India after Independence 5
However, disillusionment with emergency also came very soon as it didn't improve socio-economic condition and soon became suffocating.
Government machinery was also irritated for excessive control and being pushed into performing pet projects of government like forced sterilization. Bureaucracy remained inefficient and corrupt even grew powerful due to lack of fear of criticism from press, MPs, courts, popular movements etc. and people now didn't have any way to vent out their grievances. In absence of trustworthy press, rumour market was heated up stoking unknown fears of people.
However, most important development was regarding Sri Lanka
In 1983, thousands of Sri Lankan Tamils fled to Tamil Nadu when Sri Lankan government launched assault on LTTE base in Jaffna. Public opinion gathered around cause of Tamilians and voices were raised for Indian intervention. India, as a result started supplies of food and other necessities in areas under blockade.
In Pakistan, fallout of the Kargil war was removal of Nawaz Sharif by General Musharraf
and it became apparent that Kargil conspiracy was largely hatched by the army establishment keeping the political bosses in the dark.
The Emergency at once brought out both the weaknesses and the strengths of India's democracy. Lessons of the Emergency can be summarized as -
1) Democratic functioning resumed within a short span of time. Thus, it is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in India. 2) it brought out some ambiguities regarding the Emergency provision in the Constitution that have been rectified since. Now, 'internal' emergency can be proclaimed only on the grounds of 'armed rebellion' and it is necessary that the advice to the President to proclaim emergency must be given in writing by the Council of Ministers. 3) the Emergency made everyone more aware of the value of civil liberties. 4) The actual implementation of the emergency rule took place through the police and the administration. These institutions could not function independently. They were turned into political instruments of the ruling party and according to the Shah Commission Report, the administration and the police became vulnerable to political pressures.
Other Missions
3) 'Immunization Mission of Pregnant Women and Children'. 4) 'White Revolution' aimed at improving per capita availability of milk by improving yield and cattle variety 5) 'Edible Oil Mission' as at that time India used to import edible oil. 6) 'Rural Telephony Mission' which aimed at providing one telephone in every village. He also pushed ahead with investment in computer technology despite its criticism and he saw it as a crucial for bringing in communication revolution
Financial inclusion program was also launched to increase penetration of banking in rural areas.
Planning Commission was also strengthened Two important Constitutional Amendments were also passed 24th Amendment to the constitution passed in 1971 restored parliamentary power to amend fundamental rights and 25th Amendment empowered the parliament to decide the amount of compensation to be paid for acquisition of private property. India also achieved success in the field of nuclear power when India conducted an underground nuclear test at Pokharan in 1974 codenamed Smiling Buddha.
Another big tragedy that hit India was gas leak in Union Carbide factory in Bhopal which left more than 2000 dead
also left thousands maimed. Compensation for this accident was long delayed and was highly inadequate.
However, government argued that the deal is crucial to meet burgeoning energy needs of India
and by this agreement, India was de-facto accepted as a nuclear weapon state. Further, the agreement provided advance rights of re-processing. India was also guaranteed of assured fuel supply and strategic fuel reserve. The US also assured that it will not hinder the growth of India's nuclear weapon program.
She was killed on 31st October 1984 and North India was swept in anti-Sikh riots
as a reaction as she was killed by her Sikh bodyguards who revenged her ordering of 'Operation Bluestar' and desecration of their holy shrine. Rajiv Gandhi was appointed as PM and in the next general elections party performed exceptionally well riding on the sympathy wave.
In next elections in 1996, Congress got lesser seats and BJP more than Congress, but no party got majority.
BJP formed a highly short lived (13 days) government which was followed by United Front government led by H D Dev Gowda and supported by Congress and left parties. However, Congress pulled support mid-way leading to formation of another United Front government, again with Congress support with I K Gujaral as prime minister. Support was again withdrawn and elections were held in 1998 leading to formation of NDA government (13 months) It also didn't last long and elections were held again
However, relations with neighbors deteriorated
Bangladesh was growing more fundamentalist Nepal imposed heavy duties on Indian goods and discounted Chinese goods and asked Indian residents to obtain work permits for working in Nepal.
On foreign policy front, relations with Western powers were re-oriented in a liberalized economy as there was no Soviet Union to fall back upon now
However, Russia was still a formidable power and India continued to maintain good relations with her in her own self-interest and similar approach was followed with other erstwhile members of the USSR. While still supporting the Palestinian cause, India also started formal links with Israel in first half of 1990s
Emergency, it seemed for once, had put the very character of Indian democracy in danger and naysayers even predicted that India will now be pushed in the league of other post-colonial failed nations.
However, in hindsight we can say that Indian democracy not only survived, but also emerged stronger bearing brunt of J P Movement and National Emergency. In January 1977, Indira Gandhi suddenly announced elections to be held in March and released political prisoners, lifted all form of censorship and other political restrictions. When elections were held, both Indira Gandhi and Sanjay Gandhi lost their seats
Sanctions imposed by the United States on India were gradually revoked in wake of new global dynamics post 9/11 attacks and a dialogue also moved in the direction of Civil Nuclear Deal or 123 Agreement and high tech trade.
In 2005, after extensive negotiation, the US agreed to tinker domestic laws and international regimes to enable full civilian nuclear cooperation with India. India in turn agreed to separate its civil and military nuclear programs and place its civil nuclear facilities under watch of IAEA, continue its self-declared moratorium on tests and also ensure non-proliferation. Concerns were raised that if India suspended its voluntary moratorium, the US will immediately stop all the help and will even ask for return of material that it had earlier supplied. It was also argued that civil and nuclear programs cannot be separated
The spark came from movements from Gujarat and Bihar
In Gujarat there were angry protests in 1974 over rising prices and situation became so volatile that Central government dismissed state government and imposed president's rule. Inspired by success of Gujarat, student groups in Bihar launched a gherao of Bihar assembly and in clashes with police many died. Unlike Gujarat movement, movement in Bihar grew more strident and innovative
India was committed for a multi-polar world and democratization of international relations
India had supported historically Vietnam in war with the US. It had also supported Indonesian struggle against Dutch aggression in past. India had also supported against French and American colonialism in Indo-China (Thailand, Laos and Cambodia). India also opposed American role in Kosovo as it was interference on the name of protecting human rights and could have detrimental precedents for a multi-cultural country like India and China.
In this situation, Tamil President sought help of Indian army
Indian troops were sent which resulted in a fiasco for India. Indian troops find it difficult to deal with a guerrilla warfare. They also became unpopular among both the Sri Lankan Tamils and larger population as well due to presence of a foreign army. The new PM Premdasa also asked Indian Army to leave, making situation more difficult for India and as a result India withdrew her forces gradually.
On social front as well, Rajiv Gandhi failed a crucial test in Shah Bano Case, 1987 in which Supreme Court provided maintenance to an old divorcee Muslim woman
Initially government welcomed the decision, but later buckled under the pressure from the orthodox Muslim groups who called it an interference in their personal law and as a result Rajiv Gandhi made a U-turn and brought a legislation which overturned Supreme Court decision. The case first estranged Muslims when decision came, and later Hindus when government failed to show some nerve in direction of uniform civil code. Economy registered growth on one hand, was also marred by high deficit and debt.
Ideas of 'Total Revolution' and 'Party less democracy' were vague and difficult to implement.
It didn't have an alternative ideology, policy or system and the only agenda was the removal of Indira Gandhi. Further, it used extra-constitutional and undemocratic ways as well and although J P was a peace loving man of integrity, the movement was susceptible of being hijacked by fascist groups. A more pragmatic and democratic approach could have been waiting for the Supreme Court judgment and participating in the upcoming general elections which were just a few months away
Another political move was implementation of Mandal commission in August 1990 which was appointed by Janta Government and reservation was allowed for OBC
It led to widespread dismay and protests from parties as well by public as unlike in case of SCs and STs, there were no conclusive proof of backwardness of OBCs. CPM instead advocated economic criteria. Many forward castes also formed caste associations with a renewed vigour and caste identities came to fore once again. It was a socially divisive decision which pitted one caste against the other on the name of social justice and unfurled an unending race to bottom for reservation. However, SC stayed implementation of the decision. When Adavani's Rath Yatra reached Bihar, he was arrested and communal sentiments flared up and BJP threatened to pull support on this issue.
New trade blocks were coming up and India failed to take stoke of the situation
It missed the ASEAN bus and had to satisfy herself by being an observer in it. At the same time it also initiated its 'Look East Policy' as well. Japan had been a big donor and was also seen as a check on China
New policies of the Government took a U-turn from the planned approach of the earlier government
It stressed on decentralized planning replacing heavy industries with cottage industry promoting a rich peasantry led agriculture growth fuelled by generous subsidies and shift of resources from industry to rural sector. It also launched a radical 'Food for Work' program to improve rural employment and also boost rural infrastructure. It was especially well implemented in West Bengal. It also tried to re-orient its foreign policy to genuine non-alignment and tried to go closer to the US and the UK and moderating relations with the USSR
Atmosphere with Pakistan seemed cordial as Vajpayee government initiated talks and started Bus Diplomacy
Pakistan on the other hand was sending its troops and Mujahedeen to infiltrate into India. When snows started to melt in summer of 1999, it was discovered that Pakistani infiltrators have intruded deep into LoC and even occupied several strategic peaks in Kargil area. India mounted a massive counter offensive from a disadvantaged military position
Initially people didn't feel much pinch of emergency and instead felt relieved as they were tired with everyday disruption of life by movements, bandhs and gheraos.
Administration also improved, many anti-social elements were put behind bars and black marketers were also dealt with heavy hand. Government even announced a '20 Point Program' in 1976 for socio-economic upliftment of rural poor and improve the health of economy
The Janata Interregnum - 1977-84
After being released from jails, opposition leaders of various hues - Congress (O), Socialists, Bhartiya Lok Dal etc. - formed Janta Party and won the general election of 1977. In 7 Northern states, Congress only got 2 seats and was virtually wiped out. Surprisingly, in Southern states, performance of Congress improved as Emergency was less severely implemented in these states and 20 Point Program was better implemented
J P Movement was historic for its mass mobilization, exposing flaws in governance and highlighting the high handed approach of a democratically elected PM
But it also had many weaknesses. It almost pushed India on the brink of instability and exposed it to external interventions as well. Call for mutiny among armed forces was a dangerous idea from security point of view. It presented a utopian picture of India which raised expectations of masses and gave opportunist political groups to exploit the situation as was evident by joining of diverse ideological parties like Jan Sangh, Jamat-e-Islami, Congress (O) and even Naxalites group.
Another government headed by Charan Singh was formed on the assurance of the support of the Congress party.
But the Congress party later decided to withdraw its support with the result that the Charan Singh government could remain in power for just about four months.
Indira And Rajiv after Janata Government
Congress (R) was further split in 1978 as Congress (I) - I for Indira, and Congress (U) - U for Devraj Urs. Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in January 1980 in which the Janta Party suffered a comprehensive defeat, especially in north India where it had swept the polls in 1977
The Janta Party government could not bring about a fundamental change in policies from those pursued by the Congress
Floods and draughts made situation even worse and budget deficit increased. .The Janta Party split and the government which was led by Morarji Desai lost its majority in less than 18 months
2) it had two hostile neighbors with nuclear power and their growing nexus.
Further, nuclear powered American vessels are also not far from its territory at times. So, there was no talk of 'peaceful purpose' as was there during Indira Gandhi's time. Development of missile program now effectively complements Indian nuclear capabilities. This time many government persons also openly claimed that the tests were directed against threat from China and Pakistan and this irked China to some extent. Pakistan also conducted a nuclear test following India's test
Government also took several steps to implement its left of the centre agenda
General insurance and coal industry was nationalized in 1972 Ceiling was also imposed on urban land ownership MRTP Commission was also appointed in 1971 to implement MRTP Act 1969. Many states also passed new land ceiling laws and land re-distribution laws for the landless and the marginal farmers. Cheap food distribution scheme and rural unemployment guarantee scheme was also launched
Other steps
Government also paid attention to environment and a new ministry was created. A mega Ganga cleaning project was also launched. Seven zonal cultural centres were also setup. Efforts were also taken to introduce openness in political and bureaucratic system. Anti-Defection Act was passed in 1985. Lok Adalats and Consumer Courts were also setup
Rajiv Gandhi also tried to give a new lease of life to NAM by giving it a new purpose of nuclear disarmament.
He also gave go ahead to Modernization of armed forces which led to extensive spending on defence. However, it was also the time of unravelling of defence scandals like Bofors deal scandal, HDW Submarine scandal etc. Bofors scandal was snowballed so much that Giani Zail singh was tempted to suspend Rajiv Gandhi on dual grounds of corruption and not able to keep inform president of important developments.
Internal democracy within party was smothered and Sanjay Gandhi led Youth Congress became all powerful in a highly unconstitutional manner
He also put his own 4 Points which became even more important than official 20 points and included - family planning and 2 child family norm, tree planting, no to dowry and total literacy. He even stressed on city beautification by removing slums. Many laws were passed to undermine democratic values like Defence of India Act, Maintenance of Internal Security Act (Amendment Act) and 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976 changed the very character of constitution and also prohibited judicial review as it was deemed to as a hindrance to enactment of social legislations.
However, tide was turning against Indira Gandhi since 1973 which found expression in J P Movement of 1974
Many of the government programs launched as part of 10 Point Program didn't come up well and poverty remained despite promise of 'Garibi Hatao'. Burden of feeding huge refugee population and costs of war further weakened economic condition of India. Monsoon rains also failed in two successive years - 1972 and 1973 leading to massive food grain shortage and price rise.
However, victory of Janta Party didn't mean a smooth transition as there was a tiff over post of PM among Morarji Desai, Jagjeevan Ram and Charan Singh in which Desai emerged as winner.
New central government dismissed governments in 9 Congress ruled states and embarked on a journey to undo the work done by previous government 44th Amendment tried to restore the constitutional framework and also restored power of judicial review
NDA again came to power in 1999 followed by UPA in 2004 and 2009.
New steps taken were - Right to Information Act 2005 by efforts of Aruna Roy led Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS), MNREGA was also brought in 2005 Domestic Violence Act 2005 reservation for OBCs in higher education was started from 2007 Right to Education Act was brought in 2009.
1) post-World War dynamics have changed substantially and have created an iniquitous and unethical global order.
Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is highly flawed in its design and it serves interests of already existing five nuclear powers. It discourages new tests and acquirement of nuclear weapon by the other states, but is silent on existing stockpile of 5 powers. Similarly, Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) is also discriminatory So, non-nuclear countries have virtually no voice and India refused to bow down to such a regime by refusing to sign these two treaties.
On foreign policy front also several steps were taken
Rajiv Gandhi extensively toured other countries. India firmly stood against nuclear proliferation and apartheid. Rajiv Gandhi signed 'Delhi Declaration' in 1986 with Gorbachev for nuclear disarmament. The US remained sceptical of India and didn't respond to Indian initiatives much and even denied Indian requests of supercomputers. On the other hand relations with the USSR improved, Rajiv met Gorbachev 8 times in 5 years. He also visited China in 1988, the first after Nehru's visit in 1954. India even refrained from condemning Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989 in China. He also visited Pakistan and again first to do so after Nehru
In 1998, India also conducted her second nuclear test and declared herself a nuclear state and it attracted worldwide criticism.
Sanctions were put by West and aid was suspended by countries like Japan and Norway. France, Germany and Russia continued their normal relations. India's position on acquiring nuclear deterrent is justified on many counts as follows
Declaration of Emergency was not democratic either
Since elections were imminent and country was on boil, Indira Gandhi made a knee jerk decision to announce state of emergency. In doing so, she also undermined many democratic and constitutional values. Like J P Movement she also ignored the option of holding elections.
Janta government was a heterogeneous group of opportunist politicians and it soon showed signs of disintegration.
Social tensions were also on the rise as there was confusion in rural areas over new policies of Janta government which were opposite to policies of Indira government. Many landlords tried to take their lands back. Communal incidents were also on rise
It was felt that frequent recourse to agitations, protests and collective action are not good for democracy
Supporters of Indira Gandhi also held that in a democracy, you cannot continuously have extra-parliamentary politics targeting the government. This leads to instability and distracts the administration from its routine task of ensuring development. All energies are diverted to maintenance of law and order. Indira Gandhi wrote in a letter to the Shah Commission that subversive forces were trying to obstruct the progressive programs of the government and were attempting to dislodge her from power through extra-constitutional means. Some other parties, like the CPI that continued to back the Congress during the Emergency. The CPI felt that the agitations led by JP were mainly by the middle classes who were opposed to the radical policies of the Congress party.
After emergency, Shah Commission was appointed by Janta Government to examine the excesses done during Emergency
The Shah Commission estimated that nearly 1,11,000 people were arrested under preventive detention laws. Bureaucracy worked in a highly 'committed manner' and 'Civil servants, who were merely asked to bend the rules, chose to crawl to ingratiate themselves with their political bosses'. the administration and the police became vulnerable to political pressures. This problem did not vanish after the Emergency.
Pleasantly surprisingly, international opinion was in favour of India and even countries like the US, China and EU condemned Pakistani aggression.
The US stance could be partially explained by growing threat of Islamic terrorism China see in India a tacit ally against growing hegemony of the US which was witnessed during India's criticism of the US in Kosovo crisis.
This attempt of a coup d'état alarmed Indira Gandhi and she declared national emergency on 25th June 1974 even without consulting her cabinet on vague grounds of internal disturbances
The emergency lasted for 18 long months and saw arrests of major political opponents including J P Narayan, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Morarji Desai etc. and many academicians, media persons, trade unionists and students were also put behind bars. Among arrested were also hoarders and other anti-social elements as well. Freedom of press was severely curtailed and parliament as an institution was grossly subverted. Several groups like RSS, Jamat-e-Islami, and Maoists were banned. Non-Congress governments in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu were dismissed and even Congress rule states were put under strict control of centre.
In second term also Congress was beset with organizational weakness as Congress was driven by her charisma and there was little focus on institution building
The government also achieved some success on foreign affairs front. It hosted 7th non-alignment summit in 1983. She didn't condemn the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, but asked Soviets to withdraw as soon as possible She criticized the proxy intervention of the US and Pakistan in Afghanistan. She also tried to normalize relations with the US, Pakistan and China
There were external shocks as well
The year 1973 also witnessed the notorious 'oil shock' in which crude oil prices witnessed 4 fold increase leading to forex drain. It had a domino effect on domestic goods as fuel, fertilizers and food prices spiralled up by 22% and budgetary deficit deepened. Recession and unemployment led to industrial unrest and mass strikes, biggest of which was Railways Strike of 1974. Political environment was also poisoned, administration was also marred by corruption. India was almost on the boil
On the other hand, others think that if some agitations had over-stepped their limits, the government had enough routine powers to deal with it
There was no need to suspend democratic functioning and use draconian measures like the Emergency for that. The threat was not to the unity and integrity of the country but to the ruling party and to the Prime Minister herself. The critics say that Indira Gandhi misused a constitutional provision meant for saving the country to save her personal power.
In the meanwhile, Gujarat assembly elections result came out in which Janta Party won and Congress was defeated.
These developments revived the protest movement and J P once again was at the helm of movement and asked armed forces, bureaucracy and police to refuse to obey orders from above and make functioning of government impossible.
Rajiv Gandhi paid great attention towards technological advancement and as a result, he launched six technological missions
They were target oriented projects designed to make India modern. In most of the cases, millennium was set as the deadline. Man behind devising these mission was 'Sam Pitroda' - a US trained Indian entrepreneur who also became chairman of Telecom Commission.
Post rajiv gandhi & till now
V P Singh who had been a close ally of Rajiv in Congress at that time had launched crusades against corruption, but after differences with Rajiv was expelled from Congress. He now launched vigorous anti-corruption campaigns to expose Congress.
In spite of such a betrayal, India invited Pakistani president Musharraf to Agra Summit in 2001
Vajpayee wanted to make talks broad based, but Musharraf wanted to focus on Kashmir only. Musharraf utilized the limelight to drive home the point that insurgency in Kashmir is basically an indigenous freedom struggle. Indian credibility vis-à-vis Kashmir increased considerably when free elections were held in 2002.
Congress party led by Indira Gandhi nearly repeated its great victory in 1971.
When Indira came to power, she also dismissed governments in 9 states. The experience of 1977-79 taught another lesson in democratic politics: governments that are seen to be unstable and quarrelsome are severely punished by the voters.
Sri Lankan PM also approached Indian government for help in the matter
as a result, 'Indo-Sri Lanka Accord' as signed in 1987 which underlined that north-eastern Tamil dominated areas will be merged into a single province and considerable devolution of power will happen. It was also decided that LTTE should lay down its arms. However, LTTE remained adamant to lay down arms
Student groups requested J P Narayan to come out of political retirement and lead the movement against government
as a result, J P Narayan gave a call for 'Total Revolution' or 'Sampoorna Kranti'. He called for non-payment of any taxes, asked legislators to resign and dissolution of assembly which was refused by Indira Gandhi. J P also toured country extensively and he was supported by almost all opposition parties. The movement, however, started to show signs of fatigue by late 1974 and even J P Narayan accepted the challenge of participating in upcoming general elections of 1976
Another mission was 'Literacy Mission'
as still almost 60% of population was illiterate. It also aimed at using television, audio-video cassettes etc. to make a dent in illiteracy
Situation took a sudden twist when a June 1975 Judgment of Allahabad High Court on an election petition by Raj Narain - a socialist who had contested against Indira
declared the election of Indira Gandhi as invalid on account of corrupt practices in election campaign But Indira Gandhi chose to stay in office and filed an appeal in Supreme Court.
Some MPs withdrew from Janta Party which was part of National Front
formed government with support of Congress and with Chandra Sekhar as PM However, soon elections were announced and Rajiv Gandhi was killed by alleged LTTE suicide bombers when he was on an election tour in Sri Perumbudur near Chennai.
Most important of these was 'Drinking Water Mission'
it aimed at providing potable drinking water to every village as by that time only 20% village were covered under drinking water projects. The idea was to use satellite, geology, biochemistry and civil engineering to identify and extract water and make it suitable for drinking.
Congress emerged biggest party without majority and formed government with Narsimha Rao as PM and it lasted for a full five year term
it undertook most radical of economic reforms widely known as 'liberalization of Indian economy' partly under Western and Bretton woods Institutions pressure. However, Babri demolition and large scale rioting also happened during this government. Hawala scandal also emerged during this government which laid foreign exchange violation charges against many Congress and other leaders
He also took steps to
liberalise the control over economy, increase exports and cut imports strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions. launched 'Jawahar Gramin Yojna' to mark 100th birth anniversary of Jawahar Lal Nehru. launched a new education policy and specific steps were taken in form of 'Operation Blackboard' - to provide basic amenities in schools. 'Navodya Vidyalas' as residential schools with free and quality education in rural areas. National Perspective Plan for Women was also launched in 1988. Anti-dowry legislations were also strengthened.
He formed a coalition of Congress dissidents, BJP and other parties in form of 'National Front'
which came to power in 1989 elections with V P Singh as PM and Devi Lal as deputy PM and a lot of sulking leaders like Chandler Shekhar, Ajit Singh (son of Charan Singh) etc. It was a rag-tag coalition and couldn't take many effective decisions. Situation in Kashmir deteriorated at that time and Advani announced Rath Yatra at the same time
