Intro to Psych Test #3 Hughes

• He also identified stranger anxiety

a fear of strangers common in infants at about 6 or 7 months of age, which increases in intensity until about 12½ months and then declines.

• Odors are one element of a context that can be tied to

a memory and can become a trigger for it.

• The peer group serves as

a socializing function by providing models of behavior, dress, and language. It is a continuing source of both reinforcement for appropriate behavior and punishment for deviant behavior.

• At birth an infant's vision is

about 20/600, and it doesn't approach the 20/20 level until the child is about 2 years old

• STM holds

about seven unrelated items of information

• Rehearsal involves

active processing of information.

• Researchers now believe that temperament includes several dimensions

activity level, sociability, inhibition, negative emotionality, and effortful control.

• The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory is

an information-processing model that proposes three memory storage systems: sensory, short-term, and long-term.

• The peer group also provides

an objective measure against which children can evaluate their own traits and abilities how to share and cooperate, develop social skills, and regulate aggression.

• Neglecting parents

are permissive and are not involved in their children's lives.

• In some cultural settings such as dangerous neighborhoods what parenting style may be more effective

authoritarian.

• Hearing is well developed at

birth.

• Television can teach

both antisocial (e.g., aggression) and prosocial (e.g., helping) behaviors.

• The strongest evidence for developmental change comes from research that includes

both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies.

• the best way to resolve the nature-nurture debate is to think of each child as born with

certain vulnerabilities, such as a difficult temperament or a genetic disorder along with certain protective factors, such as high IQ.

• Information-processing theory uses

computer models and computer terminology to describe human cognitive functioning.

• Nondeclarative memory is also called

implicit memory.

• Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are evident in

infants in the first few days of life. They can also learn from observation.

• Contexts of development

is Bronfenbrenner's term for the interrelated and layered settings (family, neighborhood, culture, etc.) in which a child grows up.

• The sensorimotor stage

is Piaget's first stage of cognitive development in which infants gain an understanding of their world through their senses and their motor activities; culminates with the development of object permanence and the beginning of representational thought.

• The formal operations stage

is Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development which is characterized by the ability to apply logical thinking to abstract problems and hypothetical situations.

• The preoperational stage

is Piaget's second stage of cognitive development which is characterized by the development and refinement of schemes for symbolic representation.

• Organization

is Piaget's term for a mental process that uses specific experiences to make inferences that can be generalized to new experiences (schemes).

• The concrete operations stage

is Piaget's third stage of cognitive development during which a child acquires the concepts of reversibility and conservation and is able to attend to two or more dimensions of a stimulus at the same time.

• Habituation

is a decrease in response or attention to a stimulus as an infant becomes accustomed to it.

• Priming

is a function of nondeclarative memory in which prior exposure to a stimulus causes it to be recognized more quickly than it would have been otherwise. It can occur even if an individual is unaware of having been exposed to the stimulus.

• A scheme

is a generic plan of action, based on previous experiences, to be used in circumstances that are similar to those in which it was constructed.

• Temperament

is a person's behavioral style or characteristic way of responding to the environment.

• Consolidation

is a physiological change in the brain that facilitates the storage of a piece of information.

• Centration

is a preoperational child's tendency to focus on only one dimension of a stimulus.

• Short-term memory (STM)

is a temporary store that picks up information from sensory memory for further processing.

• A cross-sectional study

is a type of developmental study in which researchers compare groups of participants of different ages on various characteristics to determine age-related differences.

• A longitudinal study

is a type of developmental study in which the same group of participants is followed and measured at different ages.

• Developmental psychology

is the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan.

• Semantic memory

is the subsystem of declarative memory that includes general information.

• Episodic memory

is the subsystem of declarative memory that includes information about person experiences.

• primacy effect

is the tendency to remember the beginning of a series.

• The serial position effect

is the tendency to remember the first and last bits of information more effectively than middle items in a sequence of information.

• The recency effect

is the tendency to remember the information to which one was most recently exposed.

• Working memory

is the term that refers to STM's role as a cognitive workspace.

• Conservation

is the understanding that a given quantity of matter remains the same if it is rearranged or changed in its appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away.

• Low acceptance by peers can be an important predictor of

later mental health problems.

• Information is held for

less than 30 seconds in STM unless it is actively processed.

• Authoritarian parents

make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish misbehavior, and value obedience to authority.

• Permissive parents

make few rules or demands and usually do not enforce those that are made; they allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior.

• Resistant infants

may cling to mother before she leaves and show anger when mother returns; may push mother away; do not explore environment when mother is present; difficult to comfort when upset.

• Disorganized/disoriented infants

may show distress when mother leaves and alternate between happiness, indifference, and anger when mother returns; often look away from mother or look at her with expressionless face.

• Sensory

memory holds information coming in through the senses for up to several seconds. This is just long enough for the nervous system to begin to process the information and send some of it on to short-term memory.

• Neonates are able to discriminate among and show preferences for certain

odors and tastes.

• Recognition requires

only that a person be aware of having encountered the information before (e.g., "B. F. Skinner was the founder of operant conditioning theory. (true/false)").

• Recall tasks require

people to retrieve information from memory without the benefit of any kind of cue (e.g., short-answer questions such as "Who was the founder of operant conditioning theory?").

• Thinking is dominated by

perception and children at this stage exhibit egocentrism in thought. They believe that everyone sees what they see, thinks as they think, and feels as they feel. And they may display animistic thinking, the belief that inanimate objects are alive.

• Studies suggest that the various dimensions of temperament can

predict behavioral problems that may appear later in childhood or in adolescence.

In studies of relearning

psychologists sometimes calculate a savings score for each participant. This is a measure that compares the amount of time required to learn new material versus material that participants have already studied.

• Sperling's classic research demonstrated

that information fades quickly from sensory memory.

• Harlow's studies demonstrated

that physical nourishment alone is not enough to bind infants to their primary caregivers. They require what he called "contact comfort."

• Bowlby claimed that attachment serves

the adaptive function of protecting infants from dangers in the environment.

• Bronfenbrenner's theory captures

the complexity of child development.

• separation anxiety

the fear and distress shown by infants and toddlers when the parent leaves, occurring from 8 to 24 months and reaching a peak between 12 and 18 months.

• Slow-to-warm-up children

tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, and are prone to negative emotional states.

• Stages

Changes in developmental variables occur in stages.

• What programs enhance children's cognitive development

Educational TV-Sesame Street

• The information previously stored in STM is lost when

If additional information enters STM displacement occurs.

• The concepts of maintenance and elaborative rehearsal are

derived from Craik and Tulving's levels of processing model that states that meaningful information is more easily stored transferred to LTM than nonmeaningful information.

• Object permanence

develops during this stage and is the realization that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.

• Avoidant infants

do not show distress when mother leaves and are indifferent when mother returns.

• Declarative memory is also called

explicit memory.

• Ainsworth identified how many categories of attachment security in infants

four

• Retrieval cue

give hints about the information that is required (e.g., "The founder of operant conditioning theory was B. F. ____________.").

• Easy children

have generally pleasant moods, are adaptable, approach new situations and people positively, and establish regular sleeping, eating, and elimination patterns.

• Difficult children

have generally unpleasant moods, react negatively to new situations and people, are intense in their emotional reactions, and show irregularity of bodily functions.

• Research indicates that temperament is strongly influenced by

heredity.

• Nondeclarative memory

holds information that is not easily translated into words (e.g., how to ride a bicycle). It also includes behavioral responses acquired through operant and classical conditioning.

• The visual cliff

is an apparatus used to measure infants' ability to perceive depth.

• Storage

is retention of information in memory.

• Declarative memory

is the LTM subsystem that holds information that can be easily expressed in language (i.e., declared).

• Attachment

is the emotional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver.

• Reversibility

is the fact that when only the appearance of a substance has been changed, it can be returned to its original state.

• Assimilation

is the mental process by which new objects, events, experiences, and information are incorporated into existing schemes.

• Accommodation

is the mental process of modifying existing schemes and creating new ones in order to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information.

• Equilibration

is the mental process that motivates humans to keep schemes in balance with the real environment.

• Long-term memory (LTM)

is the permanent or relatively permanent memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity.

• Retrieval

is the process of calling up information from memory.

• Memory

is the process of encoding, storage, consolidation, and retrieval of information.

• Socialization

is the process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values. Families, peers, and information derived from entertainment and information media contribute to socialization.

• Encoding

is the process of putting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

• Relearning

is the process of studying information that a person has already learned to some degree in the past (e.g., reviewing for a comprehensive final exam).

• Chunking

reduces information to a number of pieces that the STM can manage (e.g., grouping of Social Security numbers into three chunks, telephone numbers into two or three chunks, etc.)

• Maintenance rehearsal involves

repeating information without transforming it.

• children of authoritative parents are more likely to be

self-reliant, assertive, and responsible than the children of other types of parents.

• Authoritative parents

set high but realistic and reasonable standards, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence.

• Secure infants

show distress on separation from mother and happiness when mother returns; use mother as safe base for exploration.

• Memory strategies

such as organization allow the memory system to make efficient use of the STM's limited capacity.

• Despite its potential for negatively influencing development what can be an effective educational medium

television

• Environmental factors such as parents' child-rearing style affects

temperament.

• Elaborative rehearsal is

the process of using prior knowledge to add meaning to new information, making it more memorable.

• Memories are often tied to

the settings in which they occur. Returning to such a setting can trigger the retrieval of context-linked memories.

• Working memory include

the speech-based STM as well as other kinds of temporary stores that hold other kinds of information (e.g., visual).

• Alexander Thomas Stella Chess and Herbert Birch identified

three types of infant temperament in their classic 1970 study.

• Much of children's commercial programming is marked by

what which can lead to a shortened attention span and promotes passive rather than active learning, rapid activity