IMM quiz 1

migration

"'..the movement of a person or groups of persons from one geographical unit to another across an administrative or political border, wishing to settle definitely or temporarily in a place other than their place of origin.'" (IOM)

State:

"... a legal and political organization, with the power to require obedience and loyalty form its citizens." ----Citizenship is the formal recognition by the state of a person's rights and duties in that state

Integration:

-policies -assimilation -contribute and live in new society -maintain the difference (higher edu means more financial help and easier transitions) -faculty of the language

Impacts on original and receiving societies

-recieving societies might benefit/hurt -impacts on all directions

TOM: Internal migration (or "internal displacement")

often referred as "internally-displaced persons" "IDPs"

Migration pessimists brain waste brain drain

"Brain drain" and "brain waste" • Viewed as reinforcing inequalities and hence inhibiting development (Historical ‐Structural theories) • Fuels conspicuous consumption in origin countries (instead of on savings or investment) • Also provides excuse for governments in origin countries not to spend on development - assumed public use of privately‐ remitted funds (outside aid agencies may take this view, too) • Reduces communities to being remittance‐dependent, non‐productive, and migration‐obsessed

defining and measuring "Development"

"Development [is] the process of expanding the substantive freedoms that people enjoy." (p. 69‐70) • Framed in terms of "human capability:" '"the ability of human beings to lead lives they have reason tovalue and to enhance the substantive choices they have."' (p. 70) • This framework focuses on human agency, yet implicit in this definition is the individual's ability to develop capability under the conditions that exist in the origin country

migrant

"Someone 'who moves to a country other than that of his or her usual residence for a period of at least a year, so that the country of destination effectively becomes his or her new country of usual residence.'" (UN STAT DIVISION)

TOM: International migration

(crossing borders)

"Unauthorized immigrant"

(those who have overstayed their visas in the US)

"Undocumented immigrant"

(those who the US enter improperly)

System of Migration

-Affects the original society, recieving society, and individuals migrating -"Migrations are not isolated [or new] phenomena..." -"International migration is thus a critical dynamic within globalization."page 5)

3 Main Bodies of Theory Explaining Causes of Migration

-Functionalist Theories -Historical-Structural Theories -Agency/System Theories

TS: Implications

-brain drain -national identities shift (clash of civilizations) -free movement of labor -sharing of labors

Structure/agent view of four "push and pull" factors (yet still rather abstract) - Lee (1966):

1. Factors associated with area of origin 2. Factors associated with the area of destination 3. Intervening obstacles 4. Personal factors

Three "Phases" of Migration

1. Post ‐World‐War II boom (until 1973) • Migration of workers from European "periphery" to Western Europe("guest workers") • Migration of colonial migrants to colonial powers (e.g., France, UK) 2. Economic Restructuring (1974 to mid‐1990s) • Stemming from globalization, technology, expansion of services sector, increased job specialization, flexible/informal employment • New temporary foreign‐worker polices • Continued/increased family reunification migration • Large‐scale refugee/asylee migrations (due to conflicts) • High‐skilled migration • Irregular migration 3. Economic Resurgence (mid‐1990s to 2000s) • Continuing globalization (and expansion of EU, introduction of the Schengen Agreement) • Increasing demand for high‐skilled workers • Increasing family reunification migration • New waves of refugees Possible 4th phase:Post‐2008 Global Economic Crisis • Migration has not declined significantly, and has not resulted in return migration, as expected • Most return migration occurred within EU • Emigration high from those countries most adversely affected by economic crisis: Ireland, Southern Europe (Spain, Portugal, Greece), Eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Hungary, Baltic states) • Continued irregular migration • Continuing waves of refugees...

Historical- Structural Theories: Critiques

Again, little role for human agency - migrants seen as victims of globalization • Faulty assumption that pre-capitalist societies were stable, uprooted by the demands for labor under capitalism

Historical-Structural Theories

Also based on economic processes (demand/supply for the most cost- effective labor) • Globalization Theory -Migration just one aspect of the growing volume in the flow of goods, services, and people around the world • Segmented Labor Market Theory -Structural, differentiated demand in labor markets for low- and high-skill labor (can also be dependent upon race and gender) that drives migration flows • Migration seen as negative - a way in which richer countries exploit lesser- developed countries and thereby reinforce income inequalities

international migration before 1945

Colonialism • Displacement of indigenous peoples -> root of racist stereotypes with regard to modern migrants • Will an increasing awareness of indigenous rights lead to greater acceptance of new migrants? • Industrialization • Labor (Recruitment) Migration • War • The concept of "refugee" is not an established norm in US law... • Male migration encouraged due to war losses of soldiers (France,Germany)

Complexity of Migration

Context matters! • Structures (institutions, policies) interact with agency (personal motivations for migration) to shape migration outcomes • Migrants are not homogenous blocks of people! • Differentiation amongst migrants from a single country based on factors such as age, gender, family status, skill level, education level, race • Migration as a system comprised of complex and sometimes overlapping processes • E.g., policies in sending as well as receiving countries, international legal definitions, processes of supranational/international entities such as the European Union

"illegal immigrant"

Depends upon the laws of the receiving country • In US, "illegal immigrants" are those who have improperly entered the country (a criminal act) • Immigrants whose work visas have expired are in the country as an "unauthorized presence" (a civil violation)

Trouble with Migration Statistics

Different countries and organizations use different definitions of "immigrant" as well as different means of measurement: Leads to systematic errors, in comparability, and inaccurate understandings of different categories of immigration Statistics are then best used as a "rough guide," and the means of measurement and definitions should be taken into account

Migration: Purpose & Intention

Economic versus forced migration • Economic: --Usually young, "target-earners" --Temporary stay - to save/send money back home --"Circular migration" -- Family reunification or partners in new country, or network establishment --Dynamics can shift, undermining understanding of overall migration dynamics and hence, policies

Migration Transition Theories

Functional and structural theories were built on static assumptions, with growth the most expected outcome • But migration flows do change: Why and under which circumstances does migration change in character (size, direction, demographically) over time? • Migration Transition Theories connect agency to structure and explain change: • Part of the broader processes of development • Non-linear, uneven • But development and demographic change do not necessarily lead to specific migration outcomes- again, context matters

"Multiculturalism"

Implemented in Canada, Australia, the Netherlands, Sweden

Refugees, asylum seekers (or asylees), humanitarian migrants

International law refers to "asylum seekers" as those who migrate in order to claim refugee status

"ethnicity?"

Is it primordial (e.g., "born this way") or socially-constructed, ascribed by others, or assumed by individuals of a group? Changes in economic opportunities often concomitant with influxes of newcomers (migrants, those from other areas) • Newcomers become scapegoats to blame for reduction of opportunities, resources • In-group/out-group dynamic

policy considerations for destination country to help increase development potential in origin country

Lowering thresholds for immigration • Tackling discrimination/racism • Supporting dual citizenship

Identity Crisis

Migrants are confronted with the degree to which they should assimilate • If migrants have children born in the destination country, the children become sort of "caught" between identities - identity hybridization • Despite being born in the new country, migrant children are often ascribed second-class citizenship and treatment • In Sweden, children born to migrant parents are often called "second-generation immigrants" by the press, thus distancing these children from the main society of Swedish citizens and marginalizing them • What are the implications for the receiving society of these kinds of identity issues regarding migrants and their children (particularly those born in the destination country)?

Agency/Systems Theories; Migration Systems Theory

Migration "..embedded in broader processes of social transformation and development" in an increasingly multinational global society • Flow of information and ideas - formation of capabilities and aspirations (the mechanism of relative deprivation is at work here, too) • Exchanges like trade and migration affect both home and receiving countries - such activities create links between the two countries, and over time can become a routine establishment (eg migration corridors_

migration impact on origin societies

Migration alone cannot usually induce structural/institutional changes • Can lead to internal migration • Remittances spur economic activity in communities back home • Migration selectivity: • Mostly from wealthy families ‐> reinforces inequalities • From lower‐income families as well ‐> can have positive effects • Depending upon job opportunities abroad, can inhibit or encourage further education at home

Transformation of Origin Societies

Migration, development, and social transformation linked • The processes of development and social transformation depend mostly upon structural conditions in origin countries (e.g., strength of institutions, levels of corruption and nepotism, level of authoritarianism) • Migration can therefore have a positive or negative effect on origin countries, depending upon these overarching conditions

Transformation of Origin Societies

Migration, development, and social transformation linked • The processes of development and social transformation depend mostly upon structural conditions in origin countries (e.g., strength of institutions, levels of corruption and nepotism, level of authoritarianism) • Migration can therefore have a positive or negative effect on origin countries, depending upon these overarching conditions

migration selectivity

Mostly from wealthy families ‐> reinforces inequalities • From lower‐income families as well ‐> can have positive effects • Depending upon job opportunities abroad, can inhibit or encourage further education at home

Theories of Migration

Often centered on economics/markets

Forced Migration

Persecution, human rights abuses, violent conflict Most remain in countries of "first asylum" --These countries often lack the resources to accommodate asylum seekers Small minority migrate further • Dependent upon financial resources • Established networks in eventual destination country • Policies in destination countries (e.g., Sweden versus Finland) • As with economic migrants, many may wish to return to their home countries - not always possible

Agency/Systems Theories

Place emphasis on migrant agency • New Economics of Labor Migration (NELM) -Assess motivations to migrate at the household level, as a way of maximizing income, minimizing risk, and in response to relative deprivation • Migration Network Theory -Migrants create/maintain social ties with other migrants in receiving countries and with friends/family in origin country -Network migration (older: "chain migration"): networks with other migrants, previous generations of migrants ("bridgeheads"), and businesses in a community • Building of "social capital" -".. The aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to the possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition- membership in group Transnational & Diaspora Theories • Operates at different levels of analysis -"From above:" states, multinational corporations -"From below:" grass-roots initiatives by migrant communities in receiving and original countries - Diasporas -Basically, migrants that have their feet in both the home and receiving countries (through economic, political, or social ties), developing identities in both countries

policy considerations for origin country reform

Rooting out corruption • Improving rule of law • Improving access to education, health care, credit

migration optimist

See migration as creating better economic conditions in origin countries, leading towards equalization between origin and destination countries (Neoclassical theory) • Spurs more rapid development in lesser‐developed countries so they can "catch up" with the more developed countries (through remittances and technology/education transfers back to origin country) • Development did not often follow this expected route-outcomes were varied, uneven

Structuralism

Structuralism viewed migration as a system, but offered mostly abstract generalities and very deterministic (i.e., structures determine outcomes)

Citizenship

The political incorporation of individuals into the state, granting various rights and obligations 1. Ideal types of citizenship • Imperial Model: Subjects of the same, overarching power • monarchies, but also present in Britain until 1981 and the USSR until 1991 • Certain ethnic groups usually still maintained power/advantage, but protected by the pretext of the overarching authority 2. Folk/Ethnic Model: Belonging to the political community based on ethnicity -Jus soli versus jus sanguinis (see Germany pre- then post 2000 3. Republican Model: Membership in the political community based on a set of laws/constitution, citizenship, and culture • Can admit newcomers • Assimilationist (e.g., France) 4. Multicultural Model: Membership in the political community based on a set of laws/constitution, citizenship • Can admit newcomers • Distinctive cultures, beliefs, practices can be maintained as long as in accordance with national law (e.g., Sweden, the Netherlands, Australia, Canada) • There has been a retreat from multiculturalism over the past several years 5.Transnational Model: Members of transnational communities that cross political boundaries • Multiple and differentiated group membership • Dual-citizenship • Divided responsibilities, interests • Does dual citizenship undermine democracy? If so, how?

Functionalist Theories: Criticisms

Three unrealistic underlying assumptions: • That all people are rational actors who accurately calculate to maximize their income or "utility" in a cost/benefit analysis of possible migration • That migrants have perfect knowledge of all factors of migration (e.g., wage levels, employment opportunities in receiving country) • That markets are perfect and readily accessible to poor migrants -Human agency not considered

Transnational Society Definition

Transnationalism is a social phenomenon and scholarly research agenda grown out of the heightened interconnectivity between people and the receding economic and social significance of boundaries among nation states.

"Classic" Countries of Immigration

United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina; all countries were European colonies

TOM: Movement/mobility

commuting, residential relocating, tourism, student foreign study

Types of Migration: (TOM)

internal migration, international migration, movement/mobility

Emigration:

movement from one's national "homeland"; people who emigrate are often called "emigres"

Immigration

movement to another destination country; Immigrants may be termed "aliens" or "foreigners" in different countries; "Immigrant" status is dependent upon the policies of the country of residence, and may depend upon reason for immigration, duration, or frequency of migration

Nation:

similar to ethnicity - based on group definition, but often with a political identity, too ---E.g., residents in Scotland may be UK citizens, but many see themselves as part of the Scottish nation (and this is translated politically in the form of the Scottish National Party- the dominant political party in Scotland

Functionalist Theories

• "Functional" in the sense that there are functions (economic) to which migration contributes. • "Push-Pull" models --Demographic factors "push" out migrants; labor needs "pull" in migrants. • Neoclassical/human capital --Geographic differences in supply (those who need work in lesser-developed countries) and demand of labor (based on skills and knowledge - or "human capital" - of migrants) • Migration seen as positive, eventually leading to an equilibrium of income and well-being around the world

What Is a Theory?

• Identification of the processes and variables that are associated with particular outcomes. • Can operate at different (or multiple) levels of analysis. • Supported by hypotheses: explanations as to why and how the theory operates Three Main Bodies of Theory Explaining

Migration as a Political Tool

• Promoted by governments in origin countries as a "safety valve" • Reduces unemployment, poverty, political unrest • Alleviates governments from having to provide greater investment in infrastructure/services • Can be used to sow the seeds for greater (foreign) investment • Can fuel political/social reforms

Systemic Bias against Female Migrants

• Women often seen as sub-ordinate to men -e.g., as wives, mothers - not as contributors to households • Differentiation of rights as migrants -Not offered the same path to citizenship/residency as men, making their position tenuous in cases of divorce or if the male repatriates • Racism is often compounded by sexism -The most likely targets of hate crime in Sweden are Black, African, Muslim women