The gender tenure gap has been virtually eliminated

human capital investment

Resources invested in an individual today to increase his/her productivity in the future Differences in education between whites and disadvantaged minorities have been narrowing, though important differences remain, particularly in higher education Gender gaps in college have declined and reversed • But that is just part of the story • In the past, there were considerable gender differences in fields of study in HS and college - Virtually eliminated at the high school level - Have declined, but still persist to some extent at the college level Much of the decrease in gender differences in fields of study had occurred by the 1980s • Many of the remaining gender gaps are in STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) fields

dual earner families

Rising share of married couples • Higher incomes that single earner familes • Rising share (~30%) of dual earner couples where wife earns more than husband

Why did the "unexplained gap" decrease?

Rising wage inequality since 1980s, including rising returns to skills Determinants of the Gap - Differences in human capital - Labor market discrimination - Wage structure the rewards the labor market offers to workers for various skills and the premiums paid for employment in high-paying industries or occupations Women improved qualifications (relative to men) - Education (especially 1990s) • Now more likely to graduate college - Experience (especially 1980s) • Gender experience gap fell: 6.6 years 1979 => 3.5 years 1998 - Occupations • Clerical and service decreased • Professional and managerial increased Decline in unionization - Men lost union jobs to a greater extent than women (so gender gap in unionization fell) • Unexplained gap narrowed (especially 1980s) • These improvements in qualifications and the decrease in the unexplained gap offset the adverse effect of widening wage inequality Decline in discrimination - Improvement in women's unmeasured skills - Economy-wide trends favoring women— raising the demand for women workers relative to men • Movement away from blue-collar jobs in manufacturing to white collar and service jobs in health and education • Increased computer use • Growing importance of interpersonal skills Favorable shifts in composition of the labor force • Especially 1980s, women who entered the labor force had high unmeasured skills

cohabitation

Similar economic gains as for marriage but less legal protection • Why cohabit rather than marry? - Current financial and economic resources— wait until on firm footing before taking "next step"; male's economic situation especially important - Importance of legal protection of property rights—have property; presence of children - Social attitudes Expected to be of shorter duration than marriage—without legal protection partners are less likely to become as economically interdependent • Cohabitation does in fact tend to be short; ending in marriage (50%) or breakup (50%) • Thus, prelude to marriage in many cases Empirically: increasing - 1960 1.1 cohabitors per 100 married couples; 2010 11.5 cohabitors per 100 married couples - About 50% of pop (aged 15-44) cohabited at some time in their lives - 40% of children predicted to spend some of their lives in a cohabiting family - Rate of cohabitation is higher in Sweden and other Scandinavian countries

cohabitation (Same sex)

Similar economic gains as for marriage but less legal protection (marriage used to be not an option in most states*) - Expect less specialization Survey data: - Percent of gays and lesbians living with same sex partner • 50% (men) • 63% (women) - Share of cohabitating same-sex couples with children • 10% of gays • 22% of lesbians • Shareofsamesexcouplesexpectedtoincrease as legal situation changes and social acceptance continues to increase

increases

Since women's interpersonal skills tend to exceed men's, on average, this factor is believed to have increased women's wages relative to men's because interpersonal reactions are more important because teamwork is more important in occupations with greater computer use. _____ in the labor market return to cognitive skills and a decrease in the retune to motor skills, women more highly represented in occupations where cognitive skills are important while men are more likely to be in jobs that emphasize motor skills. favorable shifts in the composition of the female labor force- it expanded particularly during the 1980's, and some evidence suggests that women who entered the labor force tended to be those with relatively high unmeasured skills. these skills improved the quality of the female labor force and thus contributed to the narrowing of the gender gap.

child outcomes, family structure

Some evidence that children in single parent and step parent families don't do as well as children in married couple families with both biological parents - One study found higher school drop out rates; and rates of teen births, even after controlling for parental education and income - Reasons may include: • moving more often • Less parental attention (due to time pressure) • But interpretation of findings has been questioned Are the results causal or are there underlying factors that would have caused these negative outcomes even if two parents present (eg, parental substance abuse, family conflict) - Subsequent research has paid particular attention to this issue • Some studies have confirmed negative effects and some have not • So it is a bit of an open question However the low incomes of single parent families are unambiguously concern

Economic Explanations for Family Formation

Specialization and exchange (Becker): larger difference in comparative advantage, larger economic gains to marriage: A has a comparative advantage in home production compared to B if: (w*/w)A > (w*/w)B w* = value of home time w = value of market time Other benefits: - Gains from shared consumption - Public goods - Economies of scale - Sharing of financial risk - Marriage-specific human capital - These benefits might be available to roommates and cohabitors as well as married couples - But marriage offers legal protection— especially important to encourage investments in marriage-specific human capital Declining Gains from Specialization - Declining comparative advantage of women for home production • Increases in labor market opportunities and human capital investments raised w • Changes in household technology and growing availability of market substitutes lowered w* Liberalization of divorce laws (no-fault) • increased the bargaining power of the partner most interested in exiting the marriage • Disincentive to make marriage specific investments - Declining comparative advantage of some men for market production • Especially less-educated men whose market productivity (wages) has fallen BUT Other Benefits from Marriage Remain - And some like the gains from shared consumption may be increasing - Also possibly gains to financial risk sharing have increased

men

Supply side explanations for gender differences in earnings and occupations focus on the observation that men and women may come to the labor market with different qualifications, such as education, formal training or experience and with different preferences or tastes. gender difference in preferences might mean that one group or the other shows greater tolerance for an unpleasant, unhealthy or dangerous work environment, for longer work hours, or inflexible worker schedules, or for physical strain or risk, and is more willing to accept these working conditions in return for ____ wages. to the extent that such differences in men's and women's qualifications exist, the would cause women to earn less and be concentrated in different, often lower paying positions.

gender differences in educational investment decisions

The human capital explanation for why traditionally men were more likely to invest in college than women = >Expected work life • This could also lead women to avoid certain fields of study Historical background: Overt discrimination by educational institutions • Socialization • Biased evaluations • Subtle Barriers: role models, mentoring, and networking • Subtle barriers (implications for labor market too) - Role models - Mentor-protégé system - Informal network Why do women continue to be underrepresented in economics, as well as a number of science fields, even tho they are very profitable • New research by Claudia Goldin on economics finds that college women respond differently than men to lower grades in introductory courses 1972 Amendment to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting discrimination based on sex in educational programs receiving federal financial assistance, covers admissions, financial aid, access to programs, employment of teachers • Particularly dramatic impact on HS and collegiate athletics • Another controversial area is single-sex education

share less increase

The solution is for the worker and the employer to ___ the costs and return to firm specific training. in this case, the specifically trained worker has an incentive to remain with the firm after completing the training because he earns more than he can get elsewhere. the firm also has an incentive to retain a worker who has completed firm specific training because the specifically trained worker is actually being paid ____ than his productivity. A relatively permanent relationship/attachment is likely to develop between the firm and the specifically trained worker. such workers are either likely likely to quit or to be laid off their jobs than untrained or generally trained workers. second, because employers pay part of the costs of firm specific training they will be concerned about the expected quit rates of workers they are considering hiring into jobs where such training is important. earnings will ____ with experience for workers who have invested in training. empirical evidence shows a positive relationship between labor market experience and earnings for workers of both sexes. although the retune to experience was lower for women than men in the 1960's and 1970's, the return to experience for women subsequently increase relative to men's and currently little gender difference is found.

more unionization rate

Traditionally, men are much ____ likely to be union members than women and the gender gap in unionization rates was extremely large. ______ _____- the share of workers who are union members. This gender difference has declined dramatically. 17%- 1956, 1% in 2011. 46% of union members are now women. Declining gender rap in unionization is loosely tied to the precipitous decline in unionization rates that occurred for the LF as a whole. Decrease in unionization has been especially pronounced for men (32%- 12%). Women's rate has decline far less (16-11%) The gender difference in unionization rates has virtually disappeared. The sharp drop in men's unionization rate reflect the shift in industrial structuring where more heavily unionized sectors, such as manufacturing, which are largely the jobs of men. most agree than the decline in private sector unionization is due to this shirt in industrial structure due to global competition.

fertility

Think of children as a "commodity" that parents get satisfaction from • Demand for children depends: - Benefits (utility) derived from children - Costs, including the opportunity cost of income foregone - Income available Out-of-pocket costs of children substantial - 2010: $226,920 (through age 17) • Rising income increases demand for children, all else equal - but seems to raise demand for "quality" rather than quantity • Rising wages of parents have opposing effects - Income effect - Substitution effect • Substitution effect expected to dominate for women/Income effect for men Rising labor market opportunities (wages) for women increase opportunity cost • Mitigated a bit by greater availability of child care and social acceptance of mom's working • Contraceptive advances (the pill) • Government tax and transfer policy—Child Tax Credit; Earned Income Tax Credit (Note: the replacement level is ~2.1 children/women) • Baby boom (1946-1963) - Peak: 3.7 children/woman (1955-59) • Declining through the baby bust of 1970s - 1.7 children/woman 1976 Baby boom: prosperous period, rising real wages. Few women worked => income effect dominant. Prior postponement a factor • Baby bust: Rising education and increasing labor market opportunities for women (wf ↑) and advances in contraceptive technology Modest increase since mid-1980s-2000s to about replacement level: catching up, a bit of a change in attitudes • Modest decrease post-2008: recession Timing of fertility and educational attainment - Delay of births for college educated - Higher incidence of births for the never married among less educated Births to unmarried mothers - Sharply rising share of births - Higher among less educated - Higher among blacks but race difference narrowing • Teen births - High compared to other countries but declining • Births to older mothers rising

comparable worth

This is a legal approach that some have advocated - It is not required under the current interpretation of the antidiscrimination laws - However it has been applied in some localities and in other countries (e.g., Australia) Mandates equal pay for work of comparable worth within the firm • Extension of the equal pay for equal work principle • Involves comparisons across different occupations • Uses job evaluation techniques that take into account factors such as skill, effort, responsibility and working conditions

higher narrowed less

Those who dropped out of the labor force are those with the least favorable LM opportunities. Incarceration higher for blacks than whites and have been increasing. If the less successful blacks are leaving the LF at a faster rate than whites or are otherwise not counter, observed black white earnings may be _____ than is actually the case. Simply because of a change in the composition of employed blacks rather than due to a true improvement in their labor market opportunities. A similar issue potentially affects trends in black/white earnings among women, because although black women traditionally had higher LFP rates, the participation rate has _____ considerably since 1980s. Earnings ratio for hispanics relative to whites are considerably ____ than black white ratios for both men and women. Have been declining since the 1970s, may be because a large and growing proportion of hispanics are recent immigrates to the uS. However, their earnings are reduced because they tend to be young, do not speak english well, face other difficulties in adjusting to a new environment. Discrimination could play a role in earnings differentials as well.

bona fide occupational qualification

Title VII permits exceptions to its ban on gender discrimination when sex is found to be a ____ _____ ____ ____ should be interpreted narrowly, men and women are entitled to consideration on the basis of their individual capabilities, rather than on the basis of characteristics generally attributed to the group. Dothard v. Rawlinson- SC allowed the hiring of only males for the position of prison guard in a maximum security prison male prison, due to the nature of the prison population, and the atmosphere of the prison, women would be particularly subject to sexual assault which would interfere with their job performance. the court has also found in a number of cases that sex cannot be used in combination with some other factor as a legal basis for discrimination under Tittle VII cannot pay women lower monthly pension benefits- each woman is entitled to be treated as an individual rather than as a group member.

sexual orientation

Title XII does not prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation but almost half the states and the dISTRICT of columbia do prohibit such discrimination in private employment, and a number of cities and counties do as well Employment Non Discrimination Act is a bill to prohibit employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity

increased net present value future value discount

To determine whether to undertake a human capital investment such as acquiring an additional year of education, we calculate benefits (B), typically measured as ______ earnings in the coming years due to the investment and (C) in present value terms. Present value (PV) tells us the value today of an earnings stream to be received in the future. the difference between the present value of benefits PvB and the present value of the costs PvC is called the _____ _____ _____. If NPV is positive, an individual would undertake the investment. Decision rule: If PvB- PvC > 0, then undertake the investment. $1 in our pocket today is worth more to you than $1 tomorrow. The reason is if you have $1 today, you can put it in the bank and earn a positive return on it. So, any promise to pay money in the future must also offer a similar return. People value money and the opportunity to spend it more highly than waiting to receive money in the future. This is why the interest rate is sometimes called the reward to waiting. Present value is the reverse of ____ ___- how much a specified dollar amount today is worth at a future date. FV= PV(1+r)^t Where r is the market interest rate or the rate of return on the investment. FV is the future value, PV s the present value and t is the time period being considered. PV= FVt/(1+R)^t When used to express a future value, in present value terms, the interest rate is described as the _______ rate.

family related earnings gaps

Traditional gender roles and gender wage gaps - Responsibility for housework and caregiving - Gender differences in quitting (?) • Probably not average differences when incentives similar (Discuss in detail in Discrimination unit) • BUT women quit more for family-related reasons - Gender and location of the family • Tied movers and tied stayers

empirical evidence of returns to education

Tuition has been rising but so have the earnings gains of college grads over high school grads - In 2010 a college grad was expected to earn $450,000 more than a high school grad over his/her working life (present value) - The return to a college degree was 15% and had been at that level for 30 years Comparison to other investments - 6.8% average stock market return - 2.9% return to investing in corporate bonds - 2.2% the return to long-term government bonds Lower unemployment rates (including in the Great Recession) • Still there are long-term negative effects to graduating college in a weak economy (Kahn 2010) • Other gains: health, working conditions

wage premium technological widening decline

U.S. wage inequality has been rising since 1980 and now stands at very high levels by historical standards and also in comparison to other economically advanced countries. increases in wage inequality have occurred for both men and women. the rise in inequality reflects changes in wage structure- specifically, an increase in the return to skills or the rewards that the labor market gives for various work skills and for employment in various industries or occupation. when the returns to skills and sector increase, wage inequality also rises. the ____ ___ associated with college education is considerably higher today than the was in earlier years, reflecting an increase in returns to skill on the demand side, there has been an increase in the relative demand for skills drive primarily be ____ change. Increased computer use has largely been a substitute for less skilled workers, reducing the demand for then. growing international trade has had the same effect. supply side- sharp slow down in the growth in the supply of college educated workers after 1980. so as the relative demand for more educated workers increased steadily, the growth in the supply of educated workers did not keep pace. this meant that the rightward sift in the demand curve was larger than the rightward shift in the supply curve and the college wage premium rose. rising immigration as contributing the the ____ wage gap between high and low skilled workers by increasing the supply of the less skilled although there is less agreement about the importance of this factor. _____ in unionism, decreasing real value of the minimum wage also likely contributed.

divorce trends

Unanticipated events: sudden job loss; wife's lfp that was not anticipated • Changes in divorce laws—divorce laws liberalized in the 1970s—"no fault" and unilateral divorce; effect seems temporary • Child support enforcement—theoretical effect ambiguous—empirically may discourage divorce tho findings mixed Empirically: divorce rate increased rapidly through 1980 - 9.2/1000 married women in 1960 - 22.6/1000 married women in 1980 - Probably reflects rising labor force participation of women and adjustment to unanticipated changes in gender roles After 1980, divorce rate leveled off and then declined, falling to 16.4/1000 in 2010 - Rising age at first marriage - Wives' lfp now anticipated and less disruptive - Better "matching" of couples now that it is anticipated that divorce is relatively easy to obtain - Note still above 1960 low—a fundamental change has occurred

the unexplained gap

Unexplained gap commonly used as an estimate of discrimination • This corresponds to the definition of discrimination: pay (or occupation) differences that are not accounted for by productivity differences • BUT there are various biases (discussed later) that make the unexplained gap an imperfect measure\ The Blau and Kahn study finds that 41% of the gap is unexplained—is this an accurate measure of discrimination? • No,itissuggestivebutnotconclusive • Biasesintheestimateofdiscrimination - Overestimates discrimination: if important omitted variables favoring men - Underestimates discrimination: if control for factors that reflect discrimination (e.g., occupation and industry)-- includes inappropriate variables - Also feedback effects The Blau and Kahn study finds that 41% of the gap is unexplained—is this an accurate measure of discrimination? • No,itissuggestivebutnotconclusive • Biasesintheestimateofdiscrimination - Overestimates discrimination: if important omitted variables favoring men - Underestimates discrimination: if control for factors that reflect discrimination (e.g., occupation and industry)-- includes inappropriate variables - Also feedback effects Women pay a price for shorter hours or workplace flexibility - In some occupations there is a higher hourly rate of pay (wage) for workers who work long hours Goldin and Katz (2012) point to pharmacy as a model: flexibility but no penalty • In 1960s predominantly male occupation, most self employed—long hours and large pay gap • Since then, growth of chains, shift to employees, women entered and pay gap shrank - No premium for long hours - 1⁄4 of female pharmacists part-time - Pharmacy still a relatively high-paying occupation Psychological attributes/soft skills - Preferences for negotiation, competition, risk • Gender differences boost male wages - But gender differences in some factors, e.g., interpersonal skills favor women - Impact of these factors may be partially included in measured factors - Recall too there may be feedback effects

gender differences in psychological attributes

Various terms: soft skills, noncognitive skills, psychological attributes • Refers to personality traits, goals, motivations, preferences that influence education and labor market success Don't know if differences due to nature or nurture and how amenable to change • Not all gender differences favor men - Greater behavioral problems of boys—and educational attainment - Some evidence of greater interpersonal skills of women • Much evidence based on lab experiments • Important to avoid stereotyping Women have lower propensity to negotiate Likely significant factor but shouldn't be oversold - Women negotiating may elicit a negative response • Lab experiment: participants didn't want to work with female (but not male) manager who negotiated for higher compensation - Negotiation is a form of bargaining and outcome depends on alternatives available Women shy away from competition Patriarchal society (Maasai of Tanzania): women shy away from competition - Matrilineal/Matrilocal society (Khasi of India): gender difference reversed—women compete more often than men Attitudes toward risk involve the willingness of individuals to accept risk (uncertain payoffs) • An individual is risk averse if he/she prefers a certain outcome to an uncertain one with a higher expected payoff • The more risk averse, the higher the payoff required to take on risk Women more risk averse than men on average obs with more variable earnings may be higher paying • But some evidence that within occupations there may not be a gender difference Women tend to be more agreeable than men - agreeable = more trusting, compliant, modest, sympathetic - Opposite of disagreeable or antagonistic • There is a wage premium for being disagreeable • So gender difference contributes to gender pay gap But men earn larger wage premium than women for being disagreeable - In one study women received no return for being disagreeable

male marriage premium motherhood wage penalty

Wage penalties and premiums associated with marriage and parenthood - Male marriage premium • Benefits of specialization for men • Personal characteristics • Selection Motherhood wage penalty (Mothers may earn less due to lesser experience or greater part-time work BUT there is a penalty even controlling for this—why?) • Not able to return to employer after childbirth • Bear primary responsibility for childcare • Discrimination?

attached narrowed

While the pattern is not completely uniform, the fall off in relative earnings for young women as they age may not be as large today as it was previously. More recent cohorts of young women are more firmly ____ to the LF and may also encounter less discrimination then their predecessors in moving up the ranks. Men continue to earn substantially more than women within each educational category. 1970s- women college grads earned less than male HS dropouts. The gender gap within educational categories has also _____ considerably over time. Earnings of female college graduates have pulled considerably ahead of less educated men.

office and administrative support service blue collar men

Women are concentrated in ______ and _______ ______ occupations (secretaries and administrative assistants, customer service representatives, day entry keys and postal service clerks. Women are also more heavily concentrated in ____ occupations than men (waitresses, childcare, janitors, firefighters and police). Women are also more likely to be in ________ occupations (engineers, physicians, lawyers, lawyers, teachers, registered nurses, social worker, clergy persons) Men are considerably more likely than women to be in ____ ____ occupations- semi skilled production, craft and repair work, as well as semi skilled and manual jobs 1. construction and extraction occupations 2. installation, maintenance and repair occupations 3. production occupations 4. transportation and material moving occupations A slightly higher share of ____ than women are employed in management, business and financial occupations. share of men and women in sales occupations is roughly equal.

less increased faster smaller male

Women are considered _____ concentrated in office and administrative support occupations today than they were in 1971. However, there was an increase in their representation in management, business and financial occupations and professional jobs which are generally higher paying. Representation of women in managerial occupations ______ sharply. Between 1920-2011, women moved into professional jobs at a ____ rate than men, increasing the already higher representation in these occupations. Gender differences in employment in services are _____ now than they were in 1970. Women's concentration in service jobs remained roughly stable while men's has increased. in 2011, men were more heavily concentrated in construction, manufacturing, and transportation and utilities than women. Women were considerably more likely to be employed in education and health services. ____ workers were particularly hard hit in the recession itself, as jobs in construction and manufacturing took a hard hit and women who were less concentrated in these areas, fared better.

asians smaller more

Women are less likely to be high school dropouts than men in all minorities except _____. Among hispanic whites, women were only slightly more likely than men to have completed four or more years of college. Among blacks and Hispanics, women ere considerably more likely than men to be college graduates. Among asians, men were more likely than women to have completed 4 or more years of college. Blacks and Hispanics had lower education attainment than (non-Hispanics) whites. They were less likely to have completed high school and less likely to have graduated from college. Differences between blacks and whites were considerably ____ than differences between Hispanics and whites, reflecting a substantial increasing educational attainment of the black population since the 1960's. The larger influx of immigrants with low levels of educational attainment explains some of the sizable hispanic/white differences in education attainment. However, the numbers also reflect higher high school drop out rates even for native born hispanic students. In contrast to other minorities, asians had _____ educational attainment than whites, especially high proportion of men and women, over half, graduating college. 2011- 57% of bachelor's degrees were awarded to women, 60% of master's degrees. Women were awarded about half of doctorate degrees. 62% of associate's degrees. Women are more likely to attend college than men. Second, a substantial share of students who begin college do not graduate, but women are more successful than men in this regard as well. A higher percentage of women then men obtained a bachelor's degree within 6 years. Beginning in HS, male and female students tended to differ in the types of courses taken and fields of specialization.

self employed workers wage and salary workers

are defined as those who work for themselves, typically unincorporated business) plus those who head their own larger businesses, typically incorporated. they may be distinguished from _____ and ____ workers, who work for another individual or business in exchange for compensation

decreased

Women fared better than their male counterparts within each educational category. For women, as well as men, the college educated did a great deal better than their less educated counterparts. LFPR of less educated women and men have ____ relative to their more highly educated counterparts over the past 40 years. among women, this trend reflects considerably smaller increased in participation rates for those with less than 4 years of high school in comparison to substantial increases for those with higher levels of education. among men, decrease in participation rates occurred among all education groups but the decline were especially precipitous among those who did not complete high school. Single headed families- placed them and families at even greater economic disadvantage.

tipping excluded

Women may gain access to a sector of an occupation that was always slow paying. Resegregation may also represent a "______ phenomenon where men exit or avoid entering a occupation when the female share becomes too high because they prefer not to work in an organization with too many women. Women are expected to benefit from the increase in the demand for female labor that results when they are able to enter additional occupations from which they have previously been _____, even when the new jobs are qualitatively similar to those formerly available to them. This is because increases in demand or female workers is expected to increase their relative wages, all else equal. Much of the observed decline in occupation segregation does indeed represent enhanced labor market opportunities for women- increased access to higher earnings or otherwise more desirable occupations.

public women

Women's unionization rates fall far less because a much larger share of female union workers employed in the _____ sector, where unionization rates rose in the 1970s) 1/2 public sector unionization, 17% in 1973. ______ are considerably less likely to hold union leadership positions than men, especially top posts at the national level.

reversal less college highly

______ in historic marriage patterns by educational attainment in 1970, with the exception of those with less than 4 years of high school, education was inversely related to the share currently married. differences across education groups were not very large at that time. high school graduates were only slightly more likely to currently be married than those with four or more years of college. between 1970-2011, marriage rates declined for all education groups but they declined most dramatically for those with ___ education, while divorce rates declined for all education groups, the decline was greater for the _____ educated. by 2011, the share currently marriage was strongly and positively related to education. those with four or more years of college was substantially more likely to be currently married then high school graduates. wealth is regarded as a pre-requisite to marriage. non economic barriers as well- disadvantaged women amy be avoiding marriage or re-marriage because of concerns about future divorce. such concerns are not unfounded given higher rates of divorce for this group. women's concerns about whether they can fully rely on and trust male partners. these views are likely related at least in part to the fragile economic situation. a rise in intermarriage across racial and ethnic lines. intermarriage is increasingly common among more ___ educated individuals. although there is still some social cost associated with intermarriage, the gains to pairing up with those similar levels of education, regardless of race or ethnicity, increasingly exceed the costs. marriage remains the norm, the U.S. marriage rate remains one of the highest among economically advanced nations. most people who get divorced do eventually re-marry though the re-marriage rate has also declined.

employee discrimination segregation nondiscriminatory

a male employee who has a taste for discrimination against women will act as if there is a non pecuniary cost of working with women equal to his discrimination coefficient, Dr. This person must be paid to induce him to work with women. if a discriminatory male worker would receive Wm if he did not work with women, he would only be willing to work with a women at the higher wage (Wm +Dr). Similar to compensating wage differential, economists expect workers to be offered for unpleasant or usage working conditions. one respond would be for the employer to hire a sex-segretted workforce and eliminate the necessity of paying a premium to make workers for associating with female workers. If all Employers responded this way, but had no tastes for discrimination themselves, male and female workers would be paid the same wage rate although they would work in segregated settings. complete segregation may not be profitable when substantial costs of adjustment arise. where such costs are involved, changing from the current situation is costly and employer may be reluctant to do it. there have been large increases in female LFPR and the availability of women for traditionally male dominated occupations. women are heavily concentrated in a few female dominated activities, even when they constituted a small proportion of the labor force. adjustment costs in conjunction with employee tastes for discrimination can help to perpetuate such ____ given employee tastes for discrimination and adjustment costs, the marketwise wage differences between male and female workers may result. again, the size of the wage differential depends on the distribution and intensity of employees discriminatory tastes, as well as a the relative number of women searching for employment. If EEs w no taste for discrimination against women represent a large proportion of male workers or relatively few women are seeking jobs, then it may be possible for all of the women to work with ______ men and no pay differential to occur.

labor market discrimination

both supply side influences and discrimination are responsible for gender differences in economic outcomes. _____ ______ _____- the situation when two equally qualified individuals are treated differently solely on the basis of their gender.

reduced depreciation

adherence to traditional gender roles, as reflected by women's shorter experienced work lives and greater labor market intermittences, lower women's incentives to invest. Someone who plans to be in the labor market of a shorter period of time will find an investment in OJT less profitable. benefits are _____ by the time spent out of the labor market when her earnings are zero. it is expected that due to a depreciation of skills, the worker force interruption will lower the earnings profile when she returns, resulting in a further loss of benefits. given these reductions in benefits, women following traditional gender roles are likely to find it less profitable to make large investments in general training then will career oriented women or men. if occupations differ in the amount of depreciation associated with them, women who anticipate discontinuous work lives are likely to be attracted to fields in which such ____ is relatively small.

more high more

advantage of the experimental studies that they offer estimates of the role of discrimination that are potentially less contaminated by unmeasured factors. ex. screen for musical auditions, ___ women advance past preliminary round and win final round ex. discrimination of women in ___ paying restaurants- where earnings of workers are generally higher. ex. faculty at research universities rated the male applicant as ___ competent and suitable for the positive then the identical female applicant. female faculty where equally likely to exhibit bias against the female students as male faculty. participants had less favorable views regarding the resumes of equally qualified mothers relative to those of non mothers, while fathers were not disadvantaged relative to non fathers.

flexible benefit plans

allow employees to select from an assortment of benefits worth up to a specific amount predetermined by the employer. they increased the value of fringe benefits to employees because employees can choose the benefits that best meet their needs. may provide further inducement to individuals to enter or to remain attached to the labor market or even to the firm.

family leave

allowed workers to take time off from their job search for such reasons as pregnancy, childbirth, and in fact care and tending to ill family members. without such policies, workers may have to deal with these problems by giving up their jobs with loss not only of earnings but of accrued benefits and seniority as well. the availability of family leave, even a relatively short and unpaid one, with provisions for job security, is often helpful in enabling workers, particularly women, to avoid these high costs. also increases the incentives for women to invest in form specific training and for employers to provide them with opportunities to do do. _____ _____ ____ (1978_- amendent to Title VII of the Civil rights Act of 1964, prohibits employers from discriminating against workers on the basis of pregnancy. Employers who have a short term disability program must provide benefits or paid disability leave for pregnancy and child birth on the same basis as other medical disabilities. does not address the issue that pregnant women may need temporary accommodations during their pregnancy- FMLA- allows eligible workers to take up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for birth or adoption, acquiring a foster child, illness of a child, spouse,parent or their own illness. workers may also take shorter leaves intermittently, provided the firm's approval. during the leave, the firm must continue health insurance and afterward, the employee must be given the same or an equivalent position with the same benefits pay and other conditions and employment. FMLA appplies to public and private sector workers who have been with the same employer for at least 1,250 hours. the act app[lies to only establishments with at least 50 workers. to the extent that some states mandate more generous benefits, they supersede the law. opponents of the measure were particularly concerned about costs imposed on employers, who must continue to pay for health insurance for workers on leave and also bear the costs of training replacement workers. net cost of implementing the policy are reduced, however, to the extent family leave reduces the costs of turnover, such costs can be quite substantial when hiring and training expenses are considered. this policy may enhance worker commitment to the firm and hence their productivity. providing short unpaid leaves have not been unduly onerous for businesses in terms of profitability or growth. firms reported an increase in the administrative burden of complying with the FMLA (determining what qualifies as a serious health problem to coordinating with the rules of the ADA) overall, the effect of family leave on women's LFA and wages is ambiguous. availability of leave is likely to increase LFA by enabling workers to maintain job continuity. would result in a positive effect on wages by encouraging longer job tenure and associated investments in firm's specific, the maintenance of a job job match" and the opportunity to continue climbing the firm's career ladder. on the other hand, to the extent that they encourage women to stay out of the labor market longer than they would without such a policy, leave or extension of leave time might have a negative effect due to the depreciation of human capital. more of a concern where leaves may be as long as 12 most or more but in the US mandated amount of leave is short. even short leaves might reduce women's relative wages to finance the beneift, although only negative effect on the gender pay gap would be mitigated if men were to avail themselves of leave as well. it is possible that employers might respond to increased costs of leave by cutting back on employment. effect of FMLA has been modest. small positive effect on employment and no effect on wages. reflects situation in the US- where leaves are generally unpaid and of short duration. internatonally- leaves of short duration were were, if any, negative effects but where leave is paid and of medium of long duration, some evidence indicates negative effects on earnings. children may be the beneficiaries of a generous family leave policy. parents are able to spend more time with their children during infancy, when bonding is likely to be the most important. longer leave encourages breast feeding and has beneficial effects on children. Since FMLA offers the advantage of allowing parents to return to their previous job after taking some leave, some workers may take more time out then without this policy. however, others who might have quit their jobs rather than return to work immediately post birth might stay with their employer and return to work sooner. for a third group, FMLA may have no effect on the among of leave taken because they may not be able to afford to take time off without pay. on balance, family leave increases the length of time away from work but chiefly for college educated parents maybe because they have greater financial resources to support themselves temporarily without a pay check coming in. familly leave, if taken by men as well, tends to promote greater gender equality by encouraging fathers to share in caring for infants and meeting family emergencies. while men and women can take advantage of the FMLA, female workers are still much more likely to seek time off under this policy then their male counterparts. so this policy has not been successful in this regard. from the point of view of workers the FMLA provides limited coverage. does not cover workers in establishments with fewer than 50 employees, worker sdwho fail to meet the 1250 hour per year requirement, or workers employed for less than a year. it covered only 50% of private sector workers, for the remainder, coverage depends on state and firm specific parental leave policies. increasing number of firms not covered by the FMLA voluntarily offered such policies, perhaps to be able to better compete with workers. still leaves are less frequently available in smaller firms and those working part time. provides for only unpaid leave, which limits the ability of many covered workers, particularly those who are low income, to take advantage of it provisions, few firms offer paid leaves, though in the case of pregnancy and childbirth, since workers have access through their employer's short term disability plan. others must use vacation time or sick leave california- provides paid leave for pregnancy under the state's short term disability program. was also the first state to expand the availability of this leave to include those who must care for an ill family member, including a spouse, parent, or domestic partner. this leave is financed by an additional pay roll deduction. program replaced 55% of earnings up to a specified maximum and leave can be taken of up to 6 weeks per year. the program increase the length of leave taken especially for those who would not be in a financial position to take such a long leave otherwise. part of the reason for the low take up rate of FMLA may be those eligible id due to the fact that it is unpaid. despite initial concerns from business, over 90% of ERs reported either no effect or a favorable effect of their firm's productivity and profitability

child care fertility

also, there is some concern that, by reducing parents costs of raising children, subsidies will encourage _____. to the extent tat women acquire more and more market oriented education in anticipation of this and accumulate more work as a consequence, they will have higher earnings. thus, the opportunity cost of additional children will increase. it may be that employed women develop a stronger preference for market goods and perhaps for having their own income, which gives them a greater feeling of independence. not possible to determine which force is stronger. even though some studies have found a negative effect of maternal employment on child outcomes, particularly non parental care in the firs year of life, these studies are generally not able to control fully for child care quality, which would be expected to attenuate or even negate any such effects. children between the ages of 2 and 3 rend to do better in center based child care both cognitively and socially than children cared for entirely at home.

subtle women role models

although cost barriers to women in higher education have been eliminated, ___ barriers to their success in the study of traditionally male fields remains a problem. such subtle barriers also block women's progress in the workplace. simply the fact that a field is predominately male can discourage young women from attempting to enter it. past discrimination may continue to have an impact on your work today. lacking contact with or first hand knowledge of successful ____, young women may assume that they too wold be unable to succeed. even if they believe that times have changed and that their prospects for success are better than indicated by the present low representation of women, the scarcity of women may still pose problems for them, limiting their eventual success and lowering their benefits to entering predominately male fields. without women to serve as ____ ____, female contacts lack adequate information about successful or acceptable modes of behavior and dress. they also lack access to knowledge that was acquired by older women about successful strategies for combining work roles and family responsibilities. they are thus viewed to be pioneers and blazing a new trail is more difficult than a well-established path. women may also be excluded from informal relationships that enhance the chances of career success. older individuals who are well established in the field (mentors) often take promising young students (prodigies) under their wing- informally socializing them into the normals of the field, giving them access to the latest research in the area and tying them into their network of professional contacts.

Executive Order 11246

amended in 1967 to include sex, bars discrimination in employment by all employers with federal contrast and subcontracts. It also requires the firms with federal contracts or subcontracts that have more than 50 employees and $50,000 in contracts take affirmative action for classes of workers disadvantaged by past discrimination.

employing/hiring discrimination coefficient nondiscriminatory less less

an employer who has a taste for discrimination against women will act as if there is a non pecuniary cost of _____ women equal in dollar terms to Dr (the discrimination coefficient) to the employer, the cost of employing a man will be his wage, Wm, but the full costs of employing a women will be her wage plus the _____ ____ (Wf +Dr) an employer will hire a women only if the full cost of employing her (Wf + Dr) is no greater than the cost of employing a man (Wm) and will be indifferent between hiring a man or a woman if the full cost of a woman exactly equals the cost for a man. the discriminating ER will hire a woman only at a lower wage than a man (Wf= Wm-Dr). the lower female wage exactly compensates the employer for the disutility of hiring a woman (Dr) If we assume that men and woman are equally productive, MPs are the same and that men are paid in accordance with their productivity, then women will only be hired if they are paid less than their productivity. Consequences of this situation for female workers depend on the prevalence and size of discriminatory tastes among ERs as well as on the number of women seeking employment. Nondiscriminatory ERs are willing to hire men and women at the same wage rate. (Dr=0). When the number of nondiscriminatory ERs is relatively large or relatively few women are seeking employment, women workers may all be absorbed by the ______ firms. in this case, no discriminatory pay differentials occurs based on gender, even though some Employers have tastes for discrimination against women. However, if discriminatory tastes are widespread or the number of women seeking employment is relatively large, some women will have to jobs at discriminatory firms. these women obtain such employment only if Wf is ___ than Wm. if we assume that the labor market is competitive, all employers will pay the same going rate established in the market for workers of a particular sex. No employer would be willing to pay more than the going rate, because additional workers are always available at that pay/wage. No worker will accept ___ than the going rate because jobs are always available at that wage. in EQUILIBRIUM, then, the market wage differential between men and women must be large enough so that all workers looking for employment are able to obtain it- including those who must find work at discriminatory firms. Thus, the more prevalent and the stronger employer's discriminatory tastes are against women and the larger the number of women seeking employing, the larger will be the market wide wage gap (Wm-Wf) between men and women. Under this model, a wage differential may exist between equally qualified male and female workers because less discriminatory employers hire more women workers than more discriminatory employers. discriminatory employers will hire more women workers only at a wage discount. male and female workers may be segregated by firm.

subtle barriers

as in educational institutions, women in the workplace may participate less in the beneficial ____-___ relationship that often develops between senior and junior workers and may be excluded from informal networks that tend to arise among people in the workplace. as a result, they will be denied access to important job related information, skills and contacts as well as the informal support systems that male workers generally enjoy. although woman are potentially equally productive, discrimination reduces both their productivity and pay. discrimination may also result from the perception that a women would not fit in with the group as well as a man would and evaluations of a female employees competence may be tainted by gender discrimination of appropriate female behavior. discrimination by employers, employees, and customers may also be reinforced by habitual behavior that has the effect of disadvantaging women, even though its link to discriminatory outcomes may not be apparent at first. ex. all male clubs- many clubs, under legal pressure or voluntarily, have open their doors to women. additionally, although no federal law prohibits gender discrimination by private clubs, a number of cities and several states including NY, FL, MI and Minnesota have banned the exclusion of women by business oriented private clubs.

increased blacks

as marriage rates have decline, cohabitation rates have ______. rate of unmarried couples has increased, and many more individuals cohabited at some point. cohabitation serves as an alternate to marriage, at least to some extent. nevertheless, most individuals eventually marry. the proportion of people who never marry in their lives is not expected to increase to more than 10% in the foreseeable future. more children are now being born to unmarried mothers due to postponement and the small increase in the share that is likely to never marry. fraction of currently married adults has declined for all race and ethnicity groups, but has decrease the most among ______. this shift appears to reflect black women's rising economic opportunities combined with black men's often poor job prospects. in addition, especially in inner cities, high rates of homicide and incarceration have further contributed to the decline in marriage rates by reducing the number of marriageable black young men.

firm specific training costs firm

because firm specific training is non-transferable, you will not be willing to bear all the ___ of training. your ability to reap the returns depends on continued employment at the firm that initially provided the training. if you were to lose your job, the investment would be wiped out. If you pay for all the training, you would experience a strong incentive to remain with you employer, but your employer would have no particular reason to give you any special protection form layoffs. Similarly, the ER is unwilling to shoulder all the costs of firm specific investment because if you were to quit the _____ would lose the investment. He would have no special incentive to remain with the firm because eh would be earning no more than he could get somewhere else. A temporary shift in demand that resulted in higher wages in another industry or even more favorable working conditions at another firm might be sufficient to lure you away.

higher implicit

because search is costly, workers will be less mobile across firms then they would be if information was perfectly and costlessly available, and it will take larger wage premiums at other firms to bid them away. search costs time some degree of monopsony power over workers. if employers are discriminatory, women will face _____ search costs than men. as a result, employers can exploit this greater monopsony power over women and offer them lower wages than men. when info is imperfect and search costs exist, it is more credible that employer discrimination can persist in the long run. discrimination against women need not be overt or conscious. unconscious biases cause people to think feel and behave in ways that oppose their explicitly expressed views and even explicitly known self-interests. _______ discrimination- may be less likely to be eliminated by competitive forces or at minimum the impact of competitive forces may operate more uncertainly and slowly. automatically categorize others and treat them in a manner consistent with the stereotypes they hold about a social category. tend to remember evidence consistent with pre-existing stereotypes and ignore, discount or forget evidence that undermines them. employers are motivated to discriminate against women not simply by personal prejudice but by actual or perceived differences between male and female workers in productivity and behavior. even if employers themselves have no tastes for discrimination against women, profit maximizing behavior by employers may result in gender discrimination in the labor market if employers or customers have such tests.

qualifications decreases

both human capital and other supply side factors and labor market discrimination likely play a role in explaining the gender wage gap. we would expect the gender wage gap to decline if 1. women increase their _____ relative to mens and 2. labor market discrimination against women _____ changes in the wage structure- the returns to skills and employment in various industries or occupations, based on the human capital analysis and discrimination models, we expect men and women to have different qualifications and to be employed in different occupations, and industries. this means that changes in the returns to qualifications (skills) and sectors (occupation and industry) will have different effects on women's and men's wages and this will influence trends in the gender wage gap. if the labor market return to experience rises over time, women will be increasingly disadvantaged by their lesser amount of experience. an increased in the reward for employment in male occupations or industries will also place women at an increasing disadvantage. if wage structure changes to more highly reward qualifications and sectors where men are better endowed than women, the gender wage gap will increase. increases in the overall wage inequality in the labor market (in 1980s) particularly, resulted from precisely such increases in the market rewards to skill and to employment in high wage male sectors. women as a group were swimming upstream in a labor market growing increasingly unfavorable to workers with below average skills. below average experience, and for workers employed in disproportionately female occupations and industries.

higher

boys no longer have ___ average math test scores during their high school years than girls. males outnumber females in the very high ranges of science and math tests and females outnumbering males at the very high ranges of reading and language tests. under-representation of women in STEM. while math test scores are regarded as a measure of cognitive ability, evidence suggests that a host of other factors also play a role. these include social influences, and psychological attributes like competition. just the very stereotyping of an activity may influence test scores. In all states and regions, while the average math scores on standardized tests of boys and girls were roughly equal, boys were disproportionately represented at the top in math and science while girls were disproportionately represented at the top in reading test scores. the extent of gender difference among the top performers various considerably across state and regions, this suggests that environmental factors play a role. in states where boys were more heavily represented among top scorers in math and science, girls were more heavily represented among top scorers in reading, therefore sex stereotyping is going on in some states, with boys and girls being differentially treated in some ways that contribute to gender imbalance in test scores at the upper end. gender differences in scores varies considerably across countries, there is considerable variation in the proportion of girls compared to boys scoring at the highest levels of each country's test score distributions. girls math scores were positively related to indicators of country level gender equity. social influences likely play a role in determine the gender math gap and may well affect gender differences in math scores in the US. different cultures place different emphasis on the value of mathematics and these differences effect girls participation in math competitions. less girls from US participate than from other countries. half of the recent U.S. team members were immigrants of children from countries where according to the authors of the study, mathematics is more highly valued than it is in the United States. Women not only shy away from competition but respond differently and less favorably than men to competitive pressure. competitive pressure associated with test taking may magnify and potentially distort underlying gender differences in skills, particularly in an area like math where like is a sturdy belief that men are better at it.

sexual harassment

broad range of objectionable behaviors ranging from the making of sexual demands where a refusal results in adverse action, generally called a quid pro quo harassment, to various actions that are sufficiently offensive to result in a hostile work environment Meritor- sexual harassment is illegal under Title VII if it is unwelcome and sufficiently severe or pervasive to alter the conditions of the victim's employment and create an abusive working environment. 1993- Harris case- a hostile environment is one that a reasonable person would perceive to be hostile or abusive. Title VII also prohibits sexual harassment between members of the same sex under the same legal standards as those used to evaluate claims of sexual harassment by a member of the opposite sex Prior to two 1998 Supreme Court decisions- it was believed, that employers could only be held liable for sexual harassment if they knew or should have known that harassment had taken place. but the liability was extending, making it clear that employers bear the responsibility for preventing and eliminating sexual harassment from the workplace. when sexual harassment results in a tangible employment action- such as discharge, demotion or undesirable assignment, the employer's liability is absolute. in cases of no tangible action, an employer could still be liable but can defend itself by establishing that it took reasonable care to prevent and correct prompt any sexually harassing behavior and that the employee reasonably failed to take advantage of any preventative or corrective opportunities.

alternative work schedules flex-time

can provide greater flexibility for workers to take care of family responsibilities and to arrange their personal lives more conveniently. _________- permits some variation in work schedules at the discretion of the employee, ranging from modest changes in starting and quitting times to varying numbers of hours worked per day, week or pay period. can be advantageous especially for those with young children or other family member who depend on their care. (can avoid driving in rush hour, reducing commuting time) (also benefits those without flextime) some employers ay be reluctant to offer this benefit because they need key employees to be present during stand business hours (to handle customers or meet work flow demands), others may be concerned about the potential for abuse.

shorter prelude

cohabitation is expected to be of a _____ duration than marriage cohabiters are less likely to become as economically dependent. this is because an individual in a cohabiting relationship who specializes in home making and forgoes the opportunity to maintain and increase labor market skills does not receive the same legal protections as a married person would. thus, cohabiters have less incentive to specialize. because cohabitations create few if any legal commitments, it makes it more likely that any personal problems or economic setbacks that arise will lead to break-ups. average cohabitation = 1 year, ending in marriage or break up. more than 50% of cohabiting couples eventually get married, suggesting that it is not an alternative but rather a ____ to marriage. far less likely to be a prelude to marriage for more economically disadvantaged groups and minorities.

less increased increased decreased

college grads experienced more favorable trends in earnings than those with less education. among men, those differences in earnings tends were associated with substantial declines in real wages for the ____ educated. among women, real wages either declined slightly or grew considerably more slowly for the less educated. earnings of those who did not complete high school ____ relative to high school graduates, while the relative earnings of college graduates increased considerably. 2011- women and men with a college degree or more earned about twice as much as HS grads compared to about 50 percent more in 1974. Those with some college also ____ their earnings relative to HS graduates but to a lesser degree than college graduates. Women get a higher return to education than men. For both men and women, more highly educated workers did considerably better in terms of real earnings changes. among men, only college graduates experienced an increase in real earnings. for other education groups, real earnings _______

part time employment

common among women, young people going to school and older workers retired from their full time jobs. offers some flexibility compared to a regular full time job. defined as at least 35 hours per week offers a solution to the difficulties of combining work and family responsibility, as if often the case of alternative work arrangements, offers few fringe benefits, poor compensation and few opportunities for promotion. job sharing- where two individuals share on position. good way to obtain a more attractive part time position. employers find this may help retain valuable employees, may receive partial benefits or none at all.

paid care workers adversely

concern for the well being of others is likely to affect the quality of the services provided in these jobs disproportionately female sector, growth propelled by the increase in female labor force participation, which has increased the need for child care as well as the aging of the population. wage penalty associated with care work. negative effect of predominantly female occupations on wages is like underestimated, new wage information on such extremely detailed categories available for the economy as a whole, an even higher proportion of the gap would be attributed to occupational segregation. within the same occupational category, women tend to be employed in low wage firms and industries. negative effects of women's wages on segregation by industry and firm, even within the same occupation. occupation segregation reinforces cultural notions of exaggerated differences between men and women in capabilities, preferences, and social and economic roles. such believes may ______ affect the opportunities and outcomes of all women even those in predominantly male jobs.

policies to assist couples

couples, especially those with two professional, must deal with the task of finding two jobs commensurate with their respective skills in the same location or having a commuting relationship, if both are to successfully pursue their careers. many heterosexual couples still give priority to the husband's career, often at the expense of the wife's. although husbands are increasing making sacrifices too. firms, acting alone or with others, can help partners find employment. assistance might take the form of sending out a spouse's resume to employers or making use of personal contacts. offering jobs to partners or employees, whenever suitable positions can be found (ex. universities) not penalizing employees who decline a promotion because they have family responsibility or decline a transfer to a branch on a different location because the person's might find it difficult to locate a job there. antinepotism- use to restrict hiring or retention of relations of employees, most specifically spouses, have disappeared in academia but are less common elsewhere. prevented couples from being hired, but if two employees married, one would surely have to go. less severe restrictions exist today, some restrict spouse, unmarried partners or couples with romantic attachments from working in the same department or at least avoid having one partner directly supervise another. a partner who has influence might use it to have the other hired or promoted or they would form a working alliance that may be resented by their coworkers. these abuses take place but they are not more common than among close friends. couples might be more circumspect because favoritism would be obvious. the risk that such problems would occur must be weighted against the disadvantageous of not being able to hire and retain the best qualified people regardless of their relationships. as long as husbands are most often senior to their wives, and in higher positions, it is the women who will be viewed as more expendable. employment of the partner by a competitor may create its own problems. policies that are helpful to married couples raise questions about fairness to those who do not have their own family. singles are at a disadvantage if employers pay lower wages to all employees as a result of benefits such as family leave, on site day care, subsidized spousal health and pensions. singles may be less interested in flexible schedules and may regret the reduction in FaceTime with co workers. some single individuals may observe that they are called upon to shoulder extra responsibilities at work to cater to co workers with families. firms should offer cafeteria style benefit plans, so workers can choose the benefits that they want. extend benefits to a broader set of household members, grown children, elderly parents, unmarried partners, so as to increase the share of the workforce that benefits from these policies. few would benefit from scaling back all such benefits because people's situations change so that most workers are likely to benefit from existing set of policies at some point in the future. unmarried couples- same or opposite sex- tend to be at a disadvantage relative to married couples because they are generally not eligible for substantial benefits that are usually available to spouses including dental, health and life insurance in 1980's, growing number of employers began extending such benefits to unmarried partners as a result of the domestic partnership movement. growing number of states permit same sex marriage, civil unions, which extend spousal rights available under state law to same sex couples. DOMA- 1996, limits federal spousal benefits to married opposite sex couples only, even states that permit same sex marriage

customer discrimination

customers or clients who have tastes for discrimination against women will act as if there is a non pecuniary cost associated with purchasing a good or service from a women equal to their discrimination coefficient. they will behave as if the full price of the good or service is p+Dr if sold or provided by a woman but only p if sold or provided by a man. at the going market price, women will sell less. in order to sell as much as a comparable male, a women would have to charge a __ price (P-Dr) Discrimination, this time on the part of possible customers or clients, results in potentially equally productive women being less productive (in terms of revenue brought in) then comparable male workers. they are thus less desirable employees and receive lower pay. if such customer discrimination exists in somesroas but not in others, occupational segregation may also result.

postponement educated

decline in gains to specialization and exchange has been the dominant factor in determining marriage trends, offsetting the impact of any increase in the benefits of shared consumption, that may have also occurred. liberalization of social attitudes has also played a role. some of the decline in the overall incidence of marriage reflects a ________ of marriage by young men and women rather than forgoing it completely. rising median age of first marriage for both women and men, along with the dramatic increase in the fraction of young women and men who have never been married. delays in first marriage are greatest for the most highly _____ women. women's rising economic opportunities which encouraged young women to stay in school longer and not only to enter the labor force but in many cases to pursue challenging careers, are likely a major factor behind this postponement. pivotal role of the birth control pill in fostering this delay, because widely available to single women in the late 1960's, early 1970's. allowed young women to postpone marriage and pursue college and professional training without incurring the cost of abstinence or facing a substantial risk of unwanted pregnancy that could derail their studies. as more and more women delayed marriages, risk of waiting to marry and then losing out on finding a good marriage partner also fell.

marriage squeeze marriageable men liberalization

declining gains to specialization, due to women's __ labor force participation are expected to reduce marriage. availability of marriage partners demographic trends may lead to an inefficient supply of women or men in particular groups and in turn, reduce marriage rates. (ex. baby boom). women born during the early part of the baby boom encountered an imbalance in the marriage market because the men that they typically sought to marry, generally 2-3 years older then themselves, were from smaller birth cohorts, the shortage of men in these groups created what has been called a "_____ _____" likely reducing or delaying marriage rates and changing the age gap between some spouses. women's propensity to marry depends not only on the number of men in the marriage market but also on the availability of men in decent earnings prospects termed ____ ____ - high incarceration rates of males have also been identified as a contributing factor to an insufficient supply of men and hence lower marriage rates among the less educated. -african americans tend to have lower average education attainment as well as higher incarceration rates compared with white men. -government transfer programs and tax policies also have the potential to affect whether and when to marry. (ex- AFDC paid to families with dependent children- provided benefits largely to single parents and their children, discourage to marriage- led to reform of the welfare system in 1996. despite all the public attention, research indicates that the AFDC could not have led to the large shift away from marriage than begin in the 1970s. changes in social norms- dramatic _______ in attitudes toward divorce, cohabitation, sex outside marriage, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, have undoubtedly affected the decision to marry, its timing and whether childbearing occurs within marriage or outside of it. by reducing the benefits to marriages, or the cost of remaining unmarried, these trends have contributed to a delay in marriage and reduction in marriage rates. 1960- marriage rates rose until 1970 1980- marriage rats have been declining since this time.

qualifications male unexplained wage structure

decreases in the gender wage ratio in recent decades in the face of rising labor market returns to skill and sector that worked against women as a group. women improved their _____ relative to men, thus although women continued to have less labor market experience then men, on average, they narrowed the gender differences in experience, narrowing the gender pay gap. in the case of education, women not only closed the gap with men but surpassed men in education. in this sample of full time workers. shifts in women's occupations played an important role- the employment of women in high skilled higher paying professional jobs/ and management roles rose, while their concentration in lower paying clerical and services jobs fell. decreases in the gender gap in unionization during this time, this was because the decline in unionization had a larger negative wage effect on ____ then female worker who were traditionally much more likely than women to be unionized, experienced a larger decrease in unionization than women. decrease in the ____ portion of the gender differential, a decline in the pay difference between men and women with the same measured characteristics. 1. increases in women's qualifications. 2. decreases in the opposite direction 3. changes in the wage structure (or returns to skill and sector) that favored men over men especially during the 1980s. a rise in return to experience and increases in returns to employment in predominantly male occupations and industries. the effects of these adverse shifts in labor market returns, by themselves would have increased the gender wage gap substantially. thus, in order for the gender wage gap to decline, the factors favoring women's wages (improved qualifications and decreases in the unexplained gap) needed to be large enough to more than offset the impact of unfavorable shirts in ____ ___. this was the case, so the gender wage gap decline.

discrimination declined return lower demand

decreases in the unexplained portion of the gender pay gap may reflect a decline in labor market ____ against women. but, the unexplained gap might also be at least partially explained by unmeasured factors. this means the decline could also be due to unmeasured labor market skills, a shift in labor market demand favoring women over men, or changes in the composition of the labor force due to pattern of labor force entries or exits. it is likely that discrimination against women _____. employers say that women are less strongly attached to the labor force and to their jobs than men. likely that such views have eroded at least to some extent, as women have become more firmly attached to the labor force. in the presence of feedback effects, employers revised viewed can generate additional increases in women's wages by raising their ______ to investments, in job qualifications and skills. discriminatory tastes or prejudices are increasingly less socially acceptable. women may have enhanced their unmeasured skills relative to men. skills that are not measured or observed, in data sets used in statistical analyses like this are. information on unmeasured skills may be available form other sources. ___ value that women have traditionally placed on money and work than men and women's attitudes toward money and work have become more similar in recent years and this helps explain the decrease in the gender pay gap. the underlying labor market _____ shifts that widened overall wage inequality appear to have favored women relative to men. could lead to an explanation of decreases in the unexplained we gap. technological change produced within industry demand shifts that favored white collar relative to blue collar workers in general (expected to favor women). increase computers use also serves to favor women compared to men- de-strcutre work in ways that emphasize physical strength.

societal discrimination voluntary

denotes the multitude of social influences that cause women to make decisions that adversely influence their status in the labor market. because we are all products of our environments to a greater or lesser extent, it is often difficult to draw the line between voluntary choice and this type of discrimination. economists tend to view individual decisions as determined by economic incentives and individual preferences or tastes. they do not analyst the formation of preferences and choices are generally viewed as being to some extent voluntary. sociologists and social psychologists are more apt to examine the role of socialization and social structures factors in producing what economists classify as individual preferences. Individual choices are more likely stemming from social conditioning or constraints rather than voluntary. those who are reasonably content with the status quo or gender differences in economic outcomes tend to speak mainly of _____ choices, whereas those who raise concerns about gender inequality in pay and occupations are more inclined to focus on the role of discrimination, either societal discrimination or labor market discrimination. At least some of the gender differences in qualifications stem from societal discrimination. Although, we acknowledge that many individuals regarded this type of gender discrimination as perfectly appropriate.

pill larger

development of oral contraception, the ____, growing availability to young, unmarried women beginning in the 1960s and 1970s. availability of the pill was associated with and facilitated a delay in married and child bearing which in turn enabled women to pursue professional training after college. direct effects of the pill is that, increased the reliability of contraception and the ease of using it, enabling women to postpone marrying and starting a family and more confidently embark on a lengthy professional education indirect effective was that because it allowed delay of marriage for all young people, a women who postponed married to pursue professional studies would find a ____ pool of eligible bachelor's to choose from. before, they would have faced a smaller pool of potential mates and given this smaller selection, might have had to settle for a less desirable match if she wanted to marry. would have raised the cost to women of professional study. passage and enforcement of Title IX, which specifically banned discrimination in educational institutions, likely led to changes in admissions and other processes of educational institutions facilitated and encouraged increased participation in higher education

feed higher

differences in treatment represent direct labor market discrimination. the anticipation of or experience with labor market discrimination may indirectly influence women's choices via _____ effects. human capital theory suggests that because women generally anticipate shorter work lives and less continuous work lives than men, it will be in their best interest to choose predominately female occupations., which require smaller HC investments and have lower wage penalties for the time spent out of the labor market. constraints placed on traditional gender roles on ability of women to work long hours, travel extensively as part of their job, and relocate to new markets, as well as gender differences in psychological attitudes. role of the socialization process and various subtle barriers that may impede women's access to training in traditionally male fields. demand side- employers may contribute to occupation segregation by discriminating against equally qualified women in hiring, job placement, access to training programs, and promotion for traditionally male jobs. supply and demand side factors play a role in producing the occupation segregation by sex we observe in the labor market. institutional barriers that historically excluded women from particular pursuits of impeded upward progression. women are less likely to be promoted, all else equal. a major portion of the gender differences in OJT remains unexplained, even after gender differences in the probability of worker turnover and other variables are taken into account. women may encounter discrimination in access to OJT. OJT may be valuable in providing entrance into ___ paying jobs. may overstate discrimination if other important non-discriminatory factors are omitted from the analysis which could help account for the observed gender differences. discrimination would be understated to the extent some of the variables that are controlled for reinforce the impact of LMD. not possible to use these findings to ascribe a specific portion of gender differences in occupations to the choices individual men and women make vs. LMD

disparate treatment disparate impact

different treatment of groups with the intention to discriminate, is a clear violation of Title VII. when apparently neutral practices or policies of a firm, say with regard to hiring or promotion, result in.... to have disproportionally adverse effects on women or minorities. may be illegal even if discrimination is not intentional, once shown to be a disparate impact, the burden of proof shifts to the employer to show that the practice is a matter of business necessity or that the requirement is job related, otherwise the practice is discriminatory.

increasingly full

dual earner couples have _____ replaced the breadwinner husband and homemaker wife as the dominant paradigm. although the share of dual earner couples was higher in 2000, most of the recent decline occurred during and after the Great Recession. Thus, it is still too early to tell is this decline portends a long term trend. as many as 64% of married couples with children were headed by dual earners. increasing number of children are being raised in such families. the labor force commitment of wives in dual earner families is often quite substantially, in nearly half of all dual earner couples with children, both spouses worked ____ time, full year. rising labor force attachment of women, improved qualifications and increased labor market opportunities. married women's earnings are an important source of family income today. incomes of dual earner couples are on average, 50% higher than for those with just one employed husband. in conjunction with decreases in the real earnings of less educated men is that the earnings of employed wives rose relative to their husband's on average, and the % of wives with higher annual earnings relative to their husbands also increased. both women's increased earnings and the increase in the fraction of wives who earn more than their husbands would be expected to increase women's bargaining power within marriage.

Higher family job reduced tied mover tied stayer

due to family responsibilities, women workers have _____ quit rates than me workers, making employers reluctant to invest in their job related skills. While some evidence suggests that women workers may have higher quit rates on average than men, most of this gender difference is due to the types of jobs they are in and the workers personal characteristics. All else equal, women are no more likely to quit that they male counterparts. however, consistent with women placing a greater priority of family responsibilities to the detriment of their labor market outcomes, evidence indicates that women are more likely to likely their jobs for ____ related reasons. these types of quits negatively affect subsequent earnings as workers lose seniority and firm specific training. men are more likely to quit for ___ related reasons and such quits tend to positively affect subsequent earnings, as workers are bid away to higher pay opportunities. This gender difference in the reason for quits is concentrated among workers with high school education or less, while little gender difference if found for those who have attended college. the work force attachment of the latter group may be more nearly equal to their male counterparts. To the extent that families place priority on the husband's rather than the wife's career in determining the location of the family, her earnings are likely to be _____ she may be a "___ ___" relocating when it is not advantageous for her to leave a job when she as accumulated considerable seniority and firm specific training. alternatively, she may be a "___ ____" unable to relocate despite good opportunities elsewhere. Anticipation of a lesser ability to determine the geographic location of the family may also lead women to select occupations in which jobs are readily obtained in any labor market, thus constraining their occupation

indirect costs gross benefits positive

earnings forgone when an individual is in school. correspond to the opportunity cost of time spent in school. assume that he does not work for pay while in college, but even if he did, his forgone earnings are still likely to be substantial. college students are seldom employed for as many hours or as high a wage as workers not enrolled in school. full costs of education= indirect costs plus direct costs the ______ _____ of a college education are equal to the excess of the expected earnings of a college graduate over those of a high school graduate over the individual's work life. size of the benefits depends on the length of the individual's expected work life. For someone to decide in favor of a college education, on an economic basis, the gross benefits of the investment must exceed the costs. net benefits must be ______

signaling theory

education enhances productivity Assume employers have imperfect information about individuals applying for jobs Assume cost of investing in education lower for those with higher ability In that case, higher ability individuals have a greater incentive to invest => education signals higher ability So all or part of the return to education could be just because it signals higher ability

institutional models

emphasize that labor markets may not be as flexible as the simple competitive model assumes. rigidities are introduced both by institutional arrangements found in many firms and by various barriers to competition introduced by the monopoly power of firms in the product market or unions in the labor market

non standard work schedules

employed on alternative shifts, nights and weekends the availability and adaptation of technologies such as laptop computers and PDAs, explains part of this change. rise of dual earner and single parent families who must do their shopping on weekends and evenings. nonstandard work schools provide some flexibility for workers juggling child care, schooling, or a job, however, unlike flex time, these schedules are usually set by the employers rather than at the discretion of the employee to the extent that workers are not able to choose their own schedules, those with young children faced difficulties finding child care to meet their demands especially on nights and weekends. often adverse effects of these schedules on the worker herself and her family. biological difficulties adjusting to night work. family members have less time together, negative consequences for marriages and children's behavior.

less decrease risen rise

employed women with children earn ___ than their childless counter partners, even after accounting for differences in work experience, when married men appear to receive an earnings boost from fatherhood. having an employed spouse may cause both husband and wives earnings to ____, what has been termed an employed spouse penalty. wives wages especially may suffer to the extent that typically husband's careers are given precedence, thereby limiting wives job opportunities. family earnings inequality has _____ substantially since the 1980's. primary factor producing this increase has been the pronounced rise in male earnings inequality. it is possible that women's rising LFP has served to restrain this rise or it may have contributed to it. On the one hand, the rising proportion of wives in the labor force tends to reduce income inequality, because now there are fewer couples in which the wife has no earnings. on the other hand, the correlation between the earnings of husbands and wives reflects the fact that men and women with higher earnings potential tend to be married to one another. this association has grown stronger. it appears that the net effect of the rising employment and earnings of wives has been to cause family income inequality to _____ less than might have been the case otherwise- to restrain the rise in family earnings inequality.

labor market discrimination

even if societal discrimination is a problem, it is essentially difference from ______ ______ _____ and a different set of policies is required to address it. labor market discrimination exists when two equally qualified individuals are treated differently solely on the basis of gender, or other characteristics unrelated to their qualifications or productivity. Labor market discrimination can affect women's economic status indirectly by reducing they incentives to invest in themselves and to acquire particular job qualifications. Thus, gender differences in qualifications such as education may reflect not only the voluntary choices of men and women and the impact of societal discrimination but also the indirect effects of labor market discrimination.

labor market discrimination

exists when employers treat men and women differently, even when they have the same qualifications, such as educational attainment and years of labor market experience.

labor market discrimination

exists when two equally qualified individuals are treated differently solely on the basis of their gender, race, ethnicity, age, disability, etc.

monitor

employers may institute family friendly policies in lieu of wage increases and other benefits or because they expect the gains of the benefit to outweigh the costs. possible benefits for employees include improved recruitment and retention of workers, greater productivity and reductions in lateness and absenteeism. improvement in worker retention is likely to be beneficial because it is often less costly to provide workers with family friendly policies than the train new employees. can dramatically increase worker's satisfaction with the firm and they may reduce work/family conflict by lowering stress. firms will also incur costs associated with these policies. there are costs for finding replacements for workers who are on leave. less of a problem for large firms because they are not as dependent on one or a few highly trained and specialized individuals and given their larger staffs, may be able to shift current workers around. costs of setting up the programs themselves- likely lower the larger the firm on a per worker basis, because they are able to reap the advantages of economics of scale conferred by having a larger number of workers who can potentially take advantage of the programs put in place. family friendly may not enhance the bottom line but the also do not reduce it. large firms have been at the forefront of change. change has occurred at a slow pace in the U.S. one reason is that their adoption requires a change in corporate culture, currently family issues are seen as superlative from the work sphere. in many firms, workers are evaluated on the basis of face time, rather than output, with more flexible policies including house based work and flextime it may be harder to ___ employees.

lower more firm

employers re-imbursing tuition for a general set of coursework- this is puzzling because we do not expect employer to pay for general training that will increase worker's productivity by as much in other firms as in the firm providing the training. this general training is not expected to increase worker's attachment to the firm, on the contrary, might be expected to increase turnover. ERs may pay for tuition benefits because offering tuition benefit may enable the firm to attract higher quality (more productive) employees who value the option of using the tuition program. in addition, most of the evidence finds that tuition investment programs are associated with _____ turnover of workers and increased employee retention as motivations for offering such programs, there are a number of positive reasons for these higher retention rates. The availability of the tuition benefit may attract workers who are not only ___ productive but who also have lower quit propensities. such workers may particularly value a benefit of this type. the tuition benefit may encourage those workers who utilize the program to stay on the job longer than they otherwise might, in order to continuing making use of this benefit. tuition reimbursement may be offered in conjunction with other training, that is firm specific training in nature. On net, the package of training offered by the firm may be _____ specific, that is, may increase the worker's productivity more at the firm providing the training than at other firms, thus providing an incentive for the worker with the firm.

baby boom Genertion X Y increase

end of WWII until early 1960's higher fertility rates than prior and subsequent cohorts. (3.7 children) (above the replacement rate of 2.1 children per woman) baby bust- mid 1970's, rate declined to 1.7 cohort that was born after the baby boom and includes the baby bust is called generation ____ fertility rate began to rise modestly in the 1980's, it reached the replacement rate by 1990 ad remained at that level through the 2000s. 2008- rate decline somewhat to 1.9 children per woman the total number of births is also related to the number of women in their child bearing years. generation ____- offspring of the baby boom cohort. while the start and end dates are not well defined, includes these born in early to mid 1980s through the 1990s. this generation is very large because so many women were of child rearing age at this time. baby boom took place during a time of prosperity and rising real wages of men and women because relatively few married, of childbearing age were employed, in these days, the main effect of rising real wages was an ____ in fertility due to the income effect of husband's rising wages. role of falling prices of labor-saving appliances in reducing the burden of larger families. the magnitude of the baby boom probably cannot be fully explored without taking into account the post postponement of births that occurred during the great depression of the 1930s and WWII, as well as a variety of social and cultural factors. subsequent sharp decline in fertility in early 1960's, coincided with both rapid increases in LFP of women women and advances in contraceptive technology.

increased risk

even as the gains to specialization have decline, not only do other advantages to marriage remain, including economies of scale, enjoyment of public goods, and the benefits of marriage specific investments, the gains from shared consumption have _____. this is expected to be the case to the extent that two earner couples have more similar tastes and experience than couples who pursue a traditional division of labor. with two incomes, spouses are able to spend more money on leisure activities that they can enjoy together, further enhancing joint consumption. spouses are able to share ____ and thus are not entirely dependent on one income.

interpersonal

even if men and women do differ on average, it is not possible at this point to know what has caused observed gender difference (nature vs. nurture) social influences could have caused or at least contributed to the observed gender differences and therefore one should not assume that all observed average differences between men and women on various psychological traits are entirely due to biological factors. also, whatever their origin, nature v nurture, gender differences may still be malleable. gender differences in al psychological attributes do not necessarily favor men. women have better _______ or people skills than men, people skills are related to socialbilty and include being adept at various tasks that require interacting with people. these interpersonal skills have been found to be advantageous in many setting. another area where differences favor women is that the greater behavioral problems of boys appear to contribute to their lower rate of college going. Also, a particular psychological attribute may be an advantage in some settings but a disadvantage in others.

marginal product

explanations offered by these models are not mutually exclusive and each may shed some light on how labor market discrimination affect's women's economic outcomes. analyses assume that male and female workers are equally well qualified and in the absence of discrimination, would be equally productive (have the same ____ ____) and receive the same pay. marginal product is the increase in output of a firm that results from hiring of an additional worker, all other factors remaining constant. this assumption is appropriate because models of discrimination are efforts to explain the portion of the pay gap that is not due to differences in qualifications. they are intended to explain pay differences between men and women who are potentially equally productive.

comparable worth

extending the notion of equal pay for equal work to a broader concept of equal pay for work of comparable worth to the firm. proponents argue that this is a reasonable interpretation of Title VII and a feasible way of achieving a more rapid reduction in the male female pay gap. opponents point to the difficult involved in determining exactly what comparable worth means in practical terms. concerned about interfering with the working of the market and the possibility of bringing about a substantial imbalance in the supply of and demand for female workers. comparing the value to the firm of workers employed in different jobs is a difficult task that involves the establishment of equivalences for various levels of education, different types of skill, and varying work environments. (job evaluation) existing job evaluation schemes have been criticized for undervaluing the skills and abilities that are emphasized in female jobs. neoclassical view- raising women's wages is not only unnecessary but would lead to excess supply, hence unemployment and a misallocation of resources. comparable worth has positive effects on women's relative wages. small adverse effects on the growth of women's relative employment. narrowing of the gender pay gap achieved with a relatively modest negative employment effect. canada- substantial lapses in compliance and implementation of the law were found, small firms that lacked the resources to undertake the necessary job evaluation program and did not have a sufficient sample of male and female jobs to make the comparison.

care and development block head start

federal government subsidies of purchased child care through grants and direct expenditures are generally focused on low income families. ______ ___ and _____ ____ grant- provides states with funds to expand day care services for low income families including those on welfare as well to improve the overall quality and supply of day care. can allow families to pay for care on a sliding scale basis, depending on their income. states might give vouchers directly to low income families who would ten use them to buy child care from an eligible provider or even from a friend or relative living outside the home. ____ ____- smaller amount of federal funding, a program which is explicitly designed to provide early child good education for low income pre schoolers federal government also provides a number of tax subsidies for child care. dependent care tax credit- employed parents receive a tax credit in the amount of 35% of actual child care expenses up to 3000 for the care of one child, and 6000 for the care of two or more children, provided their adjusted income is below 15000, credit is gradually reduced to 20 percent of actual expenses for families with adjusted incomes between 15,000-43000 and remains at 20 percent for those with adjustment incomes above 43000. since this credit is non refundable, low income families who do not pay taxes do not benefit. federal government also indirectly subsidizes child care costs and other child related expenses through tax credits that are determined by the number of children in a family and may be received by family whether or not child care is purchased. ______ tac credit- $1000 tax credit for each child under age 17 in family, for married couples this credit is phased out when their income reaches 110,000. credit is partly refundable. so that it is of some benefit to families with lower earnings who do not pay federal taxes. families may also use funds from the EITC for child care. this program provides a fully refundable tax credit provided a maximum of 5236 to allow in a low income working family with two children. _____ ____ accountings- employees may have money deducted from their paychecks for dependent care expenses on a pre-tax basis, since they do not owe taxes on the money set aside for this purpose, the costs of such care are thereby reduced a small but growing number of firms are assisting workers with their child care needs. these benefits are more often provided by larger establishments and to managerial and professional workers. on site day care- employees typicall pay some of the costs. parents do not have to make a separate trip to bring children elsewhere, they are near in case of emergency, and the children receive care during whatever hours the parent workers. children are often taken out of their neighborhood, travel long distances and most change caregivers when parents leave their jobs. 1970s- increases in employed mothers who had their children in organized day care facilities. related to federal subsidies which serve to lower the cost of child care, as well as child care subsidies and on site care provided by employers. largest percentage of workers continue to us child care provided by the child's father or other relatives, either in their own home or in relative's house. some use services of a non-relative, either in their own home or at the home of the day care provider, the remainder of mothers cared for their children at work or did not have a regular child care arrangement. poor families are much less likely to use center care and more likely to have their children cared for by relatives at no cost. among that facts that purchase day care, poor families pay less in total because of the type of care they use, whether it is provided at low cost by relatives or through subsidized programs targeted at the low income population like head start. poor families with employed mothers who purchase care spend a much greater share of child care that non poor families. a smaller percentage of infants are in organized group care as compared to pre school age children. parents of infants who can afford to do so may hire a nanny or find some other way to have their children cared for in their own home because at home the children receive more one on one attention and their exposure to infectious disease is limited. pre-scholers- group care provides the advantages of contact with other children and it teaches them to share and cooperate. school age children- even though self care can build self esteem and independence for older children, it is generally viewed as a poor and even dangerous alternative for younger children. remedies- after school programs that offer supervised educational or recreational activity but also greater workplace flexibility on the part of employers, which would allow for more parental supervision as well as permit parents to attend parent teacher conferences. quality is typically measured in terms of both the structural characteristics of the childcare arrangement and children's experiences in that setting (level of teacher's education and training, group size, child/teacher ratio, the way caregivers relate to children, how much they talk to them, and the continuity of the care with the same caregiver) even though some high quality child care is available, particularly for those who can afford it, much of what is currently available tends to be of poor quality. federal child care funds are insufficient to cover all eligible children. as economic activity is 24/7 there is increasing need for care in the very early morning, in the evenings and on weekends. grants like the child care and development block grant focus on supporting parents paid work, not on providing early childhood education like head start, though many children in low income families could likely benefit from such programs. proposals- (unlikely)- universal government provided childcare, increase government subsidies in conjunction with greater regulation to ensure quality. modest proposals- government training for childcare workers and expanding info on how to identify high quality childcare. government might also create financial incentives for families to use and for providers to offer high quality care. child care centers that are deemed high quality might receive government subsidies.

child care

finding affordable, quality child care is a critical concern for most single parents and dual earner couples with children. in making their decision about whether to stay in the labor force or leave to spend time raising children, parents must decide how much they value their time spent in the labor market compared to the value of time at home. compare the value of market time (W) to non market time (w*), the value of market work includes not only earnings but also non wage compensation, non pecuniary benefits of work and the impact of current employment on future career prospects. value of home time includes not only the value of tie with children but also the leisure they would enjoy and the goods and services they would produce e if they remained at home. in the US, most of the costs of bearing a child are borne entirely by parents, though the federal government provides some subsidies to assist parents through the income tax system, head start and child care block grants. there are both efficiency and equity motives for government to play such a role some opposition to subsidies- particularly to subsidies that directly benefit employed parents who purchase childcare, common argument is that they benefit two earner couples at the expense of those with stay at home homes, without such subsidies the federal tax system heavily favors traditional one earner couples. thus, child care subsidies may be seen as a way to offset the imbalance. even though these subsidies may encourage some mothers to work outside the home who might not otherwise do so, many are already employed and will remain employed in any case. in the case of single mothers and welfare, the 1996 welfare reform requires that recipients take a job and some government child care subsidies are specifically designed to make this more feasible.

specialization shared consumption public goods economies of scale marriage specific investments

from the viewpoint of neoclassical economics, the determining factor in decisions concerning family issues such as marriage, divorce, family issues such as marriage divorce, family is whether the benefits exceed the costs. forces operate to both reduce and to increase the benefits and costs to these decisions, leaving the outcome uncertain. _____ according to comparative advantage and exchange among spouses or partners has the potential to increase the couples productivity and economic well being. comparative advantage in a particular activity, like producing home vs. market goods is determined by identifying which individual is able to do the activity at a lower opportunity cost. the larger the difference between the two partners in their comparative advantage in producing home and market goods, the greater the economic gain to their specialization partnership. such a situation not only encourages specialization but results in it having a relatively high productivity payoff. the larger the difference between partners in their comparative advantage in each activity, the greater the gains to marriage and the larger the deterrent to divorce. other benefits are conferred _____ _____- individuals derive greater utility from doing activity with those who have common interests. ___ ___- goods can be jointly consumed marriage allows for ___ of _____ because two can live more inexpensively together than they can separately. marriage allows spouses to share financial risk if one of them loses their job or wants to make a career switch, while these benefits can be reaped by cohabiters, a particular advantage of marriage is that it offered greater legal protection than alternatives if these relationships are to end. marriages foster investments in ____ ____ ___- skills and knowledge developed by an individual that are worth more within the marriage that if the relationship were to end. these serve as a deterrent to divorce.

more firm specific FMLA

firm specific training- the impact of work interruptions if potentially even ____ severe. in this case, depending on whether a women is able to return to her initial employer, if you cannot get you job back, your firm specific skills are useful. your earnings will be that of an individual without training. returns to previous investments in theory were completely wiped out by withdrawal from the LM HC theory suggests that women who anticipate work force interruptions particularly or larger or uncertain duration, will particularly avoid jobs where ___ ____training is important. unless a women is guaranteed re-employment after an absence she will always face this risk. ______- critical to fostering investments in women's firm specific human capital. mandates that employers must give 12 weeks unpaid leave with a guarantee of the same or equivalent position upon return. there is a lower expected probability that women will remain in the workforce. even though the women's higher probability of turnover could explain some the gender training difference, a major portion remained unexplained, even after this and other determinants of training were taken into account. discrimination could play a role. as women's LF attachment and career oriented have increased- so has the probability of on the job training investments for them, both general and firm specific. this may be due to women's greater willingness to enter jobs that require considerable amounts of ______ as well as greater willingness of employers to hire them into such jobs. As more women are employed in jobs with training opportunities, the opportunity cost of work force interruption is ______ and their labor force attachment is further reinforced.

the internal labor market

firms hire workers from outside the labor market for entry hobs. the remaining jobs are internally located by the firm as workers progress along well defined promotion ladders by acquiring job related skills, many of which are specific in nature. when firm specific skills are emphasized, and a high proportion of jobs are filled from internal sources, firm has an _____ _____ ______ it determines wages for each job and allocation of workers among categories and is insulated to some extent, not entirely though, form the impact of market forces. to administer their personnel systems, larger firms often take the occupational category as a decision unit, establishing pay rates for each category (with some allowance for seniority and merit considerations) and linking jobs together into promotion ladders. thus, group treatment of individuals is the norm and it will be to the employer's advantage to make sure that workers within each job category as as similar as possible. if it is believed that men and women differ in their productivity related characteristics, statistical discrimination is likely to result i being channeled into different jobs.

job evaluation

first step- description of all the jobs within the given organization next step- rate each job according to all the various features that are believed to determine pay differences across jobs last- these ratings are combined to create a score for each job, which may then be used to help determine wages.

family related income gains lower women lower less

for both women and men, a college education boosts their income and ____ _____ ____ ___. college educated students tend to marry others with the same level of education. reap the benefits of a higher earning spouse college educated women have ____ divorce rates and a lower incidence of out of wedlock births. they are less likely to be lower income single family heads. family related gains increased more for _____ than for men (might be at least part of the reason for the dramatic increase in women's college completions) girls have ____ non pecuniary costs of investing in college than boys- less disutility for girls. girls traditionally excel relative to boys in secondary school academic performance, more willing to put in efforts, boys spend ___- time doing homework than girls Boys have a much higher incidence of school disciplinary and behavioral problems, ranging from minor infractions to school suspension and participation in criminal activity. boys 2-3x more likely to be diagnosed with AD/HD. later maturation of boys

increase

for men, the income effect of a wage increase is likely to dominate the substitution effect because they generally do not give up much of their time to provide child care. as men's wages _____, we expect to see a rise in fertility. changes in contraceptive technology such as the birth control pill, changes in reproductive technology, such as those that permit women to have children at older ages, have enhanced women's ability to control their own fertility in terms of timing and the number of children born. government policies (diffusion of family planning policies in the 1960s) and decisions such as the legalization of abortion affect fertility rates and timing. both developments delayed child-bearing and reduce fertility. government tax programs and transfer programs may also affect fertility. (personal tax exemption increases with the number of children, as do several tax credits including the child tax credit and EITC) they subsidize child bearing and provide positive incentives for the family.

divorce increase exit

for the traditional married couple, the independence of housemaid and wife due to specialization and exchange is probably the single most important economic deterrent to ____. both partners have invested a very specific set of skills in their sphere, whether the home or market. over the years, investments by the spouses, particularly the wife, in marriage specific human capital further cements this interdependent relationship. with women's rising LFP, the gains from specialization and exchange are reduced and the propensity to divorce is likely to _____. the similar experiences of husbands and wives in dual earner couples may enhance the quality of their married lives, thereby making the union more enduring. women's increasing LFP increases the financial viability of a women exiting a marriage and being able to support herself and her children. for partners in an unhappy marriage, a divorce may be an improvement for all concerned. may observe a positive relationship between women's paid work and divorce, but rather that women's market earnings provided the means to ____ an unhappy situation (women's work did not cause the divorce_

explained unexplained gender wage labor market discrimination

gender wage gap- the part of the difference that's due to differences in human capital or other qualifications- the ______ gap, and the part that cannot be explained by three factors, the ____ gap. ____ ____ ratio- female divided by male wages- explanatory variables considered include human capital, education and experience, as well as measures of occupation, industry and union status. women's lesser amount of labor market experience is a significant determinant of the gender wage differential. women in the sample had more education than men, which works to lower the gender wage gap. gender differences in educational attainment do not help explain the gender wage gap, but rather work in the opposite direction. gender differences in occupation and industry are substantial and help to explain a considerably big portion of the gender wage gap. union status is another factor to be considered, though it plays a smaller role. men are more likely to be in blue collar jobs, and number of traditionally male occupations in a professional category and to work in mining, construction, durable manufacturing and transportation or utilities. they are more likely to be in unionized employment. women are more likely to be in clerical and service jobs, as well as a number of traditionally female professions and to work in education and health services. the portion of the wage differential that is not explained by productivity related characteristics serves as an estimate of ___ ___ ____ 41% of the gender gap cannot be explained even when gender differences in education, experience, industries, occupations and union states are taken into account. the portion of the pay gap that remains is potentially due to discrimination. gender wage ratio= .8

women's human capital;

given ___ primary role as caregiver, they would be the main benefices of more family friendly policies. they would make it easier for these women to remain attached to the labor force and succeed on the job, while also continuing to take care of their family. such policies would increase the incentives for women and their employers to invest in women's ______ ___. men who already shoulder sizable housework and child care would benefit as well and others would find it easier to take on a larger share. thus, family friendly policies would also be expected to promote a more equal division of labor in the household.

does not sons gender rising

given that many couples who divorce have children, changes in rules governing child support, income provided by non custodial parents and changes in rules regarding child custody may also affect spouses' decisions regarding divorce. the rising rate of joint custody of children and stricter child support enforcement shift bargaining power to the spouse who (does/does not) want to exit. both changes contributed to a decline in the divorce rate since 1980. divorce is also influenced by religious beliefs and broad social attitudes. divorce in the US occurs less frequently in families with ____ (preference for male children even in the US) Divorce rate- 9.2 per 1000 in 1960 14.9 in 1970 22.6 in 1980 reduction in gains to specialization and the reduced economic dependence of wives associated with women's rising LFP outweighed any larger gains to joint consumption in dual earner couples. OR, divorce rates rose at least in part as a consequence of the unexpected change in the _____ roles associated with wive's rising LFP. After 1980, divorce rate leveled off and then declined. 16.4 in 2009. One explanation for the leveling off and subsequent decline of the divorce rate is that for the later period, the factors we have noted reversed. the impact of the more similar experienced of husbands and wives in dual earner couples started to out weigh the reduction in the gains to specialization and exchange. more recent cohorts increasingly marrying with the expectation that the wife will work so her entry into the labor force is less disruptive. age at first marriage is _____. this delay of marriage likely promotes marital stability, people who get marriage in their late twenties are less likely to break up then those who marry earlier. rising cohabitation- break up of those ones are not counted for in divorce statistics. better matching of spouses- may be a consequence of the rising marriage age (better partners interests and preferences are more firmly established), the liberalization of divorce laws (so only those with the most to gain marry) and the rise of online social media (which expands the pool of potential partners with common interests and goals) divorce rate has fallen considerably more for college educated women then for they less educated counterparts. part of the explanation- deteriorating LM opportunities for less skilled male workers. divorce rate not likely to fall to the levels that prevailed when the traditional gender division of labor was the norm. in most marriages and attitudes toward divorce were extremely negative.

return present value costs

gross benefits must exceed costs by a sufficient amount to give him an adequate return on his investment. individuals may differ on the rate of return required to induce them to undertake the investment, but all are likely to require a positive rate of return. instead of investing resources in HC, could have put money into a savings account or invested it in other assets. those alternatives provide a positive rate of return and thus his human capital investment must also do so in order to be competitive. Prefer income now rather than income later. to induce him to delay his gratification and receive his income later rather than sooner, the labor market has to offer him, and others like him an inducement in the firm of a positive rate of _____. if you find that the investment is profitable, you will decide to go to college. it is possible to express the _____ ____ of an income or cost stream today by discounting future income or costs by the interest rate. Based on such a calculation, an individual would undertake the investment in education if the present value of the benefits is greater than the PV of the _____

wage differential wage premium reduction identity pollution

however, if discriminatory tastes are widespread or relatively large numbers of women are seeking jobs, some of the women will have to work with discriminatory male workers. these males will require higher compensation to induce them to work with women. the result will be a ______ ______ between male and female workers, because some males will receive this higher pay. also possible that women will be paid less to compensate. in addition, more variation will occur in male workers wage rates then could otherwise be the cause. discriminatory male workers who do not work with women do not need to be paid a _____ ____, nor do non discriminatory males, regardless of whether or not they are employed with women. empirical study- women earned more when they worked with men then when they worked only with women. women earned more in sex segregated firms. these findings are consistent with a situation in which high wage employees are better able to indulge their preferences for hiring men then one in which they pay differentials, due to employee discrimination If EE tastes for discrimination do in fact exist, and they vary by occupation, employee discrimination may be a factor causing occupational segregation as well as pay differentials. male employees who do not mind working with women may not likely being supervised by them. employee discrimination may adversely affect the morale and productivity of discriminatory male workers who are forced with work with women. would make employers reluctant to hire women, especially when their male employees require considerable firm specific training and are hard to replace. if employers do hire women, they may pay them less to compensate for a reduction of the productivity of the discriminatory male employees. a women's marginal productivity is lower than a man's because adding her to the workforce causes a _____ in previously hired male workers while adding an additional male worker cause no such decline in output. in the following two models: men believe they will be negatively affected if women enter a traditionally male occupation. ______ model- occupations are associated with societal notions of male and female, men oppose the entry of women into traditionally male jobs, out of concern they will lose their male identity or sense of self. ______ theory of discrimination (Claudia Goldin)- the entry of women into traditionally male jobs is seen by male incumbents as reducing the prestige of the occupation based on general social perceptions that women are on average less productive. employee discrimination could depress workers pay by directly reducing the productivity of women in comparison to men. mostly likely to be a problem in traditionally male fields where the majority of workers are male. women may get less OJT and be less productive.

statistical discrimination wage less

if employers believe that, on average, women are less productive, or less stable employees, statistical discrimination against individual women may result. Employers may just the individual women on the basis of they believes about group averages. the result may be discrimination against women in pay or in hiring or promotion. employers themselves make such beliefs regarding differences in average ability or behavior by sex quite common. if such employer believes are simply incorrect or exaggerated or reflect time lags in adjusting to a new reality, outcomes based on them are clearly unfair and constitute labor market discriminations we define it. they generate ____ and occupation difference between men and women that are not accounted for by potential productivity differences. if such views are not simply rationalization for personal prejudice, it might be expected that, over time, they will yield to new information. however, this process may be more sluggish than one would like and employers make less than optimal choices. some discrimination, may be unconscious and ____ susceptible to change by new information. if employer views are correct on average era make the best choices possible with imperfect info and at the market wide level, LMD does not exist in this case. any resulting wage and employment different between men and women, on average, would be accounted for by average productivity differences. a particularly woman who would bd as productive and as stable an EE as her male counterpart is denied employment or paid a lower wage. not legal to discriminate by sex, but still likely plays a role in ER thinking, statistical discrimination is not likely to be eroded by the forces of competition.

fmla externalities equity

in all economically advanced countries, government plays some role in child care through such policies as mandated or government provided parental leave, providing financing day care, and so on. there is considerable variation across countries and in contrast to most, other economically advanced countries, the government's role in the U.S. remains quite limited. even unpaid family leave was not mandated until the passage of the FMLA in 1993 while all other economically advanced nations provide paid leave and most have been doing so prior to the passage of the ___ ____ ____ ___ in the US. the us government does not provide day care although it does subsidize child care for poor families and offers tax deductions to others. families must make their own arrangements to take advantage of benefits offered by some firms such as on site child care of help in finding childcare. France Sweden Denmark provide free or highly subsidized child care through the government sector. one economic argument for government to pay a role is that there are ______ associated with being and raising children. externalities are benefits or costs that accrue to a third party when an economic decision is made. parents not only receive a direct benefit from their own children in terms of enjoyment and other consumption benefits, but the rest of society also benefits because children of today are the potential tax payers and workers of tomorrow. the rewards to the rest of society are expected to be even larger to the extent that children are healthy, educated and better trained, thus, while parents should bear part of the costs of raising children since they receive direct benefits, the government should help finance the costs as well, since society as a whole also benefits. ______- or fairness, provides a rationale for government to play a role, government support for young children through such policies as subsidies for day care, parental leave, and infant nutrition serve to ensure that all children have a more equal change of life, regardless of the economic status of the family into which they are born. various levels of government in the U.S subsidize primary, secondary and to some extent higher education. it makes little sense to help educate children from age 5-6 on but not to help ensure they will be ready to benefit from that education. parental leave, when taken by fathers, as well as mothers, and subsidized day care also enhance equity because they female and male workers on more equal footing.

less more higher less exiting less

in recent years, gains from specialization have ____ for both women and men. women have acquired _____ job oriented education and training, which has led to _____ potential market wages and rising rates of labor force participation. They have also encountered ____ discrimination in the labor market then in the past, further raising their market wages and spurring investments in their human capital. the availability of reliable contraceptive technology has permitted women to focus on their careers, without the risk of pregnancy. one consequence of this is the rise of dual earner couples. gains from specialization have also fallen as a result of how changes in how household goods are produced. (ex. household appliances, high quality market substitutes for home cooked meals) have reduced the relative value of the time spent on household production and hence the gains from specialization and exchange. liberalization of state divorce laws that started in the 1970s increased the bargaining power of the partner most interested in ____ the marriage, reduced incentives for investment in marriage specific capital including home production. changes in men's market productivity also affect the gains from specialization and exchange and hence marriage. higher male earnings- increase the gains to specialization and thereby raise the likelihood of marriage. falling male earnings hence have the opposite effect. economic outcomes for less education men have deteriorated considerably since 1980. the decline in market productivity for this group has reduced the gains to specialization and exchange is an important explanation behind the recent decrease in marriage among the ___ educated.

on the job training less

one of the major insights of human capital theory is the observation that individuals can increase their productivity not only through their investments in formal education but also through ____ ____ _____ ____- by learning important work skills while they are on the job sometimes workers learn these skills by participating in informal training programs sponsored by employers. more often, they benefit from informal instruction provided by supervisors or coworkers and even get more proficient at their jobs simply through repetition and trial and error. human capital theory suggests that the weaker attachment to their labor force of women who follow traditional gender roles means that they will acquire ____ of the valuable OJT.

better

increasing number of children being born into single or cohabiting parents. other children born into married parents are in families in which that marriage ended in divorce. first born children of unmarried mothers- by age 10- 60% have at least one half sibling- from subsequent relationships by mother or father or both. children experience a greater amount of family instability than they used to as parents from new households as the result of subsequent cohabitation or marriages. children in married couples families with both biological parents present to ____ in some respects than those from single parent families (educational attainment, LFP, teen pregnancy or birth) outcomes are not as favorable for children in step parent parents as for those living with both biological parents. children raised by single parents have a higher high school drop out rate and higher rate of teen birth than those raised by two biological parents, even after taking account of differences in parents education levels, race and income. family structure therefore accounts for differences. single parents families tend to move more often, form fewer connections with the local community, communities are often beneficial in helping to find a job or getting other help. children in single parent homes tend to receive less parental attention and supervision at home, which may also contribute to higher high school drop out rates and increased likelihood of teen pregnancy. some argue that there are other factors that are the cause of both children's poor performance in school and the divorce- such as parent's substance abuse problems or a high degree of family conflict, child might perform poorly in school even if the parents did not separate. growing up in a single parent family or with a step parent has negative effects but this only means that the risk of less desirable outcomes is increased, not that it is assured or non existent for children living in families with both biological parents.

home based employment

increasing, more likely to be self employed and more likely to be highly educated. increases in woman's LFP have increase the desirability of home based vs. office based work to better balance the demands of earning a living and raising a family. second, major advances in information technology have made it increasingly possible for work to be conducted off site. however, home based work is typically associated with lower pay to the extent that workers are willing to trade off wages at a pace bound job for the flexibility of home bound work. wage penalty declined for both men and women because IT advancements (declining prices of this technology, reduced employer costs of associated with this type of employment) blurs the distinction between paid work and house responsibility and may come at a professional cost for women. home has traditionally been the women's sphere, so a woman working at home may be perceived as not having a real job. how well home based work solves the problem of balancing paid work and family. there is the issue of how much work can be accomplished when children or an inform parent are present and require attention. those who telecommute tend to work more hours than would otherwise be the case. home based work occurs in isolate- individual may experience without having coworkers in close proximity

institutional discrimination

institutional analyses also reinforce the point made earlier that labor market discrimination against women is not necessarily the outcome of conscious, overt acts by employers. once men and women are channeled into different types of entry jobs, the normal, everyday operation of the firm, business as usual, will virtually ensure gender differences in the productivity, promotional opportunities and pay. the process is termed ______ _______. even gender differences in initial occupational assignment may in part be due to adherence to traditional practices that tend to work against women

qualifications

intentional segregation of women into separate job categories with lower pay scales (no longer exist) ex. novartis- female sales reps alleged discrimination in pay, promotions and other working conditions. ex. smith barney- discrimination against female financial consultants- relatively assigned smaller and less valuable account to female workers (including those who outperformed male counterparts), lowered their pay, provided women with less sales and administrative support then it provided to men. Morgan stanley- firm underrepresented and did not promote women pay differences between men and women are not accounted for by gender differences in measured _________ even when the list is extensive. direct effects of LMD may explain as much as 40% of the overall pay differential between men and women, controlling for occupation and industry and considerably more when these variables are not controlled for.

risk aversion

involve the willingness to accept risk (uncertain payoffs). an individual is said to be risk averse if she prefers a certain outcome to an uncertain outcome with a higher expected pay off. the more risk averse an individual is, the more he or she will seek to avoid risk or the higher the premium is, he or she will demand to take on risk. women are more risk averse than men. some occupation have relatively stable earnings while others have more risky and variable earnings. all else equal, occupations with more variable earnings are expected to pay a compensating wage differential to induce workers to accept the higher levels of risk. thus, women's greater risk aversion could lower their earnings relative to men if they avoid such risky occupations. studies that focus on managers and professionals have found little or no evidence of gender differences in financial risk preferences. male and female managers and entrepreneurs displayed similar risk propensities. while women's relative aversion to risk may lower their relative earnings due to occupational sorting, this factor probably does not help explain within occupational earnings differences (or at least not within these occupations). to the extent that these findings are due to learning, it suggests that attitudes toward risk can be shaped by the environment.

total fertility rate

is an estimate of the number of births that a cohort of 1000 women would have if they experienced the age specific birth rates occurring in the indicated year through the child bearing years. when divided by 1000, provides average number of children to a woman.

human capital nonpecuniary human capital

major supply side explanation for gender differentials in economic outcomes is human capital- this model helps explain why some individuals invest in college and some do not, as well as why individuals choose varying fields of study. ______ _____- resources are invested in an individual today in order to increase his or her productivity and earnings in the future. an individual's human capital investment decisions will be influenced to a greater extent by _____ (non monetary) considerations than is typically the case for physical capital investments. some people enjoy going to school, some find indoor, white collar work attractive, other would prefer to do manual work. in the absence of government intervention, it is generally more difficult to finance _____ ___ investments than to finance physical ones. although labor markets are similar to other markets they are not identical to them, because labor services cannot be separated from the individuals who provide them.

mentor- protege relationship informal network

is generally the result of older individuals identifying with young individual, male mentors may simply not identify with young women. the potential mentor may also fear that a close relationship with a young woman would be misunderstood by his colleagues or his wife. thus, students are likely to be at a disadvantage in predominately male fields . their problems will be further aggravated if male students neglect to include them in their _____ ______ where important information about course work, the field and career opportunities is often exchanged. women often lack the support and encouragement, as well as the access to information and job opportunities provided by informal contacts between teachers and students and any students as well as female role models to emulate, raises the non pecuniary costs to them in comparison with male students, lowering their incentives to enter traditionally male fields. it may also be the result of being less successful than comparable men when they complete their studies. to the extent that women students foresee this, their entry into predominantly male fields is further discouraged. study found that having a female professor had a strong positive effect on female student's performance in math and science class, their likelihood of taking future math and science courses and their likelihood of graduating with a STEM degree. the percentage of female faculty at their undergraduate college was positively related to the probability that female students attained an advanced degree. positive effects on completion rates and time to completion of the PH.D positive results on the academic productivity of female junior faculty who participated in a two day mentoring program that also emphasized networking between the participants

shorter less firm specific future labor market experience on the job training

it is assumed that, given the traditional division of labor in the family, most women do indeed anticipate _____ and less continuous work careers than men. thus, women are expected to select occupations requiring _____ investment in education and on the job training than those chosen by men. they will particularly avoid jobs in which ___ ___ training is important and employers will be reluctant to hire them for such jobs. they will seek jobs where depreciation of earnings for time spent out of the labor force is minimal. Earnings profiles of male jobs are expected to slope steeply upward because men are expected to undertake substantial investments in OJT. Women are expected to chose the flatter profile, representing smaller amounts of investment in OJT. The existence of the crossover point is crucial to this argument. it is argued that women choose higher earnings now in preference to higher earnings in the _____ because they do not expect to be the in the labor market long enough for the human capital investment to pay off. the crucial factors behind gender differences in pay are ______ _________ ______ and the associated gender difference in ____ ____ ____ ____

serial cohabitation

living with one partner and then moving in with another 40% increase (1995-2002) marriage goes hand in hand with economic stability and serial cohabitation tends to be more common among those who are young and those who are economically disadvantaged. increasing numbers of children living in cohabiting household. children may have been born to cohabiting parents where in other cases, partners may have children from a previous relationship. cohabiters are considerably more like to break up than marriage couples, putting children at a greater risk of the negative consequences of family disruption. cohabiting couples have lower incomes than unmarried couples and a much larger fraction have been in poverty. would not be remedied simply by having these couples marry. they would still have lower earnings than married couples because they tend to have less education and work experience. marriage would not likely reduce the break up rate of couples who previously cohabited because cohabiting couples appear to be more susceptive to break up in the firs place. cohabitation rates are higher in other economically advanced countries.

delaying

long standing pattern of college educated women ____ child bearing somewhat more than less educated women, not only because college takes at least 4 years but also because they tend to be more career oriented and the opp cost of bearing children early in careerist most substantial for them. age at firs birth rose for all women, it increased substantially more for college educated women than those with less education by age 35-44 there us considerable fertility catch up by college educated women in terms of bearing a child.

welfare leisure more child care economic head start positive

low income not only translates into fewer household resources in which the most dire situations, may lead to a lack of food, or homelessness, but also leads to higher levels of stress in families, in additional to concerns about the effects of child poverty question become more important with the passage of the 1996 federal welfare legislation, which requires single and married parents to seek employment as a condition for receiving ____ benefits. the question should be asked about parental rather than material employment but it is still commonly accept that the father will be working for pay full time. children's development is determined by sex and other innate characteristics of each child, the number of children in the family, the family's level of economic resources, parents characteristics such as their level of education attainment and their sensitivity and responsiveness to the children's needs, the role of the father and other family members and of close friends in the children's lives, the qualitative of their alternative care and the nature of the community where they live. social and economic development is obviously important , as such as long term outcomes as stability of their marriages and their success in raising their own children. while employed mothers spend less time directly engaged with their children than those who are not employed, the difference tends to be fairly modest. many mothers work only part time or take time from their own ____ activities to spend time with their children. increasing number of children attend pre-school and hence are not at home even if their mother is not employed. fathers in two parent families are spending ____ time with children so mothers employment does not translate into a one-to-one reduction in total parental time with children. children between the ages of 2 and 4 tend to do better both intellectually and socially when they are cared for in ____ ____ centers than children cared for entirely at home. evidence is mixed for those on first year of life. some find negative effects on children's later cognitive development when their mother is employed. these studies are generally not able to fully account for non material care which might attenuate any negative effects. maternal employment promotions additional ___ resources for the family which tend to benefit children and might offset any negative affects of such employment. factors affecting children's outcomes are highly interrelated, making it difficult to isolate the influence of a single factor to what extent the quality of non maternal child care affects children's development , quality measured by teacher training, group sizer, child teacher ratios, experiences in child care such as how much verbal interaction occurs between children and teachers or whether development and appropriate activities are provided. programs that tend to be of high quality in one dimension also tend to be of high quality in others. quality of care does matter. the amount of verbal interaction between child care providers and children positively influences child's outcomes though factors related to the child's own family environment are consistently stronger determinants of their development than attributes of day care. ____ ____- early child hood program aimed at disadvantaged children. has positive effects on children's development while enrolled but some research has found that benefits phase out after children leave the program. children in low income families are arguably the most in need of quality childcare but they are the least able to get it because privately purchased child care is expensive and government funded programs like head start have a limited number of spots. employed mothers have ____effects on development of adolescents and they bring more income into the household. on the other hand, adolescents of employed mothers may have more responsibilities reducing time for home and less supervision, possibly lending to more risky behavior. some studies find no effect and some studies find a negative effect.

unmarried less premarital multipartner fertility

marked increase in the share of births to unmarried mothers starting in the 1970s rate of increase has slowed since 1990. share of unmarried births is as high as 60 percent for women with a high school education just 10 % of those with a college education. much higher share of never married women who have given birth among the less educated than among the college educated. share of all births to unmarried women depend on both the number of unmarried women, and the probability of married and unmarried women giving birth. largest source of the increase in the share of birth to unmarried women has been the substantial increase in the number of ____ women at child bearing age, rather than a rise in birth rates of unmarried women. birth rate of unmarried women has risen substantially among all women and whites since 1980, it has decreased substantially among blacks since 1990. birth rate of black unmarried women remains quite a bit higher than that of white unmarried women but the race difference has decline. women's increase labor market oops have made it easier for them to financially support a family on their own, while at the same time mens ability to make a substantial economic contribution to their family has declined among the ___ educated. _____ sex and unmarried child bearing have become much more widely accepted than in the past and unmarried mothers are less likely to get married before the baby's birth. it should not be assumed that the father is absent in all cases. 50% of non married women births in US occur to cohabiting couples. government policies also have the potential to effect non martial fertility. (Stricter child support enforcement) __________ ________- a man or woman has a child with more than one partner. most common among women and men who have a first child born outside marriage, increases the complexity of the family structure and has practical implications- makes the collection of child support from non custodial parents more complicated.

motherwood wage penalty

married women do not receive a premium compared to unmarried women. mothers earn less then women without children, a finding known as the motherhood wage penalty. mothers tend to have lower levels of work experience either because of time out of the labor force or time spent in part time work which tends to be associated with lower wages and lower returns to experience Motherhood penalty exists even for mothers with the same labor market experience and education as non mothers. some mothers are not able to return to the previous employer after childbirth but instead must change firms, especially if their employer dos not provide adequate maternity leave. women in this situation lose out on the benefits of firm specific training and potential rewards from an especially good job match. This explanation is less important since the passage of the FMLA, but many workers are not covered by the legislation or a similar policy provided by their employer and so many have no alternative but to start over with a new firm after the birth of a child. moreover, women may chose to stay out of the labor force for longer than 12 weeks of leave time allowed by the law or any additional leave time offered by their employer. motherhood penalty may also arise from the fact that women even those employed full time, continue to bear primary responsibility for the children and the household. there may also be labor market discrimination against mothers. Mothers perceived by student evaluations to be less competent and less committed to paid work than non mothers and the evaluates recommended lower starting salaries for them. student evaluates did not penalize men for being fathers and perceived them to be more committed and recommended higher starting salaries for them. Prospective ERs called mothers back about only half as often as non mothers while fathers were not disadvantaged in the hiring process. Perceive mothers as a group to be less productive due to the types of factors previously discussed. Employers may respond by discriminating against mothers based on average differences in productivity between mothers and non mothers. Statistical discrimination results in all members of a group being penalized. Parenthood may not direct cause wages for mothers to be lower, women and men who become parents may have different attributes than those who do not have children.

high official poverty rate consumer

median income of family headed families was only one third of that of married couples. poverty rates were particularly ____ for black and hispanic female headed families, with rates as high as 48 and 49 percent. raters are higher than prior to the great recession. the high rates of poverty among single parent families are a main factor behind the high rates of poverty for children overall. _______ ______ rate- a family is defined as poor if their income falls below a specified threshold. income refers to cash income, threshold is based on consumption patterns in the 1950s when food was 1/3 of total consumption expenditures, and is updated annually to account for inflation. this measure does not include such items as food stamps, and the etc, SO IT UNDERSTATES the total resources available to low income families that receive these benefits. although the poverty threshold is updated to account for inflation, it ignores the fact that the pattern of _____ expenditures has changed considerably since the 1950's

competitively

men are more ____ inclined than men. when given a choice between a noncompetitive compensation scheme and a competitive compensation scheme, men overwhelmingly selected the competitive compensation scheme, while very few women did so. high scoring women lost out financially by shying away from competition, low performing men actually competed too much from a profit maximizing standpoint. could be a disadvantage for women in the labor market, potentially lowering they relative pay and leading them to avoid certain occupations or business settings to their economic detriment. however, men may compete more than is optimal in certain circumstances. the more heavily the compensation package tilted toward rewarding the individual's performance relative to a coworker's performance, the more the applicant pool shifted to being very male dominated. there was little or no gender difference when compensation was only slightly, rather than heavily based on performance relative to a coworker's performance or when the job was to be performed in teams. in western cultures, a traditional patriarchal society, men opted to compete at roughly twice the rate of women. however, in a matrilineal society, where inheritance and residence is determined by the female lineage, women chose the competitive environment more often than men and even chose to compete a bit more often than men did . men's and women's attitudes toward competition are influenced by broader social factors.

biased evaluations

men preferred to women in identical writing samples and resumes, in gender neutral roles. The expectation of inferior performance may eventually cause their inferior performance. even if it does not, it would lower the expected ____ to investments in educational credentials in these cases.

male marriage premium

men's earnings rise with marriage. this is due to the benefits husbands reap from specialization in the family. to the extent their wives have primary responsibility for the home and children, husbands can devote greater attention to their jobs. With one career as the primary focus of the family, both spouses can concentrate on making that career as successful as possible. the positive association between men's wages and marriage may also reflect the personal characteristics of married men, such as greater ability to get along with others, than make them more likely to marry and to be successful at work. Women may select spouses with higher earning potential. The observed positive relationship may not be causal. the presence of children also appears to boost men's earnings presumably because fatherhood increased their incentive to work harder to support the family. this effect is greater for fathers of male compared to female children.

costs/bill return lower rate of return

most training programs combine elements of both general and firm specific training general training: completely transferable from the firm providing the training to other firms. employers will presumably not be willing to foot any part of the ___ for such training because in a competitive labor market, employers have no way of making sure they will be able to collect any of the returns. this is because, after workers obtain training, employers must pay them what they are worth elsewhere or they will simply leave the firm. thus, if general training is to occur, employees must be willing to bear all the costs since they will reap all the ___. as is the case in formal education, an individual decides whether to invest in general training by comparing the costs and benefits. Will contrast the experience earnings profile she can expect if she takes a job with no formal training to the profiles she can expect if she receives training OJT, although often informal, still involves costs, just as does formal schooling. some of these costs may be direct- another portion of the cost is indirect, as the worker and his or her coworkers or supervisor training their attention from fully production to training activities such expenses are there even when no formal training program is in place. the resulting decline in output represents the opportunity cost to the firm of the training activity. She accepts the costs of undergoing such training by accepting a wage _____ what she would obtain elsewhere. this lower wage corresponds to her productivity (net of training costs) to the firm (during the training period). as she becomes more skilled, her earnings catch up to and eventually surpass what she could earn without training. She is likely to undertake the investment if the gross benefits exceed the costs by a sufficient amount to yield the desired ___ of _____

increase increase less less technological

not only did women become half of those who received bachelor's degrees in 1980, but their representation continued to _____ thereafter. women are now more likely to go to college than men. the ______ in women's expected work life is undoubtedly a central factor in explaining the increase in college women's attendance. as women anticipated spending larger periods of time in the labor market, the return to women's investment in higher education increased and with it their motivation to obtain higher levels of education and also more market oriented education. Women graduating from college in recent decades spend considerably ____ time out of the labor force than earlier cohorts Expanding labor market opportunities for college women also likely played a role. due to the passage of anti discrimination legislation, as well as shifting social attitudes toward women's work roles and capabilities, there has been a growth in opportunities for women in traditionally male occupations. this increase in opportunities principally benefitted college educated women. occupational segregation by sex declined in management and professional jobs, high earnings occupations likely to provide opportunities for college women. in contrast, occupation segregation has decline very little in blue collar occupations thereby providing fewer new opportunities for ____ educated women. Increase in return to equation for women as well as men since 1980 due to ____ change that has benefitted more highly educated workers relative to their less skilled counterparts. returns to education are higher for women than for men, gives them a greater incentive to invest in a college education that men, especially now that their expected work life has become more similar to men's.

60 more market

occupational segregation for most of the 20th century was in excess of ____%. Declines began in the 1970s. However, the extent of occupational segregation remains substantial. Moreover, measures based on those detailed census occupational categories likely underestimate the full extent of employment segregation by sex. for one thing, job categories used by employees are far more detailed than the census occupational categories and such finer breakdowns would likely reveal ______ segregation. Researchers have found that particular firms often employ mostly men or mostly women in an occupation, even in occupations where both sexes are fairly well represented at the _____ wide level. Restaurants, for instance, commonly employ only waiters or waitresses but not both.

statistical discrimination

occurs when employers believe that on average, women are less productive or less stable employees and treat individual women as if they conform to the average. assume that employers are constantly faced with the need for decision making under conditions of incomplete information and uncertainty. even if they carefully study the qualifications of applications, they never know for certain how individuals will perform on the job or how long they will stay at the firm after being hired. mistakes are costly

more

on average, women earned 18% less than men, even in this group of new graduates. college major was an important factor explaining this difference , with women more likely to have majored in fields like education and the social sciences that tend to lead to lower paying jobs. occupational differences also contributed to the gender pay gap. overall, men were more likely to work a higher paying occupation including business and management occupations, computer and physical science occupations and as engineers. women were ____ likely to work in lower paying occupations, including business support occupations and as administrative assistance, teachers, social service professionals, and as nurses and other health care providers. under representation of women in STEM market is striking. when college major, occupation, and other variables were controlled for, the gender pay gap was substantially reduced. 7% gap remains. since these are young people, it is likely that the gap will increase as they age. if men fare better in terms of wages and promotion. career/family tradeoffs contribute importantly to gender pay differences among lawyers and MBAs. even controlling for variables related to family/parental status, unexplained gender earnings remain. law- the gap in pay between men and women was found to be relatively small at the beginning of their careers but 15 years later, men earned 50% more. some of this difference reflected choices that workers themselves made, including the greater propensity of women lawyers to currently work shorter hours and to have worked part time in therapist or have taken some time for child birth. gender gap 11% remained unexplained after accounting for certain differences. MBA- small gender differential at the outset of their careers

more

openness to experience, conscientousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (opposite of emotional stability) women are found to be ____ agreeable than men. agreeable refers to being more trusting, straightforward, altruistic, warm, compliant,modest and sympathetic- it is the opposite of antagonistic or disagreeable. Men earned a premium for being disagreeable. but this attribute was not found to be related to women's wages, either positively or negatively. the gender difference in agreeableness thereby contributed to the gender earnings gap both because men were considerably more disagreeable than men and also because only men were rewarded for this trait.

less nonpecuniary

opportunity cost of remaining in high school was ____ for young women then their male counterparts, because their potential labor market earnings were less. as job opportunities for young men who did not finish high school declined, so too did the gender differential in high school competition. in some fields, such as science and engineering, technological change processes rapidly. a women returning from the labor force interruption will have to contend not only with her depreciation of skills over the interim but also with the advancements of the field during her absence. in other fields, the change of pace is slower. a women returning to such a workforce is likely to find that her earnings fell ____ steeply. women anticipating traditional gender roles are therefore expected to avoid fields where the rate of technological change is rapid and to concentrate in fields where the cost of interruptions is fewer. women's increased la bro force attachment may partially explain their increased representation in traditionally male fields of study. women's lower average scores on standardized tests, such as the math SAT, and their lower representation at the upper end of the math test score distribution. Gender gap in scores declined as the HS coursework of young men and women has grown more similar. However, most of the gender differences in majors were due to differences between men and women in the types of courses they expected to enjoy and the greater weight placed by women on ______ work place outcomes. gender differences in beliefs about academic ability explained only a small and insignificant part of the gap. Gender differences in college majors are related to wages of college graduates and help account for the male-female wage differential among this group. growing similarity of college majors between men and women has contributed to the narrowing of the gender wage gap for college graduates over time.

increasingly

opposite sex cohabitation- represents an _____ common living arrangement. 50% of these aged 15-44 have cohabited at some point in their lives. cohabiters may be individuals who never marry. in other instances, may cohabit prior to first marriage or after they have been divorced or widowed. like marriage, cohabitation includes two individuals living together in a single household. the situation presents possibilities for specialization and economies of scale as well as the other gains derived from couples living together. why do some marry and some don't? could be the level of commitment of the partners, and the current financial and economic resources of the two partners, esp the males, are an important consideration. many couples believe that they should be financially secure before taking the next step, to marriage. this may further mean that some couples do not move to this next step if the male's economic situation does not improve. marriage also provides a set of legal protections that are not available to opposite sex cohabiters. (Ex. property rights- establishing rights regarding assets brought into or acquired after setting up a joint household.) ex. spousal benefits under social security. desire for the presence of children may increase the importance of these property rights. propensity to cohabit is influenced by prevailing social attitudes toward sex and child-bearing outside marriage, except among the very religious, these have grown very liberal. as cohabitation has become more common, attitudes have grown more tolerant, further encouraging couples to choose this arrangement.

raising, lowering

overt discrimination against women by education institutions societal influences may raise the costs or lower the benefits of human capital investments and may raise the costs or lower the benefits of specific types of education for women relative to men, particularly in male dominated fields. negative reactions of some family and friends may raise the pecuniary costs of entering such male fields where the expected benefits of this field may be lowered to the extent that faculty are predominantly make and more encouraging and supportive of male than of female students. to the extent that women anticipate such ____ costs or ___ benefits, their returns to investing in education in those ones are reduced and they may choose not to enter those fields. if women anticipate they will encounter labor market discrimination upon completion of their studies, their benefits and their returns are further decreased, further deterring their entry into those fields.

rare prelude childbearing

several stages of cohabitation in a society first stage- cohabitation is ___, second state, it is a ___ to married but does not include childbreaing. third, it is even more socially acceptable and includes ____. fourth, childbearing and marriage are indistinguishable in terms of duration and child-bearing. US- BETWEEN 2ND AND THIRD. Sweden/nordic countries- 4th likely to remain in current stage for some time to come given continued central role of marriage in the US

fertility opportunity cost of time increase quality less negative increased

people's decision about whether to have children and how many to have. economic approach- demand for children, how many they would like to have, depends not only on the benefits or utility they expect to derive from bearing children but also on the cost of raising them, including the _____ ____ of ____ (income forgone during the time spent caring for children) and the family income available 226,920- average cost of raising a child. does not take into account expenditures on post secondary educations. also omitted is opportunity cost of the time parents devote to childbearing. even when a great deal of child care is purchased, parents, usually mothers, spend a good deal of time finding suitable caregivers, taking care of emergencies, helping with school work, providing recreating and other enrichment, time and energy parents devote to these purposes could be used to obtain more education for themselves, to advance their own careers, to earn more income by working longer hours, or enjoy more leisure. higher income is expected to ____ a couple's demand for all commodities from which they derive utility or satisfaction including children. BUT, fertility tends to decline with income. higher income is believed to increase parent's demand for child ____ (investments per child) rather than for child quantity (the number of children) quality= investments parents make in the education and health of their children, because education and skills are particularly valued in today's labor market, these kinds of expenditures provide children w considerable advantages. children's health also requires expenditures, though paying insurance premiums are out of pocket costs. parents with strong preferences for child quality are likely to have ___ children because higher expenditures on child quality income costs of child quality. as women's wages rise, the opportunity cost on the time they spend with children increases, leading to a ____ substitution effect on their demand for children. as children become more expensive, people are more likely to substitute away from children toward the consumption of other goods and services that provide utility. even though a higher wage is also expected to have a positive income effect encouraging fertility the substitution effect of the wage increase is likely to dominate for women because they continue to be the primary caregivers. because wages are a key determinant of their LFP, we would expect to observe a negative relationship between fertility and women's labor market activity. as women become better educated and more career oriented, the opportunity cost of child rearing is ____, reducing the demand for children. on the other hand, the availability of affordable high quality child care and acceptance of using it, probably reduces the opportunity cost of child rearing to some extent. access to child care makes it easier for women to combine employment with having a family.

index of segregation

percentage of women (or men) who would have to change jobs for the occupational of women and men to be the same 0 = no segregation 100 = complete segregation Considerable progress in the 1970s and 1980s, much slower since then • Cumulative gains substantial - Index fell from 64.5 (1970) to 51.0 (2009) • But considerably segregation remains - Over half of women (or men) would need to change jobs to eliminate segregation Considerable integration of "male" white collar jobs—especially professional and managerial jobs • Little integration of "male" blue collar occupations • Decrease in segregation mostly due to women entering male jobs not men entering female jobs • Female college grads made a lot of progress; gains smaller for less educated women Hierarchical segregation • Segregation by firm within occupational categories

1991 Civil Rights Act

permits women to obtain compensatory and punitive damages for intentional discrimination, in addition to pay back, although the amounts are limited. prior to this, only racial minorities had these rights.

soft skills also known as "non cognitive skills or psychological attributes"

personality traits, goals, motivations, and preferences that are valued in the labor market, in school and many other domains.

dual labor market model

primary jobs emphasize high levels of firm specific skills and thus pay high wages, offer good promotion opportunities, and encourage long term attachment between workers and firms. in secondary jobs, firm specific skills are not important. such jobs pay less, offer relatively fewer promotion opportunities, and have fairly high rates of labor turnover. men are more likely to be in primary jobs based on labor market discrimination. distinction between primary and secondary jobs may occur within the same firm. primary jobs are more likely to be located in monopolistic industries that are higher paying and have offered more stable employment. secondary jobs are more likely to be found in lower paying competitive industries with more labor turnover. this is an additional reason for expecting women to be more concentrated in the competitive sector. segmentation of male and female workers into primary and secondary jobs is likely to produce both pay and productivity differences between them due to unequal access to OJT. industrialists also point out that feedback effects are likely to magnify any initial productivity differences as women respond to the lower incentives for employment stability in the secondary sector.

underestimated

qualified women may be excluded from particular jobs due to discrimination in hiring or promotion. to the extent that studies of discrimination control for qualifications that themselves reflect the direct effects of discrimination, the impact of discrimination on the pay gap will be ______. neglect feedback effects of LMD on the behavior and choices of women.

teen births

rate of teen birth in the US higher than other economically advanced countries. declining since 1990s. these young women, majority of whom are unmarried, have not yet had an opportunity to fully build their human capital, case is their income is low and will likely remain so. teen pregnancy related to poor labor market prospects, which lower opportunity cost for pregnancy abstinence education, stricter abortion rules, family planning benefits through medicaid, less generous welfare benefits, would be policies suggested to reduce teen pregnancy

wage structure wage inequality

refers to the returns that the labor market offers for various skills and employment in various industries or occupations. the declining gender pay gap in the context of other dramatic shifts in earnings patterns that has taken place in recent decades. rising _____ _____- a widening dispersion in the distribution of earnings.

tastes for discrimination model

taste for discrimination = personal prejudice against women (or blacks, Hispanics, etc.) • Discrimination takes the form of a desire to maintain social distance • For discriminator, there is a subjective cost to associating with women • discrimination coefficient = size of this cost in money terms

overcrowding model inward decreases

regardless of the reason or occupation segregation, the consequence may be a male female wage differential. the differential will occur if demand in the female sector is _____ relative to the supply of women available for such work. consistent with the lower wages in predominately female jobs some women will accept the lower wages paid in female jobs. however, this lower pay is primarily caused by the many women who "crowd" into these jobs due to their preferences for the work or a lack of alternative opportunities. in the absence of discrimination, the wage rate will be the same for male and female jobs. suppose by chance that the equilibrium wage in female jobs is higher than in male jobs. workers attracted by the higher wage rates would transform from M jobs to female jobs. this process would continue until the wages of female jobs were bid down to the level of male jobs. in the absence of discrimination, worker mobility ensures that the wages paid for both types of work are the same, after allowing time to make adjustments. assumes no pecuniary difference exists in the relative attractiveness of the two jobs that would result in a compensating wage differential. when there is discrimination against women in male occupations, or when women choose to concentrate in typically female jobs- restriction of M jobs to men results in an __ shift of the supply curve to cause wages to bid up. Exclusion of women from M jobs means that all women must or chose to crown into the female jobs. the expanding supply of labor in F hobs represented by an outward shift of the supply curve ____ wages.

divorce no fault unilateral decline

relationship between women's increase LFP and divorce depends on whether the spouses were happily married. wife's labor force participation was found to have no effect on the likelihood of divorce for couples with a fulfilling marriage, but her participation was found to increase the likelihood of divorce among unhappy couples. unanticipated events that occur in a marriage are another factor that may tip the decision toward _____. (Ex- sudden job loss of one partner, shift in long accepted norms regarding gender roles, such as the increases in married women's LFP that occurred during the 1960's and 1970's.) these changes were likely unanticipated by husbands and wives who married under very different circumstances and assumptions, probably altered their preferences and needs, thereby increasing their propensity to divorce. adoption of ____-____ divorce- where the spouse who is seeking a divorce does not have to show that the other partner did something wrong in order to obtain it _______ divorce- divorce can proceed if just one spouse seeks to terminate the marriage rather than requiring both partners to agree on the termination make it easier to divorce and increased the bargaining power of the partner most interested in exiting the marriage. some have argued that these changes should not increase the divorce rate if spouses are able to make adequate adjustments within marriages such as shifting resources to the partner with the newly increased bargaining power. others have argued that the divorce rates should rise either because bargaining in the married would be difficult or because the changes in law reduced the legal costs. while the liberalization of divorce laws increased the divorce rate temporarily, there was no long term effect on the divorce rate. changes in the rules government divorce might also affect which couples marry in the first place. it has been argued that it is now easier for either partner to dissolve a married, couples who choose to marry these days tend to be those who are better matched and thus have more to gain from marriage. to the extent that this argument is valid, the propensity to divorce is expected to _____

corporate board quotas

require corporations to set aside a percentage of seats on corporate boards for women.

Equal Pat Act

requires employers to pay the same wages to men and women who do substantially equal work, involving equal skill, effort and responsibility and performed under similar conditions in the same establishment. applies only to wage discrimination and does not address discrimination in hiring, promotion, training programs, etc

affirmative action

set of proactive policies established by the firm that seek to provide equal employment opportunities and to eliminate differences between women and men and between minorities and on minorities. legally mandated only in two situations: Executive order requires affirmative action by government contractors who are found to underutilize women or minorities. set goals based on estimates of the availability of protected groups for similar types of positions and set reasonable timetables for meeting those goals does not impose hiring quotes on employers Second, may be imposed by the courts in cases where employers are found guilty of discrimination or settlements are reached in discrimination suits. some employers have voluntarily adopted affirmative action programs. motivated by a sincere desire to expand their utilization of women and minorities, heading off potential lawsuits by women and minorities, PR benefits some argue there is no evidence that discrimination against women and minorities still exist and even if it were, removing it would be sufficient and affirmative action is not needed. some accept the need for affirmative action but oppose the use of goals and timetables for fear that they will be too rigidly enforced and become quotas. whether it should take the form of sincere efforts to find and encourage fully qualified candidates from the protected groups or go so far as to hire them preferentially. preferential treatment may be at times needed to overcome the effects of past discrimination, others do not believe such steps are warranted. voluntary programs incorporating employment preferences are legal under certain circumstances. 1979-1987- employers can give employment preferences to women and minorities as a temporary measure as a temporary measure to remedy manifest imbalances in traditionally segregated job categories. court has stressed the need for affirmative action plans to be flexible, gradual and limited in their adverse effect on men and whites, disapprove of strict numerical quotes except where necessary to remedy demonstrated cases of severe past discrimination. rejected the use of preferences to protect women and minorities from layoffs. AA programs do not require that employers favor one group, employers respond by improving their HR management systems, such as by implementing wider and more systematic search procedures and developing more objective criteria and procedures for hiring and promotion increased employment of women has been achieved without substantial reverse discrimination. it is unclear who the victims of affirmative action policies are and it is easy to form exaggerated views of their numbers. since it is generally not know who would have otherwise been hired, all those who did not get the job may feel that it was because of affirmative action. affirmative action because a ready scapegoat for those who feel adversely affected by what are in truth broader economic trends that are unrelated to the government's anti discrimination effort.

affirmative action

set of proactive policies established by the firm that seek to provide equal employment opportunities and to erase differences between women and men, minorities and non minorities, etc. set up goals and timetables for hiring women and minorities and make good faith efforts to reach their goals in the specified period.

glass ceiling pipeline increase leaky

set of subtle barriers believed to inhibit women and minorities from reaching the upper echelons of corporate america, and academia. to the extent such barriers exist, they constitute a form of labor market discrimination. substantial disparities in the representation of women at the top across a number of areas is easy too document. low representation of women in top management. Women's representation at the very highest ranks, among ceos was especially sparse. Women are also sparsely represented in corporate boards of directors in Fortune 500 firms. underrepresentation of women at the highest levels is similar in government. women also represented much less in unions. women are relative newcomers and it takes time to move up through the ranks (the ____ argument. women achieving more MBAs than before- could be a lag related to normal regarding the typical speed of movement up the corporate ladder. but, growth in women in top level management has been much slower than the growth in female receipt of MBA degrees. (pipeline effect only a partial explanation). work family conflicts provide another plausible explanation for the scarcity of women in the top corporate jobs. more male executives are married with children than men. among women executives, 75% of those married or had a spouse or partner who was employed full time. 75% of male executives had a spouse who was not employed full time. women were more likely to have taken time out since graduation and there were large wage penalties for taking any time out. role of discrimination or other subtle barriers on limiting women's opportunities. women at the very top echelons were actually more likely then women at the low echelons to have children. so, work family conflict is not the full explanation. women were more highly represented in top level jobs when the ceos or other women on the board was a woman than in men led firms. they also made more in women led firms. increase in the share of female top management was associated with subsequent ____ in the share of female managers in mid-level positions. executives who are women earn 45% less than male counterparts. female execs were younger and has less seniority, (contributes to the gender pay difference) women manage smaller companies and were less likely to be the CEO, chair, or president of their company. barriers women face are often subtle and difficult to document, let alone remove. (ex. recruiting from an old boys network, women are outsiders to a male workplace culture) women may be disadvantaged by the perception that men make better bosses. stereotypical views about women's qualifications and preferences that result in a well qualified women receiving fewer opportunities (women not aggressive enough, unwilling to relocate, less committed when they have families) (international clients not as comfortable doing business with women). women are concentrated at the lower end of occupational hierarchy of lecturers, instructors and assistant professors. les highly represented at the end ranks as associate professors and full professors. instructors and between positions are less desirable in terms of pay, promotion aspects and job continuity. associate professor and full professor positions tend to pay more and provide job security in the form of tenure. associate professor positions fall somewhere in the middle, tenure track positions provide the opportunity for promotion to associate professor, conditional on performance. women are substantially underrepresented at research universities and were much more represented to less research oriented, small liberal arts institutions and two year colleges. women also tend to be concentrated in less lucrative fields, often in the humanities, while men dominate scientific and technical fields. disparities may reflect the pipeline effect. it will take time for recent cohorts of women in academia to move up the ladder. significant female gains over time. representation has increase over time with their progress in moving up the rank. can't be entirely explained by lags as women work their way up the pipeline. pipeline is ______ at each step of the hierarchy, the percentage of women decreases from competition of grad school to entry level assistant professorships and from professorships to tenured associate and then to full professor positions. discrimination, lower numbers of promotions in a academia for women, even accounting for qualifications. women at the top are associate with greater representation of women on faculty. those with female presidents/provosts, greater share of faculty increases their share of female faculty at more rapid rates during the period.

increasingly blacks

single parent families are ____ common in the US mother only families increase from 1970-2011. 5% of families are father only, this figure has grown 5x since 1970. these figures include single parents who head their own household as well as those who live in someone else's household whether with a parent or non-relative. census bureau definition of family does not include cohabiting couples with children and so those in this living arrangement were long included with mother only or father only families. they comprise 5% of families w/ children in that year. mother only families are more common among ____. the proportion of white non-hispanic mother only families has increased considerably since 1970. But, still, more prevalent among blacks where they represent 55% of families with children, compared to 19% white non hispanic and 29% hispanic. a considerable fraction of families headed by single mothers live in poverty. more single mothers in LF then married mothers (70% vs 69%)

common poor child support

single parent families have a lower ratio of adults to children and thus fewer potential earners. this also means they have fewer caregivers per dependent making it far more difficult for the adult to do justice to both work and family, thus potentially lowering the adult's earnings. incidence of female headed families is _____ among the less educated with further contributes to the lower income of such families. women tend to earn considerably less then men with comparable qualifications and mothers tend to accumulate less labor force experience than other workers. doubling up and living with parents does involve some loss of privacy but does reduce costs, because of economies of scale. other household members often provide financial assistance and emotional support as well as in house childcare. the poverty rate for children in cohabiting families would fall slightly if cohabiters incomes were taken into account, but, nonetheless, many of these families would remain _____ because the male partners often have low income themselves. never married mothers tend to have particularly low incomes, not only because they are less likely then divorced mothers to receive _____ ____ from absent fathers but also because they tend to be younger with less education. women who become parents as teenagers, most nOT married, tend to remain at a pronounced social and economic disadvantage throughout their lives. many have little education and if employed they generally earn low wages. may suggest that these women would not have done particularly well even if they delayed childbearing until their 20's because many are themselves from economically and socially challenged backgrounds. early childbearing does have some detrimental effect on the economic status of these young women. divorced mothers tend to fare somewhat better than never married mothers because they are more likely to receive child support from non resident fathers. nevertheless, may struggle financially. in the first year after a divorce, children's family income was 40% lower then if their parents had stayed together. after 6 years, this economic situation was somewhat better and their post divorce family income was only 20% lower.

reduce men

societal ____ may also be a factor increasing the costs or decreasing the returns to entry into traditionally male fields. labor market discrimination may also play a part in reducing women's representation where training is important, overt or subtle discrimination on the part of employers, coworkers or customers may prove an obstacle to women getting access to jobs in such areas or _____ the pay of those able to obtain employment. The ER is expected to share some of the costs of firm specific training. the returns to the firm as well as the worker's investment depend on how long the individual remains with the firm. that is, if employers believe that women are less likely to stay at the firm, then men they may prefer ____ for jobs that require considerable specific training

city

some couples do try to accommodate the concerns of both spouses and make a joint location decision but doing so may limit the career prospects of both partners. one solution might be to live in a big ____ that would offer more job opportunities for both spouses, and in fact, big cities are home to an increasing share of highly educated couples. it is not yet clear whether this growing fraction is a result of decisions by highly educated married couples to locate in a big city or whether such cities are simply desirable locations for highly educated individuals, whether married or unmarried.

decline

subsequent sharp dip in fertility in early 1960's coincided with both rapid increases in labor force participation of young women and advances in contraceptive technology. as LM opportunities few for women and they become increasingly career oriented, their pop cost of dropping out of the LF to bear and raise children was increased. the modest rise in fertility rate in mid 1980s and early 1990s may reflect a catching up phenomenon as women who did not have children earlier chose to have them at a later time. may in part also reflect the decision of some couples to start their families earlier in light of publicity about the difficulty that some older women face in becoming pregnant. ______ in fertility rate around 2008- related to security of great recession. unlikely that the overall fertility rate will rise significantly above replacement rate in light of continued increase in women's educational attainment and their continued commitment to market work. could fall now that it is higher than the rates in other economically advanced countries. it is possible that the negative effects of female education and continued high participation rates on fertility may be mitigated in the future by continued increases in the involvement of fathers with their children and a greater availability of high quality child care as well as new tax provisions or subsidies reducing the financial burden of raising and educating children that may be enacted.

Lilly Ledbetter Case

supervisor paid less than her male counterparts court did not rule on the merits of the case but held that employees alleging discrimination in pay under Title VII may not bring suit less they have filed a formal complaint with the EEOC within 180 days after the original discriminatory pay setting decision. apply even if the effects of the initial discriminatory act were not immediately apparent to the worker and even if they continue to the present day. believed that this would bar many of the pay discrimination cases that had been brought until Title VII and many still pending. decision rejected the view of the EEOC that each lower paycheck received reflected the initial discrimination and in effect reset the 180 day clock. 2009- it defined the 180 day clock as restarting each time discriminatory compensation is received rather than when the employer discrimination occurs for the first time.

adverse selection

tendency for those workers who need family or health insurance the most, because they have private info about their own family situation or health, to seek out the firms that offer these benefits. worker's will be adversely selected from the firm's perspective. more generally, adverse selection is likely to result in too few firms offering family leave relative to the optimal numbers given workers preferences. a government mandate requiring all firms to provide such a quality would eliminate this problem and his be desirable on these grounds. provides both efficiency and equity reasons as to why the government should play a role in raising children. potential costs should be considered as well- government financing of any program requires tax collection. taxes cause individuals to work and save less than they would other, thus reducing output. for this reason, employer mandated leave may be more efficient than leave paid for by the government especially if the group that benefits from the mandate bears the cost of the leave in the form of lower wages. wages do adjust and thus the policy is efficient. mandates would also boost the economic efficiency to the extent that they encourager women to stay in the labor force on the other hand mandates for unpaid leave, financed through we reductions of the affected groups, eliminate any subsidy for parents. this is a cause for such subsidies because of the benefits that society as a whole delivers from children who become the next generation of productive citizens and workers. lower wages would reduce the incentives for mothers to stay in the labor force and thus might diminish the positive effects such policies would have in encouraging women's LF attachment. such wage reductions are particularly burdensome for low income workers who wages would be reduced further.

expected work life less less

the major factor considered by HC theories as producing gender differences in HC investments like education is ______ _____ ____ many women anticipate shorter, more disrupted work lives than men and from an economic standpoint, it makes sense for them to invest in fewer years of education. it will not pay for them to make the types of HC investments that require a sustained high level commitment to the labor force to make them profitable and depreciate rapidly during periods of work interruptions A woman who anticipates spending fewer years in the labor market will find her benefits correspondingly reduced. shorter work life reduces the benefits to her HC investment because she does not earn income during the time she spends out of the labor force. skills depreciate during the time spent out of the Labor force because they are not used. upon return to the labor force, her earnings will be ____ in real terms then she was making when she left. Time out of the labor force costs her a reduction in earnings over the remainder of her working life. a break in experience would also affect the HS earnings profile. a portion of it would be shifted down to represent her options after she returns from her work force interruption. however, taking this into consideration, this is unlikely to affect our conclusion that a work force interruptions reduces the returns to investing in a college education because a major factor reducing the returns to investment in college is simply the simply the interruption itself and the loss of returns for that period. in addition, because the skills of high school graduates are less than those of college graduates, the loss due to depreciation is likely to be _____ for them. education may increase productivity in some non market activities as well as market work.

socialization

the process by which the influence of faculty, friends, teachers and the media shapes an individuals attitudes and behaviors. this process influences the self-esteem of men and women as well as their perceptions of gender appropriate consequences and behaviors. girls- "feminine" traits such as being subordinate, nurturing, and emotional, while boys may be socialized to emphasize "masculine" traits such as dominance, competitiveness and rationality being internalized the idea of what is properly feminine, women may then avoid male fields because they feel unequipped to do so, or because they perceive a non pecuniary cost of acting in an unfeminine manner. they may expect to be less successful in the field, lowering anticipated benefits. if women are raised to believe they lack competence in masculine subjects, like math and science, the belief would raise their perceived costs and lower their perceived benefits to entry into fields emphasizing this knowledge . men may see traditionally female fields as inappropriate for similar reasons. negative attitudes of family, friends, teachers towards women's college attendance may have also reduced attendance by creating a non pecuniary cost that lower their subjective evaluation of the net value of the investment. boys and girls are taught from an early age to spire to and train for gender appropriate lines of work. gender differences in socialization have diminished with the growing social acceptance of women's employment outside the home and their participation in what was formerly viewed as male occupations.

cohabitation of same sex couples costly increase

they also reap economic benefits, ability to share economic resources, joint consumption and economies of scale. neither parent is likely to specialize in house work to the same extent as an average married woman. same sex couples have far fewer legal protections than married couples, thereby making investment in home making skills particularly ____ in the event that the couple breaks up. to the extent that young women know they are not likely to enter an opposite sex relationship, they will have little incentive to specialize in home making skills. those expecting to be in partnerships with other women are more likely all else equal to accumulate human capital useful for the market as opposed to those expecting to be members of a more traditional household. they are also more likely to choose career oriented male dominated occupations. homosexual males- also likely to acquire skills useful to the labor market but they are unlikely to be as specialized in the market oriented activities as their heterosexual male counterparts since they are not expecting to fulfill the traditional breadwinner role but the women and men in same sex couples are likely to be less specialized than their opposite sex counterparts. increase number of children live with same sex parents. same sex marriage confers the same set of state benefits and rights to married same sex and opposite sex couples. more americans favor same sex marriage than in the past. Federal Defense of marriage act DOMA- limited federal spousal benefits to only married couples who are of opposite sex even in states that recognize same sex marriage. civil unions and domestic partnerships establish some legal rights for same sex couples= adoption, pensions, inheritance.) these arrangements are not viewed as being same social standing as married. fraction of same sex couples will likely ____ as society becomes increasingly tolerant to the extent that alternative reproductive technology become less expensive, more children are likely to be raised in these families.

internal rate of return

to decide whether to make an investment, you need to know the costs, both direct and indirect, the benefits, the increase in the future earnings due to this investment, how long you expect to work after the training and the discount rate. NPV= -C + B1/(1+R) + B2/(1+R)^2...... Where c= today's costs, B= benefits, r= discount rate, t= end of work life the costs are not discounted. alternatively, you can solve for the discount rate that exactly equates the present value of costs to the present value of the benefits. if this rate, called the _____ rate of ____ represented an adequate rate of return for the individual, then the individual will choose to make the investment.

social decreases reduce absenteeism

traditional gender roles, which result in women being viewed as the secondary earner in the family, may work to produce differences in economic outcomes in a variety of areas beyond their impact on human capital investments. Women's decisions concerning the priority they place on their own versus their husband's careers, the amount of housework they do, the adaptations they make in response to family responsibilities and so on may reflect ____ pressures as well as voluntary choices. to the extent that women face discrimination in the labor market that decreases their wages relative to their husband's, traditional gender roles are reinforced. discrimination _____ the opportunity cost of wives sacrificing their career objectives to family demands relative to their husbands. the longer hours that married women tend to spend in these activities may _____ the effort they put into their market jobs and thus decrease their hourly wages compared to men with similar qualifications. Additional hours spent on housework by workers are associated with lower wages, overall. Women trading off earnings for greater job flexibility in the face of more convenient hours or closer proximity to home, or perhaps taking a lower laying demanding position or one that does not require a lot of work related travel when women, particularly mothers, are in jobs with inflexible hours, they may have greater ______. their job performance ratings and wages may consequently suffer.

labor market discrimination

two equally qualified individuals treated differently solely on the basis of sex Goal: decompose the wage gap into two parts - Explained gap: due to differences in human capital and other qualifications - Unexplained gap: cannot be explained by measured qualifications

wage differential productivity capital

wage differential will occur if the supply of women seeking employment is relatively large compared to the demand for labor in female jobs. if it so happens that the wage rate that equates supply and demand in the female sector is the same as the wage rate that equates supply and demand in the male sector, no ___ ____ will result. this will happen only by chance. LMD eliminates the free mobility of labor between the two sectors that would otherwise ensure would equality. employers in female jobs accommodate a larger number of workers by substituting labor for capital. the relatively low wages of women make it profitable to use such labor intensive production methods. on the other hand, the higher wage in the male sector, encourages employers to substitute capital for labor to economize on relatively high paid labor. women earn less than men in overcrowding model but both are paid in accordance with their _____. discrimination cause differences in both wages and productivity between potentially equally productive male and female labor- women are less productive due to segregation and crowing, they have less ___ to work with. but, segregation may also occur because male and females have different talents, preferences for different types of work, women are willing to trade higher wages and steeper lifetime earnings profiles for more favorable working conditions and lower penalties for discontinuous labor for participation, or because employers, coworkers, or customers discriminate against women in some occupations but not in others.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act EEOC

was originally written to prohibit discrimination in employment on the basis of race, religion and national origin but was amended at the last minute to include the word sex prohibits sex discrimination in virtually all aspects of employment, including hiring and firing, training, promotions, wages, fringe benefits, or other terms and conditions and employment. all businesses who have 15 or more workers, including federal, local and state governments, and educational institutions, _______ ______ ____ ____ IS THE FEDERAL AGENCY CHARGED WITH ENFORCING THE EQUAL PAY ACT AND TITLE VII

reduced

were we to factor in the potential benefits in the home, the loss of returns due to LF withdrawals would be _____. higher anticipated time out of the labor force is likely to lower the amount of educational investments, that the individual finds profitable. Human capital model shows how an adherence to traditional gender roles in the family can explain why in the past women were less likely than men to pursue college and graduate study. As young women anticipate longer and more continues working lives, it will be profitable for them to increase their investment in formal education. once women decide to acquire higher education, their attachment to the labor force is reinforced because the opportunity cost of time spent out of the labor force is increased. does not explain why in the past women were considerably more likely to graduate high school.

discrimination

when the existence of an unexplained pay gap in traditional statistic analyses is consistent with discrimination against women in the labor market, this does not mean that the full explained gap may be attributed to discrimination. Child bearing- negative effect of children on women's wages that is not simply due to workforce interruptions associated with child bearing. losses in the returns to firm specific training for some women who permanently leave their employer when they have a child, the extra caregiving and housework burdens many mothers shoulder, and decisions by mothers to accept lower wages for greater job flexibility. mothers face ______ relative to non mothers. division of labor in the family itself may be influenced by the market gaps available to women and men in the labor market. gender differences in psychological attitudes, such as attitudes toward negotiation, competition and risk. could negatively affect the performance and wages of women in certain settings, women have been found in attitudinal surveys to place less value on money and work than men do. this can lower their wages relative to men's/ interpersonal skills are an important soft skill and women tend to have better interpersonal skills than men. there may also be feedback effects from differential treatment in the labor market to psychological attributes and preferences.

less

while the black-white earnings gap decreased after the passage of the civil rights legislation in the mid 1960's, it changed little after the late 1970's. changes in the wage structure provide a partial explanation for the stalling of progress of African Americans blacks have ____ educational attainment then whites (although the race gap in education has declined.) so, blacks are more adversely affected than whites by declining relative wages for less educated workers Decline in blue collar jobs in manufacturing particularly negatively affected black males. for black women, although their exit from low paying private household employment was an important factor in narrowing the race gap in earlier years, this factor was no longer relevant by the 1980's, when their representation in those jobs approached levels for whites. wages for hispanic women and men have fallen relative to those of whites of the same sex. education gaps between hispanics and whites are also considerably larger then those between blacks and whites. so, hispanics were more negatively affected by the declining relative wages of less educated workers. large and growing portion of hispanics are recent immigrant. the earnings of hispanics are reduced because new immigrants tend to be relatively young, likely not speak fluent english well, and are likely to force other difficulties in adjusting to their new environment. economic status of immigrants deteriorated relative to native borns.

low less

women are concentrated in clerical ands service jobs, whereas men are more likely than women to work in blue collar occupations including the higher paying skilled jobs in this category. similarly, men are more likely to work in professions such as lawyer or physician and in higher paying stem fields, women are usually employed in lower areas like elementary and secondary school, teaching and nursing. suggests that women are concentrated in relatively ____ paying occupations and that this gender difference helps explain the male-female gap. requirements or skills of male and female jobs may help to account for pay differences between them. "male" jobs may require more physical strength, inconvenient hours, etc. negative relationship between the percent female in the occupation and the wage of the occupation, even after controlling for the measured qualifications of workers. predominantly female jobs pay ____ than predominantly male jobs for both men and women. even within male dominated occupations, women tend to earn less than men.

negotiation smaller

women feeling more apprehensive about ____ and being much less likely to do so. women less likely to negotiate over salaries, raise or promotions thus reducing their pay relative to men's attribute the gender difference to social factors that hold women back. women are socialized to feel that they are being pushy or overbearing if they pursue their own goals in the face of conflict with others. women have learned their asserting their own needs can trigger negative responses from others. men are more likely to negotiate than women when there was no explicit statement that wages were negotiable. when it was explicitly stated that wages were negotiable, the gender difference disappeared and even reversed. if employers provided more explicit statements about when negotiation is expected, it could help reduce women's hesitation about engaging in negotiation. women who negotiation may elicit negative responses making negotiation problematic for them. some people are disinclined to want to work with female managers who negotiated for higher compensation but that had little effect on evaluations of male managers. negotiation is a form of bargaining and as such the outcome is influenced by the alternatives available to the individual. to the extent that women face discrimination in the labor market that lowers their wages relative to men, the expected gain from the bargaining process will be ___ then for their male counterparts.

gender pay ratio

women who worked full time, year round earned about 59 cents to every dollar earned by men full time year round workers. One reason for the public awareness of this figure was that the gender pay ratio of that level persisted for two decades. ______ _____ ratio- female earnings divided by male earnings, began to rise in the early 1980's, between 1981-2011, increased substantially from 59-77 percent. The earnings ratio computed on the basis of weekly earnings is generally higher than the annual figure. Data for weekly earnings show an upward trend (61-82%, 1978-2011). Substantial and steady increase in the gender pay ratio and narrowing of gender pay gap over 1980s. continue into the 1990s however the pace of the increase in the ration in both earnings slowed and both behaved more erratically. Since 2005- unchanged. The gender pay ratio for each age group increased substantially starting in the 1980s. Little further change occurred in the 1990s but gains resumed in the 2000s'

contract workers temps, on call independent contractors, contract more

workers who are employed by firms that provide them or their services to other companies under contract. long term increase in the proportion of people in such jobs starting in the late 1970s. Women's share of employment in nonstandard work is 3% overall. representation of women varies considerably by type of nonstandard work. overrepped among _____ and a bit over-represented among ____ ___ workers. under-represented among _______ ______ and _____ workers. contract workers and independent contractors earn _______ than those in traditional employment with similar qualifications and job characteristic where this is not the case for on call workers and temp workers Also, although those in unstable work are less likely than those in regular employment to be covered by employer health insurance and pensions, among those in nonstandard work, contractors are more likely to receive benefits and independent contractors to have coverage from other sources. Women are at a disadvantage in terms of both pay and benefits to the extent that they are overrepresented among temps and on call workers. flexibility and autonomy of these jobs and the prospect of higher wages at least for independent contractors and contract workers. however, some workers take nonstandard jobs because they are older or because they are unable to locate regular employment. Women are concentrated in the less desirable types of nonstandard work.