Intro to Feminisms Final
gender violence
"Harm evolves from the imbalance in power associated with masculinity and femininity"; Those who are visible as "women" in society are at more risk of violence; Cisgender and transgender women are at risk of violence, but often for distinct reasons (Transgender individuals face violence because of gender nonconformity); Violence: not only physical, any form of coercive behavior that takes autonomy away from the victim → Intimidation, blackmail, restricting finances, making women uncomfortable in public spaces, threats; The construction of gender creates an imbalance of power which enables certain people to exert power; affects many people groups (sexual minorities, BIPOC, people living in poverty, incarcerated people, refugees, immigrants, those living in war zones, men and boys can be victims
sexual assault
"any sexual contact without consent that involves the use of force" (541); Some forms of sexual assault do not involve complete consent, such as altruistic sex or compliant sex
consent
"freely made choice that is clearly communicated"
rape
"penetration of any bodily orifice by a penis or object without consent" (541); Anyone can be a victim of rape but perpetrators are usually men or those with a penis; Rape is a form of domination and an assertion of power; Marital rape wasn't considered a crime until 1993 since wives were seen as the property of husbands
reproductive justice
"the human right to maintain personal bodily autonomy, have children, not have children, and parent the children we have in safe and sustainable communities"; reliable, safe, and affordable birth control options; freedom from forced sterilization; availability of abortion; parenting freedom; not simply about abortion rights but also about how these issues are part of larger systems of oppression that affect marginalized individuals
physical abuse
1 in 3 women and 1 in 4 men have experienced this from an intimate partner; the rate of domestic violence goes up with poverty and the loss of a job for a man; Violence between partners has a significant impact on children; Emotional abuse goes hand in hand with this
shifts in families in contemporary times
1 →The average family size has decreased; 2 → Women in industrialized countries have children later in life; 3 → Increase in children born to solo or cohabitating parents
history of contraception and abortion (relevant court cases**)
1873 Comstock Law made it illegal to send "obscene" materials through the mail (including contraception and information about contraception); Griswold v. Connecticut in 1965 established the constitutional right to birth control for married couples; single people got this right in 1972 and minors in 1977; prior to the 1900s, few prohibitions on abortion, Roe v. Wade in 1973 established a constitutional right to abortion based on privacy (the fetus was not treated as a citizen with equal rights)
Title IX and sexual assault on college campuses
Data suggests that around 20% of women are sexually assaulted in college; CLERY ACT requires schools to report safety and crime statistics; Title IX and VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN ACTmandate that universities respond to sexual assault, prosecute perpetrators, provide support for survivors, and offer programs to discourage assault; About 80% of survivors don't report the assault to university authorities
Violence Against Women Act of 1994
During this time marital rape became law in all 50 states, and more laws were passed regarding workplace harassment and sexual assault; Provides federal protection for victims of gender violence, Protection orders across state lines, Funding for shelters and resources for victims, Prevention efforts; 2013 the reauthorization included protections for LGBT survivors and expanded protection for crimes on tribal lands; Provides federal protection as well as tribal agency; Reauthorized on March 15, 2022
legal protections for labor
EQUAL PAY ACT OF 1963 → men and women at the same place of employment must receive equal pay for equal work; Title VII prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, pregnancy, age, and/or national origin; AD 1990 prohibits discrimination based on disability; EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY COMMISSION started to enforce Title VII in 1972; sexual harassment ruled a form of sex discrimination in 1986 and 1993; FAIR PAY ACT in 2009 eliminates time limits on filing a discrimination claim; affirmative action to increase diversity
the family as an institution that connects to other social institutions
Families often reflect systems of inequality and privilege in society; Single women of color households are the most likely to experience poverty; Middle class, married families get tax benefits; The US government often deprioritizes programs that would provide education equity, a living wage, health care, childcare, etc.; No paid parental leave in the US; Child tax credit and childcare subsidies
3 models of power
Head complement- One person who's the provider and the other person provides all of the support at home; The head holds power in making decisions and handling money; Junior/senior partner- both partners work outside of the home, but the senior partner makes more of a wage; There's more equal power, but the senior's responsibilities are more important than the junior; Equal partners- both people work outside of the house, equally, and also provide care at home, domestically; For equal partners, conflict may arise when partners don't make equal salaries; Its hard for heterosexual relationships to have a perfectly equal partnership because we live in a patriarchal society where women usually make less and are expected to make less; Society reinforces a certain gender dynamic that may not be the case in the relationship: who does the school call when the child is sick?
the gender wage gap: causes
Horizontal occupational segregation (across different jobs, male jobs are more valued, thus they get paid more); vertical occupational segregation (with the same job type, more men are likely to go into high school history and more women are likely to go into early education, and those jobs are valued differently); overt and covert discrimination against women and marginalized workers; Disparity between what men and women make grows as the wage level grows
stereotyping in healthcare
How people are perceived in terms of gender, race, class, and other identities can influence the ways that they are treated in healthcare; Women are often seen as highly emotional or suffering from psychosomatic problems; The assumption that black women have a higher pain tolerance; Medicine has used poor women and people of color for testing
recent efforts to chip away at abortion rights
Hyde Amendment prevents federal money from going towards abortion (Medicaid); heartbeat bans, laws that make women look at ultrasounds, and parental consent laws. Pharmacists refusing to dispense abortion medication bans on late-term pregnancies that are done in health emergencies; intimidation of doctors and patients at clinics, gag laws; Federal Abortion Ban passed in 2003, which bans abortion procedures that are done in the second trimester or later to protect women's health; targeted restrictions on abortion providers make it difficult for abortion clinics to stay open; Texas law bans abortion at 6 weeks, citizens policing one another; Jackson v. Dobbs at Supreme Court right now
Affordable Care Act
Insurance companies cannot discriminate against based on gender, national origin, ethnicity, age, or disability (before this act even a woman of child-bearing age could be considered to have a pre-existing condition); Cannot be denied coverage due to pre-existing conditions; More focus on preventative care; Women cannot be charged more for health insurance; insurers must provide maternity care; Expansion of Medicaid and Children's health insurance; Young people can stay on their parents' insurance until 26; Coverage for contraception
intersectionality of health
Lower-income women of color often have more health concerns due to a number of factors → Living in food deserts (no access to fruits and veggies, mostly snack and fast food), cannot afford gym memberships or exercise equipment; May not have health insurance to cover preventative exams; Less access to reproductive methods; Medicaid doesn't cover abortion High maternal death among Black women Higher rates of HIV infection among African American women
hierarchy of holiness
Men, white people; Religions may exclude women from ritual and sacred spaces; Rules and laws often reinforce misogyny, racism, homophobia, transphobia, etc
same-sex marriages
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): same-sex couples have the same right to marriage as opposite-sex couples under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment; Still some pushback about "traditional family values" and reinforcing gender roles in marriage; Not all LGBTQ activists see marriage equality as the primary goal; Critique of marriage as a heteropatriarchal institution; Also, LGBTQ rights around marriage are sometimes used to help "civilize" other countries
emotional labor, kin keeping
Studies show that those who identify as women do take on the majority of emotional labor in families and work, but there is no biological trait that makes the female sex better at this emotional work; This is part of the construction of gender; "emotional labor" is a term coined by Arlie Hochschild
the state
The major social institution that grants power and authority in society, a key site for the creation of policies that categorize gender, and privilege/discriminate based on gender; "The state works both to maintain sources of inequality and as an avenue for social justice" (585); includes: government, law, social policy, the courts, criminal justice system, the military, and the police; also regulates other institutions that fall outside of the state, such as education, religion, family economics
transgender, non-binary health
Transgender and LGBTQ individuals do not receive care that is informed about transgender bodies and sexuality; shift to gender-neutral language like "pregnant people" and "people seeking abortions" improve healthcare experiences because they're more inclusive
Androcentrism in healthcare
Women as the second sex, men as the norm in healthcare; examples: Birth control, warning signs of heart attacks, ADHD in men and women, birthing positions, Speculums, medical training usually includes male anatomy, medical equipment made for male bodies, drugs not being tested on women (for fear of messing up fertility), more money and research on diseases that affect men, failure to understand the differences between men and women beyond height weight and hormones, the medical field has often focused on women's reproductive organs as influencing women's behavior and emotion, mental health seen more as a woman's issue, natural changes in women's bodies are seen as problematic, drugs and surgeries are used to correct female "problems" (ex: hysterectomies); history of racism and misogyny in the medical field; early gynecological exams were performed on enslaved women; testing of the pill on poor women in Puerto Rico without full consent; still a push to place IUDs and implants in Black women to "fight poverty"
unpaid labor, domestic labor
Women on average do about two-thirds of the domestic work; Cleaning, household maintenance, Purchasing and preparing food, Taking care of children or other family members, Garden and yard work, taking care of emotional needs of family, Managing the household; This labor is often undervalued because it is not seen as contributing to GDP; Domestic labor is often divided further into tasks that are more masculine or feminine: Women do more of the regular cleaning and cooking tasks, Men do more of the seasonal outdoor work or occasional repairs, Cooking and childcare are more likely to be shared but cleaning is done more by women; Studies have shown that couples support equality in the household, but in reality, there is still a gender imbalance in terms of who does the domestic labor and who has leisure time; Couples that have more of a balance in domestic labor tend to be more satisfied with their marriage and sexual relationship
Equal Rights Amendment
a proposed amendment to the Unites States Constitution designed to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex; would end legal distinctions between men and women in matters of divorce, property, employment, and other matters; was ratified in 2022 in Virginia, should be amended to the constitution
examples of feminist interpretations of religions
biblical feminism (sexism is a form of original sin, the Bible has been used by the patriarchal system to justify oppression of marginalized groups), "For me, Niqab is a feminist statement", #mosquemetoo; Feminist readings of the Quran
examples of how religion can be a space of liberation
community and support, feeling of self-worth and value, opportunities to take on leadership roles, can be engaged in the community and social activism, women and LGBTQ individuals have been prominent advocates for social justice and equality from within religious spaces; biblical feminism (the bible is against all forms of oppression) Islam → Feminist reading of the Quran and Hadith reveals a strong focus on women's rights and the rights of the marginalized; Abortion rights are supported in the first trimester; wearing Niqab can be empowering; #mosquemetoo Mormonism → Women within the LDS community are speaking about feminist issues; Ordain Women: the fight for female priesthood in the Mormon Church
sex work
discussions around sex work are centered on saving the women and transgender individuals from patriarchal oppression and personal harm; going after those who seek to purchase sex puts sex workers in more danger because they have to be more secretive; Alternatively, we can view the sex workers as individuals with the agency to decide how they want to earn money → Decriminalize sex work, Harm reduction work to ending trafficking by creating legal channels
images and metaphors for God
dominant images and metaphors for God include male pronouns, "the father", white, the shepherd vs the king, powerful, masculine, and the beard; there are examples of non-masculine images of God → Sophia (wisdom from the Greek translation), God described as child-bearing for his shared pain in human suffering, a woman looking for a lost coin; masculine images of God have many consequences including upholding the idea that men are superior to women, the oversimplification of God, essentialism of the father, legitimizes patriarchy, reinforces gender roles
weathering
erosion from constant stress; Higher stress levels → higher cortisol levels → many health implications; There are higher mortality rates in young black women because of societal factors, not because of their literal genetics because race is a social construct; When you look at high maternal mortality, it affects black women the most regardless of class or education level. It isn't just the fact that there isn't good access to healthcare, it's about daily stresses caused by racism
examples of how religions can be a space to reinforce systems of oppression
evangelical Christianity → Complementarianism (women and men each play an important role in a relationship; man as the leader, woman as his complement), male leadership, purity culture, anti-LGBTQ rights, sexual abuse and harassment, domestic violence; There is a close connection between what it means to be Evangelical Christian and whiteness (White Evangelical Racism by Anthea Butler); White-nationalism, anti-Islam, anti-immigration, anti-critical race theory; White Evangelicals support for Trump and socially conservative policies, such as opposition to abortion, marriage equality, immigration, and transgender rights; Efforts to protect "religious freedom" over individual rights; Kelly Brown Douglas discusses the close connection between creating a Christian nation and a white nation The catholic church → Ordination of only men; an Institution that is primarily run by men; The figure of the Virgin Mary is both empowering but also patronizing to women; Sexual abuse and lack of accountability; LGBTQ Catholics: some resources and support but still see 'homosexual acts' as 'intrinsically disordered'; Transgender issues: no specific policy but generally promotion of the gender binary and biological sex distinctions Islam → Sharia law: private law that controls things like marriage and divorce; used to promote misogyny; Hijab and modest clothing; Sexual assault and harassment; Male leaders misinterpreting the Quran in misogynistic ways Buddhist → female nuns follow the same spiritual path as male monks, but are often seen as inferior; being born a woman is substandard
Feminist issues relating to public policy, the criminal justice system, and the military
government policies are often used to discriminate against certain groups and to grant privileges to other groups → welfare, tax policies, child tax credit, healthcare; women are in prison for less violent offenses, mothers who are incarcerated, domestic violence victims fighting back against their abuser, transgender individuals facing violence and mistreatment in prison; women and LGBTQ individuals are able to serve in all branches of the military
maternal mortality rates
higher in the US than in other developed countries; higher in black women because of weathering, access to healthcare, stereotyping in healthcare, etc.
environmental racism
lead in water and paint lead to cognitive and health issues; disproportionate air quality leads to underlying conditions; people of lower income and people of color tend to live in more industrialized areas (lack of trees and greenspace lead to "heat islands"); exposure to toxic chemicals and pollution; stress from living in poverty or with domestic violence; dealing with microaggressions; weathering
value of labor based on gendered nature
sometimes certain jobs are devalued when more women begin to do them
Family as a space of power
the family is where we see how responsibility is divided between mom and dad (first experience with gender power structures, and patriarchy); Who makes the decisions in the family, who has authority, and what roles do different members of the family play? How is power distributed within a family? An imbalance of power between partners can often get reinforced in how the children are taught to take on certain roles; This imbalance of power can also lead to abuse Family can also be an empowering space where we learn about love, connection to others, and responsibility
childbirth
the medicalization of birthing; shift to doctors instead of midwives; use of drugs, women laying on their backs, episiotomies, cesarean births; decisions that make the process easier fo the doctors and less risky for the hospitals, but not considering that birth is a natural process; movement back to birthing centers, midwives, doulas, and home births
interpersonal gender violence
the most common form of violence, Occurs within an intimate partner relationship; Physical, sexual, and psychological abuse, and economic coercion; More likely to be those who identify as men against others; Various resources are needed to support survivors
diversity of families
the nuclear family is far from the norm demographically; Many single-parent families, blended families (ex: Brady bunch), cohabitating couples (co-parenting), LGBTQ parents, multi-generational families
sterilization
tubal ligation or hysterectomy; eugenics → racist, ableist, and classist ideas around who should be allowed to reproduce; forced sterilizations have been performed on poor, non-white, and disabled women throughout history
Global Gag Rule/Mexico City Policy
was put in place in 1985, and bounced back between Republican and Democratic administrations; Foreign NGOs (non-profit organizations) are restricted from receiving US funds if they talk about abortion services or provide these services; Often the organizations are forced to promote abstinence rather than the use of condoms; The organizations have to choose between receiving US funds or being able to teach and provide comprehensive sexual healthcare; Not a productive way of running organizations or teaching sexual health, an example of imperialism (we're not giving you any money unless you fit into the message we want to send)
government and politics
what does it mean to be a citizen → An active person in one's country who is eligible to vote and take part in all aspects of society (marriage, running for office, etc); White, straight men from wealthy backgrounds still are the majority of elected officials; 117th Congress is the most diverse, Average age: 58.4 for reps, 64.3 for senators, 96% have a college education, Gender: 149 women members, 125 women, 74% white, 11% African American, 10% Hispanic/Latino, AAPI 4%, American Indian/Native Hawaiian 1%, 55.4% protestant
alternative spiritualities
women and other marginalized individuals have often turned to nature-based spiritualities or created their own rituals → witchcraft, Wiccan, neo-pagan, indigenous spirituality, mediums and channeling, New Age
contraception
women not wanting to always be pregnant and lactating; concern about overpopulation; not being able to provide for so many children; women may not want to stay at home to raise the children; women need to control their reproduction in order to control their lives; condoms, diaphragm, withdrawal, rhythm method, intrauterine device, pill, patch, implant, ring, morning-after pills
