Indian Literature 1

Dharmakirti

Dharmakirti lived in 7th century AD and was primary theorist of Buddhist Sankya. He was a teacher at the Nalanda University and a poet. He has written Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition. He has been called "Kant of India'.

Divyavadana:

Divyavadana means divine tales. It contains anthology in 38 stories and is a Sanskrit text which deals with Mauryan and Sunga History. The Asokavadana is a story in it which deals with the legends of Asoka.

Dignāga or Dinnaga

He is considered to be the founder of Buddhist logic

Candrakīrti or Chandrakirti

He was a disciple of Nagarjuna and a scholar at the Nalanda University. Prasannapadā is his main work which means happy words or clear words.

Some Jain traditions say that Jain Scholar Bhadrabahu, who was also a Sutra Kevali (one who can recite all sutras), could recite the 14 Purvas

His disciple Sthulbhadra learnt all but last four Purvas. Thus, Bhadrabahu is considered to be the last expert of fourteen Purvas. He later migrated to South India, where he would later become guru of Chandragupta Maurya.

Lalitavistara

In Sanskrit Lalit is a Lotus. Lalitvistara is a Sanskrit text that deals with the biography of Buddha.

Manusmriti and the Concept of Varna

In line with the ancient Indian tradition, Manu distinguished between various human beings on the basis of their basic tendencies and inclinations. The element of desire, action and knowledge was found among persons varying according to the proportion of three gunas of Rajas, Tamas and Sattvik in them. The human beings were classified on the basis of the preponderance of a particular guna. Thus in according to Manusmriti, the Satvik guna preponderates in Brahmins, Rajas Guna dominates in Kshatriyas and Tamas Guna dominates in the Vaishyas and Shudras

Sutta Pitaka

It contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his close companions. This also deals with the first Buddhist council which was held shortly after Buddha's death, dated by the majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of king Ajatasatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgir

Kalpa (Ritual Canon)

It contains the sacrificial practice and systematic sutras.

Jyotisha (Astrology)

It describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon and the foundation of Vedic Jyotish.

Some scholars have shown on the basis of evidence in Shatapatha Brahmana that Indian geometry predates Greek geometry by centuries

It has been argued that Geometry and Mathematics had a ritualistic beginning in India centuries before Greeks or Babylon. In these rituals, Earth was represented by Circular altar and heavens were represented in Square altar. The Ritual consisted of converting the Circle into a square of identical area. As per a paper by Seidenberg: Babylonia [1700 BC] got the theorem of Pythagoras from India or that both OldBabylonia and India got it from a third source. The source quoted was Sulvasutras.

Smiriti literally means "that which is remembered, supplementary and may change over time"

It is authoritative only to the extent that it conforms to the bedrock of Shruti and it is entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature. It comprises Vedanga, Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, Upangas. there is no distinct division between Shruti and Smriti. Both Shruti and Smriti can be represented as a continuum, with some texts more canonical than others.

The canonical literature of Jainism is claimed to have started from Adinatha, the first tirthankara

It is said that these teachings were forgotten and revived by the Tirthankaras from time to time. The teachings of the Tirthankaras before Mahavir are known as Purva. There were total 14 Purvas which were memorized and passed on through the ages, but later lost into oblivion.

Chhanda (Vedic meter)

It measures and divides Vedic Mantras by number of padas in a verse, which is called Padas

Shiksha (Phonetics)

Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras.

Mahāvibhāsa Śāstra

Its an early Sanskrit work on Buddhism. Vibhasa means a compendium and has 3 prongs. It is attributed to vasumitra and deals with not only Buddhism but also Vaisheshika and Samkya philosophies.

Overview of Jain Literature

Jain Literature is called Jain Agamas They are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira's teachings. There are in all 46 texts.

Jatakas

Jatakas are very much close to folklore literature and they contain the tales of previous births of Buddha in poems. The Jataka have also been mentioned in the Khuddaka Nikaya. There are 547 poems. In Sanskrit it is called Jatakamala, In Khmer they are known as cietak in Chinese they are called Sadok

Mahavamsa

Mahavamsa is the most important Pali epic poem. Mahavamsa means "Great Chronicle". It's a historical poem in Pali Language The first version of Mahavamsa dates back to 3-4th century BC during the reign of King Vijaya. The Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Culavamsa (small chronicle) all together are sometimes known as Mahavamsa. It deals with the royal dynasties of not only Sri Lanka but the whole Indian subcontinent and is known as world's longest unbroken historical accounts. The consecration of Asoka and details of Selucus and Alexander have been detailed in it.

Mahavastu:

Mahavastu means the "Great Event". It's a work in prose and verse and is written in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. It details the miracles & earlier lives of Buddha.

Manusmriti

Manusmriti is one of the earliest and most authoritative law texts followed by the Hindus, covering a wide range of topics such as creation of the world, sacraments like 'Upanayana' and marriage; duties of men and women placed in different strata of society and stages of life; penitential rites for violation of codes of conduct; and so on. There is no philosopher or religious teacher who does not rely upon Manu. It is a metrical (one that is written in poetic verses) text, which presents a discourse given by the Prajapati Manu, to a congregation of seers after a Mahapralaya (great Floods) in ancient India. It was translated in 1794 by Sir William Jones

Milinda Panha

Milinda Panha means "Questions of Milinda". It contains the dialogue of Indo-Greek king Meander and Buddhist monk Nagasena. It has been written in second to first century BC and initially written in Sanskrit. There is only one copy in Sri Lankan Pali of this work. It was printed in the 6th Buddhist council in 1954

Nagarjuna

Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika school of Mahayan Buddhism. He was contemporary of Satavahana King Gautamiputra. He was born in a Brahmin family in Nagarjunkonda in modern Andhra Pradesh. Due to his birth in Brahmin family and later conversion in Buddhism, it can be justified that his early work was in Sanskrit and not in Pali or Hybrid Sanskrit. Most important work is Mūlamadhyamakakārikā , which means Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way. His theory is also known as Shunyavad "emptiness".

The four major Sulva Sutras, which are mathematically the most significant, are those composed by Baudhayana, Manava, Apastamba and Katyayana

Out of them the oldest belongs to Baudhayana and dates back to 600BC. They discuss the cases of the Pythagorean Theorem and Pythagorean triples

Epics (Itihasa)

Ramayan Created by Maharishi Valmiki Valmiki is also regarded as India's First Poet Mahabharta created by Maharishi Vyas 10 times longer than "Iliad and Odyssey combined" and 4 times of Ramayana

Aranyakas

The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans.

Brahmanas

The Brahmanas are the prose texts which explain the hymns in the Vedas, give explanation and applications and related stories of their origin. They also have some stories related to the certain persons related to the Vedic Text.

After Bhadrabahu, the Jainism split into Digambara and Svetambara

The Digambara belong to the lineage of Acharya Vishakha and Shvetambar follow the tradition of Acharya Sthulabhadra. In around 1500 AD, the Swetambar sect divided into three sub-sects

What is Samhita?

The basic material or mantra text of each of the Vedas is called "Samhita". It is mnemonics Some post Vedic texts are also known as "Samhitas"

Sam Veda

"Saman" means melody and it contains the Rhythmic compilation of Hymns of Rigveda. It ranks next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rigveda. It contains 1549 hymns which are meant to be sung at the soma sacrifice by a special class of Brahmans

The Upanishads

"Upa" means nearby and "sada" means sit. So Upanishads contain the knowledge imparted by the gurus to their disciples. Eventually the word began to be used for the secret knowledge imparted by the guru to his selected pupils. A number of treatises were prepared, first orally and then in writing, and were called by the same name of Upanishad. Today Upanishads specify philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning.

Yajurveda

"Yajus" means "sacrificial formula" and Yajurveda is the book of sacrificial prayers. It contains the rituals of the Yajnas. It is estimated to have been composed between 1,400 and 1000 BC. It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices. It was the manual of the Adhvaryus. Adhvarus were the people prepared the ground and the altar offered the sacrificial victims and poured out the libations.

Abhidhammapitaka

Abhidhammapitaka deals with the philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism appearing in the suttas. However, it does not contain the systematic philosophical treatises. There are 7 works of Abhidhamma Pitaka which most scholars agree that don't represent the words of Buddha himself.

Manusmriti and Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar

According to Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar, the Hindu Dharmashastras gave legitimacy to the doctrine of Chaturvana and the caste system. Manusmriti dehumanised the Shudras and untouchables, ruled the Hindu psyche for centuries and created the greatest obstacle to any serious attempt at eradicating the caste system. This made Ambedkar publicly burn the Manusmriti on the occasion of his historical Mahad Satyagraha in 1927 for establishing the right of untouchables to drink the water of the Chawdar tank in Mahad town in Maharashtra.

Acharang Sutra (Acaranga Sutra)

Acharanga Sutra is the first of the eleven (or 12) Anga Agamas. It is the first text that was studied by the Jain monks. This agam describes the conduct and behaviour of ascetic life and the description of the penance of Lord Mahavir. This is the oldest agam from a linguistic point of view. It was written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.

Aśvaghosa

Aśvaghosa is the greatest Indian Poet Prior to Kalidasa. He is known as first Sanskrit Dramatist of the world. His epics rivalled the contemporary Ramayana. He wrote Buddhist texts in Classical Sanskrit. He was the court writer and religious advisor of Kushana king Kanishka. His main works are Buddhacharita, Mahalankara (Book of Glory) and Saundaranandakavya (details the life of Nanda).

Early Scholars in Sanskrit and Their Works

Baudhayana, Manava, Apastamba and Katyayana - Salbasutras Manusmriti

Bodhi Vamsa

Bodhi Vamsa is a mix Sanskrit Pali text which was composed by Upatissa under the rule of Mahinda IV of Sri Lanka in 10th century AD. It describes the arrival of branch of Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka and many other things which mentioned in Mahavamsa.

Asanga & Vasubandhu

Both were half brothers and proponents of Yogachara and Abhidhamma Teachings. They were from modern Peshawar in Pakistan. Most important work of Vasubandhu was Abhidharmamoksha.

Buddha Charita:

Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Ashavaghosa. Dharmaraksa who is known to have translated many works of Buddhism in Chinese, translated this work in Chinese in 420AD. It mainly deals with Buddha's Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama "Sariputra Prakaran" which deals about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple of Buddha.

Buddhaghosa

Buddhaghosa lived the 5th century AD and is known to be one of the greatest Pali scholar. His name means "Voice of Buddha". Considered to be most important commentator of the Theravada. Details of his life have been described in Mahavamsa and Buddhaghosuppatti. Buddhaghosuppatti was not his work. He is said to have gone to Sri Lanka from India's Magadha and settled in Anuradhapura. The most important work is Visuddhimagga.

Dipavamsa

The meaning of Dipavamsa is "Chronicle of Island". It is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. It is believed to have been compiled around 3rd or 4th century BC somewhere in Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka during the reign of King Dhatusena of Sri Lanka, the first Mauryan King of Sri Lanka. The Avukana Buddha statue was erected by King Dhatusena in Sri Lanka. Dipavamsa is one of the most important works in Pali Literature. It details the tooth relic and Bodhi Tree's arrival in Sri Lanka. It also deals with the arrival of Buddha's teaching and preachers in Sri Lanka. It mentions that Buddha visited Kelaniya and Dighavapi in Sri Lanka.

Moggaliputta Tissa

The most important turning point in the expansion of Buddhism in India was the emergence and conversion of Asoka the Great (304-232 BC). He embraced Buddhism after 8 years of his coronation; he became a Buddhist and made it his state religion in 260 BC He convened the third Buddhist council, which was held in Pataliputra in the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa. He launched a vigorous campaign to propagate Buddhism which could be called Asoka's Dhamma.

Vinaya Pitaka

The subject matter of Vinay Pitaka is the monastic rules for monks and nuns. It can also be called as Book of Discipline.

The Vedas are said to have been passed on from one generation to the next through verbal transmission and are, therefore, also known as Shruti (to hear) or revelation.

The term Vedic literature means the four Vedas in their Samhita and the allied literature based on or derived from the Vedas. Vedic literature into the following categories: The four Vedas i.e. the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva and their Samhitas. The Brahmanas attached to each Samhita. The Aranyakas. The Upanishads The Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories viz. Shruti and Smriti

Puranas

They are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography. They are colored with superstitions and also represent a corrupt form of Hindu Philosophy. There are 18 major Puranas.

Aranyakas don't lay much emphasis on rites, ritual and sacrifices but have philosophy and mysticism

This is because aranyakas were written mainly for the hermits and students living in the jungles. They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on meditation. They are in fact, opposed to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. Their stress is on moral values. They form a bridge between way of work (karma marga) which was the sole concern of the Brahmanas and the way of knowledge (gyan marga) which the Upanishads advocated

Sulvasutras deal with complex fire altars of various shapes constructed with bricks of specific shapes and area: the total area of the altar must always be carefully respected

This proves that despite of no existence of algebra, there was an awareness of precise purely geometrical calculations. Seidenberg's conclusion of India being the source of the geometric and mathematical knowledge of the ancient world has been included now in chronology of the texts.

Atharva Veda

entirely different from the other three Vedas and is chronologtically the last of the four. It is important and interesting as it describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk. Atharvaveda contains the magic spells, incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures. For a very long time it was not included in the category of the Vedas.' Atharvan' was a legendary Rishi and is considered to have sung the Atharvaveda. He is also said to have first instituted the fire-sacrifice or yagna.

Rig-Veda

oldest religious text in the world. It is also known as "First testament" of mankind. It was composed around 1700 BC. Last hymns were composed between 1500-1200 BC. Rig-Veda is neither a historical nor a heroic poem but is mainly a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families. These were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. The Rig-Veda contains 1028 hymns and is divided into ten mandalas. The first and the tenth Mandalas are said to have been added later as their language differs slightly from the other eight Mandalas.

Sulva Sutra also mentions a ritual which included "Squaring the circle" (and vice-versa)

thus geometrically constructing a square having the same area as a given area. It has worked out the square root of 2 to 1.414215, up to last 5 decimals

Kalpa Sūtra

written by Bhadrabahu. It contains the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, most notably Parshvanath and Mahavira, including the latter's Nirvana. Since Bhadrabahu was a teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, we can say that it was compiled in Mauryan Era.

Manusmriti and position of Women

Contrary to the common belief that Manusmriti is anti-women, it holds women in high esteem. According to it, the land where women are honoured becomes the favourite abode of gods In Manu's perception, a woman is, by her very nature, so divine and unique that she should never be left to fend for herself. It is the duty of society to protect and take good care of her — by her father during childhood, husband in her youth, and son in her old age. Further, the contradictory stands / verses in manusmriti may also reflect the adulteration of the original text in later times. The text was written in such a time where a person with such derogatory opinon about women could not rise to the position of Maharishi.

Further, in the ancient texts, the four Varnas were compared with the limbs of human body.

Thus, Brahmin was represented by mouth; the Kshatriya by arms; the vaishya by navel and the shudra by feet. This is why Brahmins got the top status They used to teach, preach and advise, that is, the functions of higher intellect were their prerogative. The kshatriyas were the protectors of dharma, while vaishyas performed trade and agriculture. The shudras used to serve the higher varnas. Though the possession of quality and not the accident of birth was said to determine one's varna; but in actual fact this salutary advice was followed more in breach than in observance.

Tripitaka

Tripitaka or Three Baskets is a traditional term used for various Buddhist scriptures. It is known as pali Canon in English. The three pitakas are Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Udana

Udana is a Pali text included there in the Sutta Pitaka's Khuddaka Nikaya. It contains the story of "Blind men and Elephant".

Udanavarga

Udanavarga is an early Buddhist Sanskrit text. It has verses attributed to Buddha and his disciples.

The main motto of the Upanishads is "Knowledge Awards Salvation".

Upanishads are called Vedanta (the end of the Veda) firstly, because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the Veda. The Oldest Upanishads are Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads which date as back as the first millennium BC. The latest Upnishad is Muktikā Upnishad and was recorded by Dara Shikoh. It dates to 1656. Dara Shikoh was son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and is known to have translated fifty Upanishads into Persian.

Upaveda

Upaveda means applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain the subjects of certain technical works. They are as follows: Āyurveda: Deals in Medicine and associated with the Rigveda Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery and associated with the Yajurveda Gāndharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associated with the Samaveda Shastrashastra: Deals with military technology and associated with the Atharvaveda

Vedangas

Vedangas are the first series in the Smriti Literature. These refer to six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas. They are as follows:

Shruti is "that which has been heard" and is canonical, consisting of revelation and unquestionable truth, and is considered eternal

Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads

Vyakaran (Grammar)

Vyakaran includes the Aṣṭādhyāyī, of Panini. Most of the work of very early Indian grammarians ranging to 8th century BC is lost.

Distinction between Black and White Yajurveda

World's oldest prose literature of the Indo-Europeans is contained in Yajurveda. There are two distant forms of this Veda. In the oldest, the instructions about rituals are mingled with the verses from the Rig-Veda. The chief recession of this is that taught by a school of teachers called the Taitttiriyans. This was called black (Krishna) Yajur-Veda. At a later date other scholars called the Vajasaneyins separated the explanatory matter from the verses to be recited and hence were called white (Shukla) Yajur-Veda

Overview of Buddhist Literature

and Select Buddhist Scholars