International migration midterm :()

Chattel slavery

1650-1850 (as antecedent of modern labor migration). It was the basis of commodity production in the plantations and mines of the new world. By 1770 there were nearly 2.5 million slaves in the American producing a third of the total value of European commerce". 1807 slave trafficking was abolished in the British Empire, in 1865 in southern states of the US, replaced by indentured servants. Remained as free settlers in E. Africa, Caribbean, etc.

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1948. Article 13: Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.

how many refugees?

2005 there were about 200 million international migrants worldwide, including about 9 million refugees. One in every 35 people in the world is an international migrant. 7 billion people, 3% are international migrants.

1945-70 Period (1st phase)

3 types of migration contributed ethnic diversity in developed countries 1. from European peripheries- guest workers 2. from former colonies to Europe 3. permanent migration to N. America and Oceania from Europe, Asia and Latin America They all led to family reunification and chain migration.

Nation-building, migration and history writing

A starting point for the construction of new national identities was the idealization of the destruction of indigenous societies. "The roots of racist stereotypes- today directed against new immigrant groups- often lie in historical treatment of colonized people"

goals of US immigration policy

Admit legal immigrants via four major front door channels Regulate the entry of side-door temporary visitors And minimize back door unauthorized entries

US immigrations stats

Admits 1.1 million foreigners as legal immigrants every year 35 million tourists and other visitors enter country 300,000-400,000 unauthorized foreigners settle each year 13% of population is foreign born, 30% of which is irregular 3 types of foreigners in US front door immigrants—legal immigrants side door temporary visitors—tourists back door unauthorized—illegal immigrants (40%, 60% of which are Mexicans, 15% central American)

development

Amartya Sen it is "the process of expanding the substantive freedoms that people enjoy"- "the ability of human beings to lead lives they have reason to value and to enhance the substantive choices they have".

internal and external control

Internal: laws prohibiting employment of irregulars External: fortifying borders, working with external flight companies

interwar period

Migration was unregulated until 1880s in the US, exclusionary laws for Chinese/Asian groups, beginning of WWI many migrants went home to fight. Reduced migration bc of crisis/economic stagnation/hostility to migrants. US passed laws in 20s to stop entry except from NW Europe. 1914-1950 internal movement of black americans to N from S.

1850-1914

age of mass migration in Europe and North America

Post 1970s

age of restriction and transition

micro practices

cover family ties and beliefs of migrants. how these larger forces shape the decisions and actions of individual and families or how they affect changes in communities? Role of agency (Brettell p9).

reasons for migration

demographic growth, climate change, development of production and trade, warfare, conquest, emergence of states, empires

state and nation

effects of growing diversity on political institutions and national identity. Nation is a belief system, based on collective cultural ties and sentiments that convey a sense of identity and belonging, which may be referred to as national consciousness.

Industrial revolution

enabled by capital accumulation as a result of colonialism. Open field vs. enclosure lead to displaced farmers, went to urban cities to become laborers. Peak was main period of Brit migration to USA: 1800-1860, 66% of migrants from Britain.

Factors changing migration patterns in 90s

end of the Cold War, acceleration of economic globalization, increase in violence and human rights violations in Africa, the ME, Asia and L. America. Result: politicization of migration

Culture, identity and community

focus of resistance to centralizing and homogenizing forced of globalization, identification with the culture of origin helps people maintain self-esteem in a situation where their capabilities and experience are undermined

voluntary

for education/jobs/family, even if circumstances are dire

citizenship

legal relationship between the individual and the polity Various understand of citizenship: as legal status, as possession of rights, as political activity, as a form of collective identity and sentiment Formal vs substantive membership or citizenship status (politics of citizenship in and politics of belonging to the nation state) Ways to acquire citizenship: 1. Jus soli 2. Jus sanguinis Internal and External politics of belonging can be connected

citizenship

link between the state and the nation, defining who is a citizen, if/how newcomers can become citizens and what citizenship means. Citizenship designates the equality of rights of all citizens within a political community, and corresponding set of institutions guaranteeing these rights

meso-structures

migrant networks immigrant communities, migration industry. focusing on social ties.

International migration

movement of non-national people, across national borders for purposes other than travel or short term residency.

1980s and 90s

new migrations in Southern Europe as result of declining birth rates and economic growth (3rd phase)

how migration ends

o Return migration. o Integration and naturalization: ius sanguinis (law of the blood) vs ius solis (law of the soil) ius domicile (opportunity to be naturalized after legally residing in the country) o Migration to a 3rd country

Immigration of culturally diverse people

presents nation-states with a dilemma: incorporation of the newcomers as citizens may undermine myths of cultural homogeneity; but failure may lead to divided societies, marked by severe inequality and conflict

functionalist theory

push-pull model. Ravenstein 19th century. • identify economic, environmental, and demographic factors that push people out of their home countries and pull them to their destination • These models do no necessarily clarify the interaction of various factors. It doesn't bring them together in an explanatory system. • They are also deterministic, where they assume certain factors will cause migration.

macro structures

refer to large scale institutional factors, such as the political economy of the world market, interstate relationships, and efforts by the states of sending and receiving countries to control migration. focuses on structural conditions that shape migration flows, like political legal and economic. Also governments ability to control migration by regulating labor markets in receiving and sending countries.

Immigrant

someone who moves from their country of origin for more than a year.

Functionalist vs Historical

systems theory seeking for equilibrium (functionalist, neoclassical and human capital) vs. structural (dependency, world systems, and globalization) theories

sovereignty

the government of a state constitutes the final and absolute authority in a society and no outside power has the right to intervene in the exercise of it

race

the visible markers of a phenotype, a social construct produced by racism. Racism means making prediction about people's character, abilities or behavior on the basis of socially constructed market of difference.

1974-1985

time of consolidation and demographic normalization

1945-1970s

time of rapid and sustained economic growth and the age of new migration, emergence of guest migration systems and colonial workers.

1914

times of xenophobia, economic stagnation and restrictions

forced

war/environmental disaster; really far down spectrum, must be very very forced

volitional dimension

what propels migrant?

temporal dimension

why does migration begin and continue, or not, over time?

spatial dimension

why does migration occur between two places?

nation-state

• "polities that recognize one another's independence" • Analytical ideal (model of political, social, cultural organization) vs normative ideal (model for political, social, cultural organization) • The idealized version assumes a tight coupling of the nation and the state: a link is assumed between state territory, national territory, national culture and citizenry. A concept built on the assumption of internally homogenous, externally bounded political, legal, social, cultural and economic space

Soysal & int'l migration

• 1. Abolition of serfdom created immense mobility for lower classes, new technological developments and geographical discoveries spurred migration overseas. • 2. As nation-states solidified and the international state system crystallized new restrictions on the mobility of people were introduced • With the French Rev the nation-state became the form of political organization and nationality as the condition of membership in a polity • In the early 20th century, passports and national identity cards were introduced, formalizing the status of the national citizen and the alien.

causes of changes to idea of citizenship

• 1. Change in the position and institutional features of nation states since the 1980s as a result of globalization • 2. Emergence of various actors, groups, strengthened by the transformations in the state, who are unwilling to identity automatically with the nation as represented by the state (ex. Environmental groups), alternative notions of community of membership in the making?

THEORIES OF MIGRATION:

• 1. On the causes of migration processes (before) • 2. Impacts of migration for sending and receiving communities and societies (after)

major issues

• 1. Regulation of international migration • 2. Effect of growing ethnic/religious diversity on the host societies (assimilation/integration vs multiculturalism) • Is diversity a challenge to the state? (Delivering social services, national identity)

effects of migration on transforming societies

• 1. Settlement and inception of migrants (formation of ethnic minorities, race as a social construct, gender) • ethnic minorities can be defined as groups: o a. that have been assigned a subordinate position in society by dominant groups based on physical appearance, race, origins or culture o b. Have some degree of collective consciousness.

Schengen Regime

• 1970s Pompidou Group on drugs and the Trevi Group of 1975 • An agreement signed in 1985 to remove the borders between Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg and Netherlands • In 1990 the Agreement was supplemented by the Schengen Implementing Convention which proposed the abolition of internal border controls and a common visa • Compensatory measures for the removal of frontier controls, covered asylum, a common visa regime, illegal immigration, cross border police competences, common computerized system for the exchange of personal data (SIS) • Originally the Schengen treaties and the rules adopted under them operated independently from the EU. Yet, in 1999 they were incorporated to the EU law by the Amsterdam Treaty. Ireland and UK opted out. New candidates do not have the option to opt-out, so they have to comply with requirements before membership. • Schengen Convention came into effect with 9 states in 1995, it abolished internal checks and created external borders.

globalization theory

• Also argued in 1990s to understand migration as an instrinsic part of much broader relationships between societies • Globalization: widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life • Globalization is about technological and economic change, but is also a political process that emerged in the post 1980 new right policies • Opening of markets, transfer of industrial production to low wage economies weakened the political left and trade unions in industrial countries and shored up authoritarian regimes in the South. • Market liberalization, privatization and deregulation keywords for ideology of globalization defining how the world should be reshaped • Not only spurred migration because of revolutions in transport and communication technology but also the scope for trade, outsourcing of production, commuting and teleworking, and thus replace some forms of migration • It has led to pervasive processes of social transformation all around the world, causing fundamental changes in the way societies are organized • Control of migration and differential treatment of various categories of migrants have become the basis for a new type of transnational class structure

feats of age of migration

• Challenge of international migration to sovereign states: lack of ability to control the borders and transnationalism (i.e. migrants' continued link with their home countries) • Global scope of migration, their centrality to domestic and international politics and its enormous economic and social consequences • Growth of diversity and transnationalism might overcome violence of nationalism, might be the opposite as well- increased far right politics linking migration to security and cultural threat • Cultural diversity leading to questions of national identity

methods for irregular migration

• Cooperation with non-EU member states • IBM • Fight against human trafficking, • Combating illegal employment, • Return policy and • The improving information exchange and • Carriers' liability

EU

• Distributed and shared across subnational, national and supranational levels of governance. New kind of nation-state/polity where states pool their sovereignty. • Organization is that it has the power to turn treaties in public international law agreed by participating states, into laws that bind these states. It does so through a set of common institutions located primarily in Brussels that are separate but not detached from member states and that are central to the remaking of migration policy and politics in Europe.

historical-structural theories

• Encompasses dependency (vs modernization) theories of 50s, world systems theory of 70s and globalization theory of 90s • "Migration is seen as a manifestation of capitalist penetration and the unequal terms of trade between developed and underdeveloped countries" • Focus on the large-scale recruitment of labor • Availability and control of labor is both a legacy of colonialism ad the result of war and international inequalities • They criticize neo-classical approaches as they claim "individuals do not have a free choice as they are fundamentally constrained by structural forces" • People are forced to move for their traditional economic structures have been undermined due to their incorporation into global political-economic system and simultaneous processes like mechanization of agriculture, concentration of landownership, increasing indebtedness and dispossession of smallholder peasants.

ethnicity

• Sense of group belonging based on ideas of common origins, history, culture experience and values. It is not homogenous nor static. • "Ethnicity only takes on social and political meaning when it is linked to processes of boundary-drawing between dominant groups and minorities" • We must see development of ethnic cultures, stabilization of personal and group identities, and the formation of ethnic communities as facets of a single process. • Culture is increasingly becoming politicized as racial or ethnic superiority lose their ideological strength. Minority resistance also is being crystalize around cultural symbols.

transnational identities

• Transformation in the organization of the international state system: increasing interdependence and connectedness, emergence of transnational political structures that complicate and limit state sovereignty and jurisdiction • Emergence of universalistic rules and conceptions regarding the rights of the individual, which are formalized and legitimated by a multitude of international codes and laws.

republican model

1 of ideal types of citizenship. Nation as a political community, based on constitution, laws and citizenship, with the possibility of admitting newcomers so long as they adhere to the political rules and are willing to adopt the national culture.

multicultural model

1 of ideal types of citizenship. Similar to Republican in defining the nation as political community yet newcomers maintain their distinctive cultures and form ethnic communities, providing they conform to national laws (Canada).

ethnic model

1 of ideal types of citizenship. definition of belonging to the nation in terms of ethnicity (Germany)

transnational model

1 of ideal types of citizenship. multiple and differentiated forms of belonging with consequences for democratic institutions and political belonging in future.

imperial model

1 of ideal types of citizenship. pre-French and American Revolution, being subject of the same ruler

4 waves of immigration

1- before country created, 17th-18th, the word immigrant emerged in 1790s to mean a person who moves voluntarily o 2- 1820-1860, European peasants displaced from agriculture and artisans made jobless by the industrial revolution, pushing settlement westward o 3- 1880s-1914, each year 460K arriving. 20 million Southern and Eastern Euros; several 100Ks of East Asian immigration paused 1915-1964: 1920s congress quotas and 1930s depression end of WWII, 600,000 displaced Euros admitted 1950s Bracero guest worker system put in place o 4- post 1965, when nation quota system (national origins selection system) was replaced with favoring family ties and people sponsored by US employers

immigration effects on security

1. -(border control and national identity) "Ability of state to maintain control over their territory and national purpose" 2- the balance of power between states (state's ability to exercise and project economic, military and diplomatic power) 3- the nature of violent conflict (relationship between migration and 3 forms of security threats to states: internal conflicts, organized crime and international terrorism)

Post 1945 period

1. 1945-70s: main logic of development concentration of investment and expansion of production in developed countries 2. after mid 70s: post-oil crisis restructuring the world economy; capital investment in new industrial areas and introduction of new technologies

factors to determine which of 3 dimensions

1. Condition that push a person to leave her place 2. The social structures that facilitate or constrain migration between two places 3. The feedback effects that produce and reproduce migration-related social structures

states control borders bc

1. Maintain control over their own populations 2. Limit access to labor markets and public goods 3. Maintain internal security

assumptions of neoclassical theory

1. Rational actor model 2. Potential migrants have perfect knowledge on wages and employment opportunities 3. Capital, insurance, etc. Markets are perfect and accessible for the poor.

dealing with irregular migration

1. Stricter border control regulations (control) 2. Criminalization of unregistered employment of foreigners (regularization) 3. Amnesties for providing regularization opportunities (amnesties)

Mid-1970s to 1990s (2nd phase)

Defined by neo-liberal policies, promoting economic deregulation and flexibilization of labor markets, privatization of state enterprises Capital becoming mobile towards developing countries, leading to mass dismissal of factory and mine workers Main trends post 70s: 1. decline of government organized labor migration to W Europe 2. family reunification of former foreign and colonial workers, and formation of new ethnic minorities 3. Transition of South and Central European countries from emigration to transit and immigration 4. Continuation of migration to "classical immigration countries" but chancing countries of origin 5. New migratory movements linked to economic and social changes in the new industrial countries 6. Recruitment of labor by oil rich countries 7. Mass movement of refugees from South to North and East to West 8. Increasing mobility of highly qualified workers 9. Proliferation of illegal migration

segmented labor market theory

• Focused more on the pull side, i.e. demand driven, responding to the structural needs of contemporary highly developed economies in the world • Helps to find out how the demand for high and low skilled immigrant labor is structurally embedded in modern capitalist economies • For Priore (1979) international migration is caused by structural demand within advanced economies for both highly skilled workers and lower skilled manual workers to carry out production tasks and to staff service enterprises • Not all work processes can be outsources, service and construction sectors are two exceptions. • A division into primary and secondary labor markets (capital and labor intensive sectors) emerges, while the most dynamic global cities are marked by economic polarization- a growing gulf between the highly paid core workers in finance, management and research, and the poorly paid workers who service their needs (Boston) • This emerges from the bifurcation of economically advanced regions into capital and labor intensive sectors. There is a continued demand in developed economies for unskilled labor satisfied from immigrants from undeveloped parts of the world recruited by receiver firms. • Division between highly skilled and lower skilled manual workers. "The worked in the primary labor market are positively selected on the basis of human capital, but also often through membership of the majority ethnic group, ale gender and in the case of migrants, regular legal statues. Conversely, those in the second labor market are disadvantaged by lack of education and vocational training, as well as by gender, race, minority status and irregular status" • It brings in institutional factors as well as race and gender in bringing about labor market segmentation • "SLMT is useful to understand how migration can continue even under circumstances of high unemployment, and how the irregular status of migrants may actually serve employers' interests as it creates a vulnerable and docile workforce...public racism, xenophobic discourses by politics and restrictive immigration policies not only fulfill a symbolic function (such as to rally voters) but actually service to facilitate and legitimize exploitation of migrants on the labor market by depriving them of their basic rights" (Castels p36)

transnational & diaspora theories

• Globalization made it easier for migrants to sustain ties with home countries • This creates ability to foster multiple identities, to travel and do business and politics in distant places • To be classified transnational it needs to happen on a recurrent basis across borders • Basch (1994) argues 'deterritorialized nation states' are on the making, with effects of national identity and international politics.

global trends

• Globalization of migration: more countries are affected from migration • Changing direction of dominant migration flows; used to be from Europe to rest not the opposite • Differentiation of migration: most countries experience various types of migration • Proliferation of migration transition: ex Turkey, Spain, Poland • Feminization of labor migration since 60s • Growing politicization of migration

criticism of neoclassical theory

• Individualistic and ahistorical, utility maximizing fully informed rational actors simplistic, migration seen just as part of market. • Neglects historical causes of movements and downplays the role of the state • Empirical evidence des not always support its presumptions: people moving from densely populated areas to sparsely populated ones • Why certain group of migrants to go certain destinations: ex. Turks in Germany? • Neoclassical migration theories are incapable of explaining actual movements or predicting future ones. It seems absurd to treat migrants as individual market-players who have full information on their options and freedom to make rational choices • Migrants behavior is strongly influenced by historical experiences as well as by family and community dynamics

neoclassical and human capital theories

• Initially developed to understand rural-urban migration. Then applied to international migration (George Borjas) • Social forces tend towards equilibrium • Migration is an intrinsic apart of the whole development process, by which surplus labor in the rural sector supplies the workforce for the urban industrial economy. • Migrant is seen as a rational atomic actor, seeking his interest • An international immigrant market is imagined where migrants chose their destination according to cost-benefit calculations. • At the macro-level, migration is depicted as a process which optimizes the allocation of production factors. Economics mindset: efficient use of scarce resources. • Migration will make labor less scarce at the destination and scarcer at the sending end. Capital is expected to move in the opposite direction. This process will result in convergence of wages. • Migration as an investment that increases the productivity of human capital with knowledge and skills. Human capital theory helps to understand the selectivity of migration, as expectations from migration differ depending on personal traits of the migrant. • Differences on expected returns on investment can partly explain why the young and the higher skilled tend to migrate more.

JHA

• JHA policies touch many issues that are deeply entrenched in national political and judicial systems and have close link to question of state sovereignty • Cooperation in JHA has direct implications for democratic values and for the valance between liberty and security in the Union and its members • Development of a common response to immigration and asylum, the joint management of the external borders, the increasing coordination of national police forces in the fight against crime, the approximation of national criminal and civil law and the creation of specialized EU bodies (Europol, Eurojust, Frontex) to deal with these matters constitute a new trajectory in European integration.

incorporation

• Macro level process where a guest worker population becomes part of the polity of the host country (incorporation vs integration). Incorporation is a wider process that takes place independently of the integration of individuals or perceptions of such integration. Incorporation styles bear the imprint of collective paradigm of membership that persist over time. Transnational discourse and structure provide a normative framework for the incorporation regimes. • 2. To understand incorporation, looking at the institutions of host society, rather than cultural background or individual characteristics of migrants needed. The ways in which migrants interact with host societies and organize their experiences are effected by the models and resources available in those polities.

Policy planning on the global scale

• OECD had its first conference on international migration in 1986 • EU removed internal borders and looked into ways to fortify external borders • Rise of extreme right in Europe brought migration to center stage • 1990 convention on the Rights of Migrant Workers and their Families by the UN General Assembly • in 2003 a Global Commission on International Migration was founded, which prepared a report in 2005 • UN General Assembly held its first high-level Dialogue on International Migration and Development in 2006

migration will continue because

• Persistent inequality between the rich and the poor • Political and ethnic conflicts • Creation of new free trade areas facilitating labor movement