Introduction to Sociology, Calvin Zimmerman, Midterm 1 Study Guide

"value-free" sociology

convey the idea that researchers should identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere in the process.

Labeling theory

deviance is caused by external judgments (labels) that change a person's self-concept and the way in which others respond to that person.

Individual discrimination

discrimination carried out by one person against another.

Macrosociology

examines large-scale social structures to determine how they impact groups and individuals

Microsociology

examines small-group interactions to see how they impact larger institutions in society

Material culture

includes the objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings, and artwork.

Most universities where research is conducted also have an

institutional review board (IRB)

Conflict theorists believe...

men have historically had access to most of society's material resources and privileges, so it is in their interest to try to maintain their dominant position

Postmodernism was a reaction to

modernism, a paradigm that trusts in the power of science and technology to create progress

anomie

normlessness

Pluralism

is a pattern of intergroup relations that encourage racial and ethnic variation within a society.

triad

is more stable than a dyad as conflicts between two members can be mediated by the third.

Power

is the ability to control the actions of others.

Prejudice (a thought process)

An idea about the characteristics of a group• Applied to all members of that group• Unlikely to change regardless of the evidence against it

Passing

Attempts by stigmatized individuals to presenting themselves as a member of a group other than the stigmatized group to which they belong

approaches for developing a sociological perspective (Free response)

Beginner's mind• Culture shock• Sociological imagination

Stigma

Describes any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity, which may exclude people who are devalued from normal social interaction

Conflict theory

Deviance is a result of social conflict. In order for the powerful to maintain their power, they marginalize and criminalize the people who threaten it. Inequality is reproduced in the way in which deviance is defined.

Functionalism

Deviance serves a function in our society.

Symbolic interactionism

Interpersonal relationships and everyday interactions influence meanings and understandings of deviance.

Feminist theory

Looks at both gender inequalities in society and how gender structures the social world and considers remedies to these inequalities

Structural functionalism

Society is viewed as an ordered system of interrelated parts, or structures, which are the social institutions that make up society (family, education, politics, the economy). Each of these different structures meets the needs of society by performing specific functions for the whole system (society).

Social control theory

Strong social bonds ▪ Increase conformity ▪ Decrease deviance

Sociology

The study of society

Critical race theory

The study of the relationship among race, racism, and power

Structural strain theory

There are goals in our society that people want to achieve but cannot always reach, which creates stress (or strain).

Discrimination (an action)

Unequal treatment of individuals because of their social group • Usually motivated by prejudice

Deviance

a behavior, trait, or belief that departs from a norm and generates a negative reaction in a particular group

What does sociology focus on?

a broad range of institutions—structures in our society, like education, economics, and politics—to better understand social relationships.

aggregate

a collection of people who share a physical location but do not have lasting social relations.

group

a collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other.

Intersectionality

a concept that identifies how different categories of inequality

out-group

a group that a person feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility toward.

in-group

a group that a person identifies with and feels loyalty toward.

reference group

a group that provides a standard of comparison against which people evaluate themselves.

subculture

a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle.

counterculture

a group within society that openly rejects, and may actively oppose, society's values and norms.

Folkway

a loosely enforced norm that involves common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance

Taboo

a norm engrained so deeply that even thinking about violating that for most people, it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion

More

a norm that carries moral significance, is closely related to the core values of a group, and often involves severe repercussions for violators

Spurious correlation

a relationship that seems to exist between two variables, but is actually caused by some external, or intervening, variable

Stereotype promise

a self-fulfilling prophecy in which positive stereotypes lead to positive performance outcomes

Stereotype threat

a self-fulfilling prophecy in which the fear of performing poorly and thereby confirming stereotypes about one's social group causes people to perform poorly

Ethnicity

a socially defined category based on common language, religion, nationality, history, or another cultural factor.

Race

a socially defined category, based on real or perceived biological differences between groups of people

master status

a status that seems to override all others and affects all other statuses that we possess

Social class

a system of stratification based on access to resources such as wealth, property, power, and prestige. • Sociologists often refer to social class as socioeconomic status

autoethnography

a type of participant observation that focuses on the researcher's own feelings and actions.

Bureaucracy

a type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently.

sociological perspective

a way of looking at the world through a sociological lens.

Racial assimilation

absorption of racial minority groups into the dominant group through intermarriage

Cultural assimilation

absorption of racial or ethnic groups into the dominant group through their adoption of the dominant group's culture

Assimilation

absorption of the minority group into the mainstream or dominant group, which makes society more homogeneous

Theories

abstract propositions that explain the social world and make predictions about future events

Situational ethnicity

an ethnic identity that can be either displayed or concealed, depending on its usefulness in a given situation.

Symbolic ethnicity

an ethnic identity that is only relevant on specific occasions and does not significantly impact everyday life

Color-blind racism

an ideology that removes race as an explanation for any form of unequal treatment

Sex

an individual's membership in one of two biologically distinct categories: male or female

Misogyny

an ingrained prejudice against women; dislike, contempt, or hatred of women

total institution

an institution (such as a prison, cult, or mental hospital) that cuts individuals off from the rest of society so that their lives can be controlled and regulated

Absolute deprivation

an objective measure of poverty that is defined by the inability to meet minimal standards for food, shelter, clothing, or health care

Feminist theorists

apply assumptions about gender inequalities to social institutions to illuminate how gender inequality affects all areas of social life

In Western societies, peer groups...

are an important agent of socialization. ▪ Teens are rewarded by their peers when they conform to gender norms and stigmatized by their peers when they do not

Secondary groups

are larger and less personal and are usually organized around a specific activity or task.

Traditional authority

authority based in custom, birthright, or divine right and is usually associated with monarchies and dynasties.

Legal-rational authority

authority based in laws, rules, and procedures.

Charismatic authority

authority based in the perception of remarkable personal qualities in a leader

Coercive power

backed by the threat of force

inductive approach

beginning with specific observations and then forming broad generalizations from them.

Functionalists

believe that there are social roles better suited to one gender than the other and that societies are more stable when certain tasks are done by the appropriate sex

closed system

one in which there is very little opportunity to move from one class to another.

embodied status

one that is located in our physical selves

ascribed status

one we are born with that is unlikely to change.

achieved status

one we have earned through our individual effort or that is imposed by others

open system

one with ample opportunity to move from one class to another.

Men's liberation

originated in the 1970s to discuss the challenges of masculinity. • Subsequently, the movement has split into the men's rights movement and the pro-feminist men's movement.

self

our experience of a personal identity that is separate and different from all other people

Sanctions

positive or negative reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for conformity and punishments for norm violators.

the self develops through three stages:

preparatory stage, the play stage (taking the role of the significant other), and the game stage (in which children learn to take the perspective of the generalized other).

Deterrence

preventing crime with the threat of harsh penalties

Sociologists see race and ethnicity as

social constructions

Postmodernism

social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly changing.

Emotional responses are

socially constructed

crowd

temporary gathering of people in a public place. These individuals do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact.

Social learning theory suggests...

that babies and children learn behaviors and meanings through social interaction and internalize the expectations of those around them

Feminism

the belief in the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes and the social movements organized around that belief.

social identity

the degree to which they identify with the group

Double-consciousness

the divided identity experienced by blacks in the United States

Social stratification

the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy.

Internal colonialism

the economic and political domination and subjugation of the minority group by the controlling group within a nation.

Culture

the entire way of life of a group of people. Culture is learned. It is passed from one generation to the next through communication—not genetics.

Population transfer

the forcible removal of a group of people from the territory they have occupied

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

the idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language, is based on this premise

queer theorists emphasize...

the importance of difference and rejects ideas of innate identities or restrictive categories of gender and sexual identity.

Sexual orientation

the inclination to be heterosexual (attracted to the opposite sex), homosexual (attracted to the same sex), or bisexual (attracted to either sex). People who are asexual may simply reject any sexual identity at all.

Horizontal social mobility

the occupational movement of individuals or groups within a social class.

Group dynamics

the patterns of interaction between groups and individuals. ▪ This includes the ways groups: • Form and fall apart• Influence members

expressive role

the person who provides the family's emotional support and nurturing

instrumental role

the person who provides the family's material support and is often an authority figure).

Gender

the physical, behavioral, and personality traits that a group considers normal for its male and female members

Socialization

the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group

Resocialization

the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life.

Cultural relativism

the process of understanding other cultures on their own terms rather than judging them according to one's own culture.

participant observation

the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting.

Norms

the rules regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture.

Culture Shock

the sense of disorientation that you experience on entering a new environment

Group cohesion

the sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong.

Roles

the set of behaviors expected from a particular status.

Gestures

the signs that we make with our body, such as hand gestures and facial expressions; it is important to note that gestures also carry meaning.

dyad

the smallest possible social group (two members). It is unstable because of the small size: if one person leaves the group, it ceases to exist.

Agents of socialization

the social groups, institutions, and individuals that provide structured situations where socialization occurs. ▪ Major agents • Family • Schools• Peers• The Media

Internalization

the strongest type of conformity; an individual adopts the beliefs or actions of a group and makes them his or her own

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Social reproduction

the tendency for social-class status to be passed down from one generation to the next

Groupthink

the tendency of very cohesive groups to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for unanimous agreement.

dominant culture

the values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful in terms of wealth, prestige, status, and influence.

Crime

the violation of a norm that has been codified into law

Ethnographers aim to provide a

thick description of the setting they observe.

McDonaldization

to describe the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the resulting increase in both efficiency and dehumanization.

probability sampling

to obtain a sample that reflects the characteristics of members of the target population.

Social network analysis (SNA)

used to study the social relationships between two or more individuals.

Primary groups

usually involve the most face-to-face interaction and cooperation and the deepest feelings of belonging.

Families

usually the primary source of socialization and greatly impact gender role socialization

Multiculturalism

values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds and thus encourages the retention of cultural differences within society, rather than assimilation

Symbolic culture

ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication).

Beginner's Mind

we clear our minds of stereotypes, expectations, and opinions so that we can be more receptive to our experiences

Differential association theory

we learn deviance from interacting with deviant peers

Incapacitation

removing criminals from society by imprisoning them

cultural capital

(tastes, habits, expectations, skills, knowledge, etc.), which helps people gain advantages in society.

copresence

(when individuals are in one another's physical presence) and the way that modern technology enables us to interact with people very far away.

Conflict theory

Focuses on the struggle for power and control over scarce resources

Symbolic interactionism

Focuses on the ways in which race, class, and gender intersect to produce an individual's identity • Sees race as an aspect of identity that is established through interaction

Queer theory

Proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs and that no sexual category is fundamentally either deviant or normal

Sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change

Sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent, but rather are created through interaction

Conflict theory

Sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change

Causation

a relationship in which one variable causes another variable to change

saturated self

a postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources.

Sociological Imagination

a quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our particular situation in life and what is happening at a social level

Relative deprivation

a relational measure of poverty based on the standards of living.

Correlation

a relationship between two variables

What are sociologists interested in?

all aspects of society

Positive deviance

an act that is outside the norm but may actually be heroic rather than negative

Structural mobility

changes in the social status of large numbers of people due to structural changes in society

The American Sociological Association has developed its own

code of ethics

A type of existing sources is referred to as

comparative historical research.

expressive leader

concerned with maintaining emotional and relational harmony within the group because this will lead to a positive work environment and improved productivity

Identification

conformity to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group

social sciences

fields such as anthropology, psychology, economics, and political science.

Experiments

formal tests of specific variables and effects that are performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.

deductive approach

forming a hypothesis first and then testing to see whether it is accurate.

closed-ended questions

give respondents a choice of answers

social network

he web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect the individual+

Schools provide education and socialize us through a

hidden curriculum

Interactionists emphasize...

how the concept of gender is socially constructed, maintained, and reproduced in our everyday lives

culture of poverty

learned attitudes that can develop among poor communities and lead poor people to accept their fate rather than attempt to improve their situation

Open-ended questions

let respondents talk as much as they'd like about the question you asked

Racial passing

living as if one is a member of a different racial category

social control

made up of the formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms and thus increase social cohesion.

Culture consists of two different categories:

material culture and symbolic culture.

Cultural appropriation

occurs when dominant group members adopt aspects of an oppressed group's culture without permission and for gain

Ethnocentrism

occurs when people use their own culture as a standard to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than their own are abnormal

Role strain

occurs when roles associated with a single status clash.

Role conflict

occurs when the roles associated with one status clash with the roles associated with a different status.

Gender identity

refers to an individual's self-definition or sense of gender, while gender expression refers to an individual's behavioral manifestations of gender.

Feminization of poverty

refers to the economic trend that women are more likely than men to live in poverty, due in part to the gendered gap in wages, the higher proportion of single mothers compared to single fathers, and the increasing cost of child care.

Emotion work

refers to the process of evoking, suppressing, or managing feelings to create a public display of emotion.

Rehabilitation

reforming criminals so that they may reenter society

Retribution

retaliating or taking revenge for a crime that has been committed

Essentialists

see gender as biological or genetic and believe that gender is: • a simple, two-category (binary) system• determined by your chromosomes, hormones, and genitalia • permanent and unchanging

Most sociologists use a constructionist approach and...

see sex, gender, and sexuality as social constructs.

paradigms (theories are also known as)

sets of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that make up a way of understanding social reality

Values

shared beliefs about what a group considers worthwhile or desirable; they guide the creation of norms.

ethnography

studying people in their own environments in order to understand the meanings they give to their activities.

Signs

such as a traffic signal or product logo, are used to meaningfully represent something else.

Influential power

supported by persuasion

Institutional discrimination

systematic discrimination carried out by social institutions (political, economic, educational, and others) that affects all members of a group who come into contact with it.

Instrumental leadership

task- or goal-oriented. An instrumental leader is less concerned with people's feelings than with getting the job done.

Gender role socialization

the lifelong process of learning to be masculine or feminine, primarily through four major agents of socialization: families, schools, peers, and the media

Compliance

the mildest form of conformity; actions to gain reward or avoid punishment

Vertical social mobility

the movement between social classes and, depending on the direction, is often called either upward mobility or downward mobility

Intergenerational mobility

the movement between social classes that occurs from one generation to the next

Intragenerational mobility

the movement between social classes that occurs over the course of an individual's lifetime

Social mobility

the movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchical system of social classes.

looking-glass self

the notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us.