Intro to Social Psychology (2304) Exam 2 Review
Diverse groups and businesses tend to be less ____ but have better performance in terms of ____.
Cohesive; creativity and financial outcomes
As a result of his upbringing in the US, Dean believes that he should suppress his negative emotions, especially sadness and anxiety, in public. This is a ____ that is ____ for mental health.
Display rule; bad
Which of the following emotions would combine high arousal (HA) and unpleasant (N) dimensions?
Hostile
Ritual
Rites or actions performed in a systematic or prescribed way often for an intended purpose. Example: The exchange of wedding rings during a marriage ceremony in many cultures.
In situations where you can be evaluated individually, the mere presence of others improves performance on easy tasks and impairs performance on difficult tasks. T/F
T
Subliminal messages are sometimes effective in laboratory settings, but they rarely if ever change consumer behavior in real life. T/F
T
Your GPA in psychology is a 3.5. You want to get into a top graduate school. What kind of social comparison should you engage in if you want to improve?
Upward; thinking about higher-achieving students will help you emulate their habits
Groupthink
A set of negative group-level processes, including illusions of invulnerability, self-censorship, and pressures to conform, that occur when highly cohesive groups seek concurrence when making a decision.
Emotions
Changes in subjective experience, physiological responding, and behavior in response to a meaningful event. Emotions tend to occur on the order of seconds (in contract to moods which may last for days).
Conformity
Changing one's attitude or behavior to match a perceived social norm.
Enculturation
The uniquely human form of learning that is taught by one generation to another.
In perhaps the most famous study ever conducted in social psychology, approximately ______ of men studied were willing to administer a lethal shock of electricity to a helpless victim when they were ordered to do so by a person who appeared to be in a position of authority.
2/3
Sociometer model
A conceptual analysis of self-evaluation processes that theorizes self-esteem functions to psychologically monitor of one's degree of inclusion and exclusion in social groups.
Self-evaluation maintenance
A model of social comparison that emphasizes one's closeness to the comparison target, the relative performance of that target person, and the relevance of the comparison behavior to one's self-concept
Culture
A pattern of shared meaning and behavior among a group of people that is passed from one generation to the next.
Personality
A person's relatively stable patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior
Psychological reactance
A reaction to people, rules, requirements, or offerings that are perceived to limit freedoms.
Social identity theory
A theoretical analysis of group processes and intergroup relations that assumes groups influence their members' self-concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize themselves as group members and identify with the group.
Cultural psychology
An approach to researching culture that emphasizes the use of interviews and observation as a means of understanding culture from its own point of view.
Cross-cultural psychology (or cross-cultural studies)
An approach to researching culture that emphasizes the use of standard scales as a means of making meaningful comparisons across groups.
Cultural differences
An approach to understanding culture primarily by paying attention to unique and distinctive features that set them apart from other cultures.
Value judgment
An assessment—based on one's own preferences and priorities—about the basic "goodness" or "badness" of a concept or practice.
Social category
Any group in which membership is defined by similarities between its members. Examples include religious, ethnic, and athletic groups
Situational identity
Being guided by different cultural influences in different situations, such as home versus workplace, or formal versus informal roles
Ethnocentric bias (or ethnocentrism)
Being unduly guided by the beliefs of the culture you've grown up in, especially when this results in a misunderstanding or disparagement of unfamiliar cultures.
While fishing, your friend loses a watch that was a family heirloom given to him by his great grandfather. It's lost forever under the merciless waters. He thinks about what he could have done differently for weeks and endlessly talks with his friends about what he could or should have done differently (not wearing it near water, getting the strap repaired, etc.). What is your friend doing, and is it helpful?
Counterfactual thinking; no, it has turned into rumination
Sam reads Pete Buttigieg's book about becoming a mayor in Indiana and decides to run for mayor in his small town. Based on that book and conversations with townspeople, he truly believes that he could solve the city's decades-old economic and social problems in a year if elected. In contrast, his opponent, a lifelong local politician who knows the city's codes and policies by heart, thinks there are several town issues that won't be solved in the next decade or even her lifespan without bigger federal or state-level changes. This is an example of the ____ effect.
Dunning-Kruger
The tendency for unskilled people to be overconfident in their ability and highly skilled people to underestimate their ability is the ________ effect.
Dunning-Kruger
Ostracism
Excluding one or more individuals from a group by reducing or eliminating contact with the person, usually by ignoring, shunning, or explicitly banishing them
Asch's line-judging experiment showed that nearly all people conformed on every trial T/F
F
In research on self-construals, someone raised in an East Asian culture is more likely to identify with individual personality traits than social roles or relationships. T/F
F
Infants in the visual cliff experiments on social referencing were fastest to crawl across the glass table to the mother when she appeared afraid, most likely because they wanted to help her. T/F
F
Milgram's studies are primarily about aggression: they reveal that most people want to hurt strangers, and that we are all somewhat sadistic (i.e., enjoy others' suffering). T/F
F
Most social psychologists are cultural relativists and thus would never publish research suggesting that a cultural practice (e.g., barring women from leadership positions) causes psychological harm. T/F
F
Normative social influence (conforming in order to be liked or to avoid being ostracized) usually results in both public compliance and private acceptance of the group's beliefs / behavior. T/F
F
Social loafing is more common on complex, challenging tasks (like learning a new language) than simple, easy tasks (like clapping). T/F
F
The ideal affect in Japan is high arousal positive affect. T/F
F
Affect
Feelings including moods and emotions; often described in terms of two dimensions, the dimensions of arousal and valence. Emotions typically occur on the order of seconds, whereas moods may last for days, and traits are tendencies to respond a certain way across various situations.
Collective self-esteem
Feelings of self-worth that are based on evaluation of relationships with others and membership in social groups.
Mastery goals
Goals that are focused primarily on learning, competence, and self-development. These are contrasted with "performance goals" that are focused on the quality of a person's performance.
Social facilitation
Improvement in task performance that occurs when people work in the presence of other people
Shared mental model
Knowledge, expectations, conceptualizations, and other cognitive representations that members of a group have in common pertaining to the group and its members, tasks, procedures, and resources
Observational learning
Learning by observing the behavior of others.
Upward comparisons
Making mental comparisons to people who are perceived to be superior on the standard of comparison
Downward comparison
Making mental comparisons with people who are perceived to be inferior on the standard of comparison (at least I'm not that bad)
Normative conformity
Matching others behavior to fit in, or out of a concern for what other people think of us.
Informational conformity
Matching others' behavior due to a desire to do the right thing or gain information.
Counterfactual thinking
Mentally comparing actual events with fantasies of what might have been possible in alternative scenarios
Which of the following was NOT an ethical concern with Milgram's obedience studies?
Most people surveyed after said they were pleased to have participated in the research
In modern research examining the different facets of emotions around the world, which two cultural contexts have received the most attention by social scientists?
North American and East Asian
Foot in the door
Obtaining a small, initial commitment
Local dominance effect
People are generally more influenced by social comparison when that comparison is personally relevant rather than broad and general
The rule of scarcity
People tend to perceive things as more attractive when their availability is limited, or when they stand to lose the opportunity to acquire them on favorable terms.
Obedience
Responding to an order or command from a person in a position of authority.
Central route to persuasion
Persuasion that employs direct, relevant, logical messages. Fixed action patterns (FAPs) - Sequences of behavior that occur in exactly the same fashion, in exactly the same order, every time they are elicited
Peripheral route to persuasion
Persuasion that relies on superficial cues that have little to do with logic.
Physically attractive people experience many benefits in life. Particularly, more physically attractive people have an easier time persuading others. Which characteristic is an example of why this occurs?
Physically attractive people are perceived as having higher moral character.
Social referencing
Process whereby individuals look for information from others to clarify a situation, and then use that information to act. Thus, individuals will often use the emotional expressions of others as a source of information to make decisions about their own behavior.
Individual differences
Psychological traits, abilities, aptitudes and tendencies that vary from person to person.
Alice's Hotel has noticed that they spend a lot of money on water and electricity devoted to washing linens (towels, sheets, and pillowcases). In order to reduce this expense, the owner wants to encourage guests to reuse linens for more than one day. What would be the best way to accomplish this task?
Put a note on the bed indicating that most of their guests reuse linens, and asking this guest to do the same.
Standard scale
Research method in which all participants use a common scale—typically a Likert scale—to respond to questions.
Open ended questions
Research questions that ask participants to answer in their own words.
Ethnographic studies
Research that emphasizes field data collection and that examines questions that attempt to understand culture from its own context and point of view.
Value-free research
Research that is not influenced by the researchers' own values, morality, or opinions.
A yarn company thinks that its target audience likes cats. To sell more yarn, it comes up with a new slogan: "yarn for cat lovers; we donate 1% of our profits to cat rescues." Which of the four credibility cues discussed in lecture is the yarn company trying to manipulate?
Self-similarity
Evolutionary perspectives on the functions of emotion propose that facial expressions of emotion have survival value (for example, wide eyes help with vigilance in fear). T/F
T
Social constructivism
Social constructivism proposes that knowledge is first created and learned within a social context and is then adopted by individuals.
Social and cultural
Society refers to a system of relationships between individuals and groups of individuals; culture refers to the meaning and information afforded to that system that is transmitted across generations. Thus, the social and cultural functions of emotion refer to the effects that emotions have on the functioning and maintenance of societies and cultures.
According to research conducted by Diener and his colleagues that examined the happiness of people from over 40 nations, there was a universal tendency for money to be mildly associated with higher life satisfaction. T/F
T
Casting doubt on the universality of emotional facial expressions, 95% of U.S. participants associated a smile with "happiness" in Ekman's studies, whereas only 69% of Sumatran participants did. T/F
T
Deindividuation can occur in almost any setting, including when people are alone on the internet or in crowds of people in public. T/F
T
Due to psychological reactance, people often resist persuasion attempts that appear to be obvious, pushy, or controlling. T/F
T
Cultural intelligence (or cultural literacy)
The ability and willingness to apply cultural awareness to practical uses.
Fixed mindset
The belief that personal qualities such as intelligence are traits that cannot be developed. People with fixed mindsets often underperform compared to those with "growth mindsets"
Growth mindset
The belief that personal qualities, such as intelligence, can be developed through effort and practice
Collectivism
The cultural trend in which the primary unit of measurement is the group. Collectivists are likely to emphasize duty and obligation over personal aspirations.
Individualism
The cultural trend in which the primary unit of measurement is the individual. Individualists are likely to emphasize uniqueness and personal aspirations over social duty.
Self-construal
The extent to which the self is defined as independent or as relating to others.
Self-esteem
The feeling of confidence in one's own abilities or worth
N-Effect
The finding that increasing the number of competitors generally decreases one's motivation to compete.
Frog Pond Effect
The theory that a person's comparison group can affect their evaluations of themselves. Specifically, people have a tendency to have lower self-evaluations when comparing themselves to higher performing groups. (Big frog small pond, small frog big pond)
The norm of reciprocity
The normative pressure to repay, in equitable value, what another person has given to us.
Descriptive norm
The perception of what most people do in a given situation.
Cultural relativism
The principled objection to passing overly culture-bound (i.e., "ethnocentric") judgements on aspects of other cultures.
Teamwork
The process by which members of the team combine their knowledge, skills, abilities, and other resources through a coordinated series of actions to produce an outcome.
Social comparison
The process of contrasting one's personal qualities and outcomes, including beliefs, attitudes, values, abilities, accomplishments, and experiences, to those of other people.
Social loafing
The reduction of individual effort exerted when people work in groups compared with when they work alone
Proximity
The relative closeness or distance from a given comparison standard. The further from the standard a person is, the less important he or she considers the standard. When a person is closer to the standard he/she is more likely to be competitive.
Group cohesion
The solidarity or unity of a group resulting from the development of strong and mutual interpersonal bonds among members and group-level forces that unify the group, such as shared commitment to group goals
Group polarization
The tendency for members of a deliberating group to move to a more extreme position, with the direction of the shift determined by the majority or average of the members' predeliberation preferences.
Dunning-Kruger Effect
The tendency for unskilled people to be overconfident in their ability and highly skilled people to underestimate their ability.
Interdependent self
The tendency to define the self in terms of social contexts that guide behavior.
Independent self
The tendency to define the self in terms of stable traits that guide behavior. A model or view of the self as distinct from others and as stable across different situations; prevalent in many individualistic, Western contexts (e.g., the United States, Australia, Western Europe).
Cross-cultural and ethnographic studies- though related- are not the same thing. Each has their own distinct advantages and disadvantages. Identify a primary disadvantage of cross-cultural studies.
They are vulnerable to ethnocentric bias
Interpersonal
This refers to the relationship or interaction between two or more individuals in a group. Thus, the interpersonal functions of emotion refer to the effects of one's emotion on others, or to the relationship between oneself and others
Intrapersonal
This refers to what occurs within oneself. Thus, the intrapersonal functions of emotion refer to the effects of emotion to individuals that occur physically inside their bodies and psychologically inside their minds.
Universalism
Universalism proposes that there are single objective standards, independent of culture, in basic domains such as learning, reasoning, and emotion that are a part of all human experience.
The triad of trust
We are most vulnerable to persuasion when the source is perceived as an authority, as honest and likable.
Tom reads an infographic meme on Twitter saying that women use twice as many words per day as men. A minute later, he sees in the replies to that tweet that that meme has been proven untrue by valid research. Two weeks later, he's likely to believe that ____ due to the ____.
Women talk more than men; sleeper effect
Anousha and her sister are at the county fair. She initially asks her older sister for $70 dollars to buy tickets, souvenirs, and fair food. Her sister says no. Anousha then asks for $15 for just a snack and a couple of rides. What's her sister's likely reply, and why?
Yes; door-in-the-face technique
The ________ route to persuasion employs direct, relevant, and logical messages to convince a listener to make a specific change.
central
The elaboration likelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) proposes that there are two ways in which a message can cause attitude change: the ____ route and the ____ route.
central; peripheral
The tendency of a group to spend more time discussing information that several (two or more) group members know than information that is known by fewer members is called the ________ effect.
common knowledge
An approach to researching culture that emphasizes the use of interviews and observation as a means of understanding culture from its own point of view is called ________ psychology.
cultural
Shared, socially transmitted ideas that are reflected in and reinforced by institutions, products, and rituals are called __________.
cultural
_____ occurs when a person loses self-awareness in a crowd and becomes more likely to blindly follow group norms
deindividuation
Cultural ________ rules are norms regarding the management and modification of emotional expressions based on cultural standards.
display
When you drink spoiled milk or put a rancid piece of cheese in your mouth, you may spit it out before you have any cognitive awareness of why you are feeling disgusted. From an evolutionary perspective, this demonstrates which concept?
emotions help us act efficiently, with minimal conscious awareness
Dr. Gottlieb is an anthropologist who is studying an indigenous culture in Australia. She spends hundreds of hours observing people in this culture and interviews some of them. This is an example of a(n) ________ study.
ethnographic
Marc is a Democrat. His colleague George is a Republican. At work, they are ____ members; when they vote, they see each other as part of the ____.
ingroup; outgroup
Seeing a person pick up another person's trash in a littered parking lot communicates a/an ___ norm. Seeing that the lot is littered influences perceptions of a/an ____ norm.
injunctive; descriptive
Exposing participants to weak arguments before presenting them with strong persuasive messages helps participants resist persuasion. What is this effect called?
inoculation
The ________ functions of emotions refers to the roles that emotions play within each of us individually. They can include physical changes in our bodies or psychological changes in our minds.
intrapersonal
When Christa gets angry, she gets motivated to become productive so that whatever is making her angry can be overcome. She also notices that whenever she is angry she gets very warm and starts to perspire excessively. These psychological and physical changes demonstrate the ________ functions of an emotion.
intrapersonal
Gondul is part of a rowing team. Her individual performance is very difficult to evaluate, as long as she stays in sync with the others. She will expend ____ effort while rowing with the team due to ____.
less; social loafing
Lori is training to be an opera singer, and is in a performance with several other singers. She tends to compare herself to the other women in the show, but she does not compare herself to the famous soprano Maria Callas, whose opera career was legendary. This is an example of the ________ effect.
local dominance
If your ideal affect included serenity, peace, and tranquility, we would say that your ideal affect is _______.
low arousal positive
According to research conducted by Diener and his colleagues that examined the happiness of people from over 40 nations, there was a universal tendency for ________ to be mildly associated with higher life satisfaction.
money
Conformity that results from a concern about what others think of us is called __________ influence.
normative
Cultural display rules
rules that are learned early in life that specify the management and modification of emotional expressions according to social circumstances. Cultural display rules can work in a number of different ways.
Emotions exist in __________ while feelings and moods occur in __________.
seconds; days
During his early work, social psychologist Normal Triplett noted that cyclists were faster in races against other riders than they were when they were racing alone against a clock. This lead to his concept of __________.
social facilitation
The idea that one's self-concept and self-esteem is affected by the way in which an individual categorizes him- or herself as a group member is called ________ theory.
social identity
The idea that self-esteem functions to mentally monitor one's degree of inclusion or exclusion in social groups is called the ________ model.
sociometer
Elsa purchased concert tickets about two months ago. Today is the concert but it's raining out, meaning Elsa would have to purchase an umbrella and rain boots if she still wants to go. Why is Elsa still likely to be persuaded to attend the concert?
sunk costs
Common knowledge effect
the tendency for group discussions to focus on information that all members share
