Iran

Establishment of Iran as a Shiite state

16th c, established by Ismail - distinguished as different from the Sunni states around him, characteristic that still exists today - political legitimacy in the belief that the Hidden Imam would eventually return, but until he did, the rulers of Iran stood in as the true heirs of Islam

The Qajars

1794-1925 After afghans invaded in 1722, this Turkish group conquered the land - moved capital to Tehran, retained Shiism as the official state religion - important political change: couldn't claim to be descendants of the twelve imams like the Safavids, so Shia clerical leaders claimed to be the main interpreters of Islam- separation between government and religion widended - political and economic power eclipsed during 19c: European imperialism- suffered land losses to the north and northwest to growing Russia. Sold oil drilling rights in southwest to Britain, and borrowed from European banks to meet their court expenses - end of 19c: shah created serious debt, many upset by his lavish lifestyle

The Pahlavis

1925-1979 Cossack Brigade - few areas of strength in the latter days of the Qajars - brigades commander Colonel Reza Kahn carried out successful coup against weakened political state in 1925, declared himself shah-in-shah in 1925, establishing Pahlavi dynasty - under Reza Shah, Majles lost power and authoritarian rule reestablished. Ruled with absolute power until his son Muhammad Reza Shah in 1941 - democratic experimentation from the constitution of 1906 was not forgotten and the second Shah had to confront democratic opposition

Beginning of revolution

2 main factors 1. oil prices decreased by 10% in 70s and consumer prices increased about 20% - Revolution of rising expectations 2. US put pressure on the Shah to loosen restraints on opposition. Jimmy carter was worried about tight control of Iranian civil society and lack of human rights. - political parties, labor organization, professional associations, bazaar (merchant) guilds, college students, and oil workers supported the revolution - 1978: hundreds killed in central square of Tehran, oil workers went on strike, paralyzing the industry - anti regime rallies got a lot of support, led by clerics - the shahs government ended on feb 11

Assembly of religious experts

73 man assembly of clerics elected directly by the people

Akbar Hassmi Rafsanjani

A Former president known for his moderate and pragmatic views

Qom

A city south of Tehran - conservative/reformer conflict reflected in the differences among clerics in the seminaries of Qom through their interpretations of the true meaning of jurist's guardianship

Pahlavi foundation

A patronage system that controlled large companies that fed the pocketbooks of the Shah and his supporters

Election of 2009

Afterwards, the government didn't arrest the liberal candidates who officially lost the election out of fear of backlash, however their political activities were limited to putting out statements on their websites - less visible opposition politicians were arrested (Reform minded journalists, opposition politicians, and an economist critical of Ahmadinejad's programs)

Political parties

Allowed by the constitution, but not allowed by government until Muhammad Khatami's presidential election in 1997 - many new parties appeared for the majles elections of 2007 and presidential of 2009 and 2013. Few carry over from previous elections, so very unstable and likely to change. - parties usually operate in loose alignments within two main coalitions: conservative and reformist - 2013 parties: Islamic Society of Engineers, Front of Islamic Revolution Stability, Moderation and Development Party, Combatant Clergy Association,many Islamic Coalition Party

Religion

Almost 90% of Iranians are Shia Muslims, almost 10% Sunni, and 1% combination of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrian, and Baha'i - although constitution recognizes religious minorities and guarantees their basic rights, many religious minorities have left the country since the founding of the Republic in 1979 - the Baha'i faith, which many Shiites believe to be an unholy offshoot of Islam, has been a particular object of religious persecution - leaders have been executed, imprisoned, tortured, schools closed, and community property taken by state. Many Baha'i have migrated to Canada, as well as many Jews and Armenian Christians. - constitution does not mention Sunni, so their rights are unclear

Shiism and sharia as central components

Almost 90% of Iranians identify as Shiite, a fact that links as citizens to the government, which is officially a theocracy - the sharia is an important source of legitimacy that the modern government particularly emphasizes

Elections of 2012 and 2013

As tensions mounted over a number of issues between supreme leader Khamenei and president Ahmadinejad, the legislative election of 2012 was described as a contest between the two, with Khamenei supporters winning a large majority of seats - guardian council disqualified more than a third of 5000 candidates - 290 seats available with alliances shifting in the United front of principalists (UFC- Khamenei supporters) and the resistance front (FSP- Ahmadinejad supporters) - UFP won 101 seats (34.8%), FSP won 50 seats (17.2%), and democratic coalition of reformists won 43 seats (14.1%) - presidential election of 2013 took place when international concern with Irans nuclear programs was high - guardian council disqualified two prominent candidates: former president Ali Akbar Hashemite (Ahmadinejad's choice) and Esfandiar Rabin Mashaei - Hassan Rouhani won with a majority in the first round (50.7)- had a mandate to improve irans international relations and attempt to negotiate a settlement of irans nuclear activities

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

Became president (2005) - government closed down newspapers, banned and censored books and websites, and didn't tolerate the peaceful demonstrations and protests of the Khatami era - prominent scholars arrested,

Ayatollah Khomeini

Charismatic leader who undid the Pahlavi's attempts to secularize the state - personified the union of political and religious interests from ancient days - hailed as the "leader of the revolution, founder of the Islamic republic, guide of the oppressed masses, commander of the armed forces, and Imam of the Muslim world"- blend the historical influences into the persona of one very powerful religious/political leader

Citizens, society, and the state

Citizens have little experience with democracy, but understand importance of civil society - until Pahlavi shahs of 20th c, authoritarian rulers had very little power to reach citizen's every day lives: local officials were a presence, and religious law (sharia), set strict rules for behavior - democratic experiment after constitution of 1906 created elected legislature (Majles), but the new government was unable to solve country's problems so chaos followed, inviting authoritarian rule to return with the Pahlavis

Post Khomeini - 1989-present

Clerics built their power until ayatollah Khomeini's death in 1989. Factors that brought them support: - world petroleum prices rebounded, so iran's economy improved. Gov could afford social programs, such as modern improvements for housing and medical clinics - Iraq (under Hussein) invaded Iran in 1980, beginning a decade long war. People rallied around the government as a response to this threat - the charisma of Khomeini remained strong, and the power of his presence inspired faith in the government

Ethnicity

Closely tied to religion, but other cultural differences distinguish minorities. 51% may be considered Persian, speaking Persian as their first language, 24% Azeri, 8% Gilaki and Mazandarani, 7% Kurds, 3% Arabi, remaining are a mix of others. - Azeris: many live in the northwest close to the former Soviet republic of Azerbaijan, creating a worry for the gov that they will want to form a larger state by taking territory away from Iran. Do not speak Persian, but strongly Shiite. Supreme leader that followed Khomeini in 1989 is Azeri - Kurds and Arabs tend to be Sunni Muslim, so the religious cleavage is reinforced by ethnicity

Pragmatic conservatives v radical clerics

Complicated cleavages made more complex by distinct divisions among the clergy that have led to many important disagreements at the top levels of policymaking - pragmatic conservatives: clergy that favor liberal economic policies that encourage foreign trade, free markets, and direct foreign investments. Base their points of view on strong personal ties to. Idle class merchants and rural landowners who have long supported mosques and religious activities. Argue that private property and economic inequalities are protected under Islamic law. Generally willing to turn over management to liberally-inclined technocrats - radicals: more numerous among younger and militant clerics, and call for measures to enhance social justice, especially in terms of providing welfare benefits to irans poor. Generally endorse state sponsored wealth redistribution and price controls.

Recent crisis of legitimacy

Conflicting ideas - sovereignty of the people (presidency of Muhammad Khatami 1997-2005) - divinely inspired clerical rule (election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 2006) Result: rift between conservatives and reformers shows how a theocracy can also function as a democracy

Front of Islamic Revolution Stability

Conservative, formed in 2011 - 2013: ran Saeed Jalili for president- had been secretary of the supreme national security council and deputy minister of foreign affairs

Guardian council

Council of clerics created by constitution that held power to veto any legislation passed by Majiles

Political participation

Despite the fact that civil liberties and rights were guaranteed in the 1979 constitution, the republic from the beginning closed down newspapers, labor unions, private organizations, and political parties. Due process principles were ignored as many were imprisoned without trials, political reformers were executed, others fled the country, the regime banned demonstrations and public meetings

Influence of ancient persia

Differences with neighboring countries not only based in Shiite vs Sunni Islam - after arabs invaded Iran, people spoke Persian rather Arabic - other cultural habits remained: distinctive architecture, literary works, poetry and decorative arts - shapes Iranian nationalism

Constitutional revolution of 1905-1909

Encouraged by 19c problems - began with business owners and bankers demonstrating against the Qajars' move to hand over custom collections to the Europeans. Middle class fed up- suspected the shah would sacrifice paying domestic debts to pay European loans - 1906: merchants and local industrialists demsnddd a written constitution from shah. British had many business interests in Iran wanted shah to concede since Iran didn't have an army to put down an insurrection - rev sparked depart about separation of religion from gov. Constitution retained the monarchy, but created strong legislature to balance executive power - resulting reforms did nothing for economic problems. Early 20c divided Iran into three parts between themselves, Russia, and Britain 1921: political and economic disarray, quarreling among majles- ineffective

Import substitution industrialization

Even though the Shah adopted this method by encouraging domestic industries to provide products that the population needed, by 1979 oil and its associated industries made up large percentage of GNP and provided 97% of country's foreign exchange

Resurgence party

Formed 1975 - Muhammad Reza Shah announced its formation and declared Iran to be a one Party state with him as the head. Replaced the Islamic calendar and dared to create a Religious Corps, whose duty it was to teach Iranian peasants "true Islam"

Islamic Society of Engineers

Former member of the conservative Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran. Members include Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, but the society didn't support him in 05 or 09. - 2013: ran Mohammad Bahger Ghalibaf for president

Islamic Coalition Party

Founded in 1962- one of the oldest, seen as part of the conservative coalition - 2013: ran Akbar Velayati- had refused to run as conservative alliance candidate in 2005, came 5 out of 6 in 2013

Reformers v conservatives

Fundamental cleavage since Republic: theocracy v democracy - conservatives: want to keep regime as is, under control of clerics and sharia law - reformers: want to see more. Secularization and democracy. Most don't want to do away with the basic principles of an Islamic state, but they display a wide array of opinions about how much and where secularization and democracy should be infused into the system

Tudeh (masses) party

Gained most of its support from working class trade unions - communist party that challenged the Shah

Velayat-e-faqih (jurists guardianship)

Gave the senior clergy broad authority over the unfortunate people (widows, orphans, mentally unstable) - Khomeini claimed its true meaning gives the clergy authority over the entire Shia community

Theocracy

Government ruled strictly by religion

Positive indication for civil society

Growing number of young people - demographically, have grown in proportion to the old at very dramatic rates, partly because of the republics encouragement of large families during its first years - many are the sons and daughters of disillusioned middle class professionals, and they appear to be very attracted to western popular culture: music, dress, cars, and computers. Khatami's regime showed signs of tolerating this behavior, but Ahmadinejad's cracked down against western dress, and arrests of women who show too much hair or wear makeup

Imams

Heirs of Ali, continued until the 9th century when the 12th descendant disappeared as a child

Persian Sovereigns

Hereditary military leaders who enjoyed the trappings of royalty - king Darius built capital at Persepolis - joined to other parts of the ancient world with roads that carried his armies all over and allowed foreigners to pay tribute to him - called "The great King, King of Kings, King in Persia, King of countries" - called everyone "my slaves" - authority supported by army and Zoroastrianism

Irans government

Highly centralized state. Divided administratively into provinces, districts, sub districts, and local areas - constitution of 1979 promises elected councils on each level of administration, requires governors and other regional officials to consult local offficials (appointed). First local elections in 1999 when president Khatami insisted on nationwide local elections - result in landslide for reformists - most important: blends theocratic ideals with democratic ones

The white revolution

Highly centralized state: state controlled banks, national radio television network, and national Iranian oil company - army grew into 5th largest in the world by 1979 and had navy and airforce - central bureaucracy gained control and majles became rubber stamp that let shahs rule as pleased - courts fully secularized, with European style judicial system and law codes - white revolution (counter to communist red influences): controversial. Focused on land reform, with gov buying land from large absentee owners and selling it to small farmers at affordable prices. Purpose to encourage farmers to become entrepreneurs with irrigation canals, dams, and tractors. Secularized Iran further by extending voting rights to women, restricting polygamy, and allowing women to work outside the home

Workers house

Important interest group for factory workers. Operates with the help of its affiliated newspaper, kar va kargar (work and worker) - it's political party is Islamic Labor Party. It's coalition with other reform parties was broken up by the Guardian council's banning of reformist candidates in 2004 and 2005 - holds a May Day rally. In 1999 it turned into a protest when workers marched into parliament to denounce conservatives for watering down labor laws. Bus drivers joined and shut down most of central Tehran - few interest groups have formed for business because private businesses have been crowded out since the revolution of 1979, when many were taken over by government - agriculture, internal trade, and distribution mostly private, but government controls 65-80% of the econ

Developing economy

In the global market, but is heavily reliant on one product - second largest oil producer in Middle East, fourth in the world - should these be controlled by clerics, or non religious leaders

Strong sense of nationalism

Iranians generally have a stronger sense of national identity than citizens in most Arab countries - more likely to identify themselves as Iranians first and Muslims second Persian roots encourage the perception that Iran is a distinct culture and Iranian pride is oronounced

Equality with differencg

Islamic Republic's name for its policy towards women - means divorce and custody laws follow Islamic standards that favor males - women must wear scarves and long coats in public and can't leave country without the consent of male relatives - occasional stoning of women for adultery- recently banned - allowed educations and entrance to at least some occupations - 33% of labor force

Caliphate

Islamic empire put in place by the Arabs

Division with Sunni Muslims

Ismail and his qizilbash ("redheads" bc of colorful turbans) were supporters of the sect that quarreled with the Sunni - division originated after the religions founder, Muhammad, died without a designated heir - problem because his army conquered many lands Sunni: wanted to chose the caliph (leader) from the accepted leadership (Sunni) Shiites: argued mantle should be hereditary, and should pass to Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali - Ali was killed, shiites believed true heirs were his descendants

Jurists guardianship

Khomeini's doctrine. It is included with the other divine principles

The founding of the Islamic Republic

Late April 1979: national referendum held, Iranian people officially voted out he monarchy and established the Islamic republic - constitution drawn by assembly of religious experts: gave broad authority to Khomeini and the clergy, although the Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan strongly objected and advocated a presidential republic based on Islam. 99% of electorate endorsed the constitution

Cultural revolution

Launched by Shia leaders after the constitution was endorsed. Aimed to purify the country from not only the shahs regime, but also from secular values and behaviors, particularly those with western origins. Universities cleared of liberals and staffed with supporters of the new regime. New gov suppressed all opposition, including almost all groups from civil society, and many executed in the name of "revolutionary justice"

Muhammad Mosadeq

Leader of National Front - life later influenced many leaders of Iran - advocated nationalizing the British owned company that monopolized irans oil business - wanted to take armed forces out of shahs control - elected prime minister in 1951 and power grew so that the Shah was forced to flee country in 1953 - career cut short when British struck back by co sponsoring with the us an overthrow of Mosadeq, restoring Shah to full power - wanted him to be a pro western force in the Middle East - Iranians saw Britain and us as supporters of autocracy and shahs as weak pawns of foreign powers

Revolution of 1979

Led by Ayatollah - transformed the legitimacy of the state, anchoring it once again to the principles of Shiism

National front

Led by Muhammad Mosadeq - drew its support from middle class people who emphasized Iranian nationalism

Mir Hossein Mousavi

Lost to Ahmadinejad in 2009

Moderation and Development Party

Moderate - 2013: ran Mohsen Rezaee (as well as 05 and 09)

People of the book

Monotheistic oriole who subjected their lives to holy books similar to the Qur'an - respected Jews, Zoroastrians, and christians because had their own books

Constitution of 1979

Most important document that legitimizes the state today Along with amendment of 1989 - document and its amendments are a highly complex mixture of theocracy and democracy - preamble reflects the importance of religion for the legitimacy of the state, affirming faith in god, divine justice, the Qur'an, the prophet Muhammad, the twelve Imams, and the eventual return of the hidden imam

Geographic limitations

Much land is unusable for agriculture- vast central desert plain, mountains to the north and northeast - early Persians sought better lands in the west by expansion and conquest - modern: population unevenly distributed- most in cities and northwest, where most arable land is

Majles

New assembly - seats guaranteed to the "people of the book": Jews, christians, Zoroastrians - had authority to make and pass laws and controlled cabinet ministers, who reported to the legislature not the shah

Mass media

Over 20 newspapers were shut down shortly after the Revolution in 1979 and by 1981 an additional 8 were closed - 1981: Majles passed law making it a criminal offense to use "pen and speech" against the government - recently, some restrictions lifted: debate permitted in the press on controversial issues of 1990s, Khatami administration issued permits to dozens of new publications, hoping to establish an independent press - freedom of the press is a major issue between conservatives and reformists - 1999 demonstrations sparked by new restrictions on the media - 60 pro reform papers shut down by 2002 - tv and radio are government run by Islamic republic of Iran Broadcasting - more freedom to criticize gov than others in the region - elite is well educated and many publications cater to their needs as professional journals, sports magazines, and publications for fine arts, cinema, and healthcare - semi public institution whose directors are appointed by supreme leader runs the country's two leading papers

Zoroastrianism

Persian state sponsored religion - did not last as a major religion, but was sponsored by rulers for centuries

Conflict between theocratic and democratic values

Played itself out during presidencies of -Mahmoud Khatami (1997-2005): reformist who aimed to end the freeze in relations between Iran and the west, particularly the US. Believed in "dialogue among civilizations" that fostered positive relationships with other countries, not just a cessation of hostilities. Although never advocated changing theocratic political structures, reformers became a strong presence in the Majles and the executive branch - and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005-present): a conservatism who has antagonized western countries, although he has not isolated himself from them. Has asserted theocratic values, and has appealed to Iranian nationalism to his white (bloodless) coup of the reformists

Political and economic change

Politically: Persian established self as the first large empire in the wotld Economically: both siffered and benefitted from natural resources. Emphasis on trade by land. Marginalized by sea based trade in 16 c. Didn't prosper until greatest modern resource discovered- oil. Difficulties in managing in a way that benefits not only the state but the people as well

7-16th centuries CE

Region of Iran had little political unity, numerous invasions (including Arabs who brought Islam) - new glue emerged to hold persians together: RELIGION - result: when their caliphate was defeated by the mongols in the 13th c, the religion survived as the invaders converted - Islam continues to be a source of identity

Combatant Clergy Association

Represented the reformist coalition, although described as conservative in the past - supported by Iranian reform movement in 2013 - 2013: ran Hassan Rouhani and WON - former member of assembly of experts and expediency council

Revolution of Rising expectations

Revolutions are most likely to occur when people are doing better than they once were, but some type of setback happens.

Political culture

Shiism continued as an important unifying thread to political culture - Qajars didn't claim the imams mantle, so Shiite clerical leaders became the main interpreters of Islam and separation of religion and politics developed. Never very strong but didn't succumb to European imperialism

Authoritarianism but not totalitarianism

Since Safavid empire, central leaders didn't control all areas of life. Leaders claimed to be all powerful when in reality they weren't, and people became accustomed to paying attention to local officials and/or leading their own lives in civil society

Union of political and religious authority

Since ancient Persians, political and religious leaders often one and the same. Starting with the rule of the Qajars (1794-1925) the two types of authority separated, but brought back together by revolution of 1979

Interest groups

Since political parties are ill defined, it is often difficult to draw the line between parties and interest groups - many have registered with the government. Ex: Islamic Association of Women and a green coalition - parties in exile have members still in Iran that work for their benefit

Ali Khamenei

Successor of Ayatollah Khomeini - does not have the same magnetism of personality, nor the academic credentials- these facts have encouraged some scholars in Qom to question the legitimacy of the theocracy

Velayat-e-faqih (jurists guardianship)

Supreme leader, guardian council, assembly of religious experts, and expediency council abide by this principle - have all encompassing authority over the whole community based on their ability to understand the sharia and their commitment to champion the rights of the people

Jurist's Guardianship

Supreme leader, guardian council, assembly of religious experts, and expediency council don't fit into a three branch arrangement of government institutions - all have broad executive, legislative, and judicial powers that allow them to supersede all other positions and bodies - constitution of 1979 specifies the duties of govnerment institutions

The "Hidden Imam"

The 12th descendant of Ali

Secularization

The belief that religion and government should be separated

Shiism

The brand of Islam that distinguishes Iran from its neighbors - established 16 c by Ismail, founder of Safavid Empire

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

The conservative mayor of Tehran. Known for his populist views, and he announced after his victory that he meant for prosperity to be shared among all classes, not just the elite

Ismail

The protector of the "true faith" that unites the Shiite religion

Factionalism

The splintering of the political elites based not on just points of view, but also on personalities - shown by irans party system - parties are fluid and weak- not vehicles for discussing policymaking alternatives - factions tend to coalesce before elections and then break apart if their candidates are chosen - defeated factions tend to stay together

Irans Identity

Thousands of years of history that include attachment to islam and a popular revolution in the early 20th century that resulted in a western style constitution that was intact until 1979 - these influences at odds

Muhammad Khatami

Under his presidency (1997-2005) Iranians experienced the "Tehran Spring"- a period of cautious political liberalization, with a loosening of freedom of speech and press, a more open economy, and a friendlier stance towards the outside world. - he only had limited powers and the reforms were hampered by more conservative elements in the government

Political system

Unlike any other in the world: blends theocracy with democracy - theocracy: represented in national government by supreme leader, Guardian Council, and Expediency Council - president, assembly of religious experts, and national assemble (Majles) are democratically elected

Escape from European colonization

Unlike most countries of Asia, Africa, and South America, Iran was never officially colonized by the Europeans. The area was heavily impacted by European power moves, but imperialism didn't have the same direct control that it had over Mexico and nigeria

Parties in exile

many parties of former dissidents are in exile but still active - the liberation movement: moderate Islamic party, banned in 2002 as a subversive organization - the national front: headed by the shahs dissident prime minister Mosadeq in the 1950s, banned in the 1980s - the mojahedin: guerilla group that modeled fought the shahs regime - the fedayin: a Marxist guerila group that modeled itself after Latin American hero Che Guvers - the Tudeh: a communist party

Civil society

- a major source of unhappiness with the rule of the Pahlavi Shahs was the government's incursion into private lives of citizens - has not been restored under the current regime, which creates discontent esp among the middle-class - Shiite revolutionary elites launched campaign to impose the values of the Islamic state on the general population. Professionals left the country to seek refuge in western nations. Desire to preserve civil society did not disappear- too large an influence in the political culture before the takeover by Reza Shah in the early 1920s

Sovereignty

- traced to Achemenian empire- largest in 6th century - Irans greatest rival was Ancient Greece

Fundamentalism

Emphasized literal interpretation of Islamic texts, social conservatism, and political traditionalism

Pahlavi

(Legitimacy) authoritarian leaders played an important role in the 20th c as these shahs ("King of Kings" or "shah in shah") ruled from 1925-1979

Ancient Conflict with Greece

- Greece: divided into quarreling city states, economy and transportation reliant on the sea - Persia merged from the dry lands north of the Persian gulf and spread its power through centralized military leadership by land as far as the Aegean Sea where its interests conflicted with the Greeks - clash seen as first act of West v. East - both conquered by Alexander the Great

Events of 1990s

- Iraq/Iran war ended - world oil prices fell - most important: the population began to criticize the authoritarian rule of the clerics and to advocate for more democratic government

Social class

- Peasantry and lower middle class are sources of support for the regime, partly because they have benefitted from the government's social programs that have provided them with electricity and paved roads - middle and upper class are largely secularized, so they tend to be highly critical of the clerics and their control of the society - many middle class have not fared well economically since the republic was founded - their cultural and political views of secularism are reinforced by their economic problems, creating discontent and opposition to the regime

The Islamic revolution and the republic (1979-present)

- almost completely religious in nature - dominant ideology was shiism - most important leader was a cleric who ruled for ten years - most significant: established a theocracy - clerics took over government after Shah overstepped boundaries

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

- charismatic leader, part of the success of the revolution - defended Islamic fundamentalism and articulated resentments toward the elite and the United States - called "great Satan" which confused Americans but resonated with islams

Elections

- citizens over the age of 18 may vote for members of the Assembly of Religious experts, representatives to the Majles, and the president - highly centralized regime, but citizens may also vote for local officials - majles and presidential elections are fptp, but election is two rounds so one of the two left in the second round will get a majority

Presidential election of 2005

- constitution only allows president to run for two terms, so President Khatami had to step down in 2005 - guardian council disqualified about 1000 candidates, leaving only 7 to run, some with the support of a party some without. - final two Akbar Hassmi Rafsanjani and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (won second round with 62%)

Features of constitution of 1906

- direct elections - separation of powers - laws made by elected legislature - popular sovereignty - bill of rights guaranteeing citizens equality before law, protections of those for accused crimes, freedom of expression - Shiism official state religion, only Shiites could hold cabinet positions

Majles elections of 2004 and 2008

- first round took place after the Guardian Council banned thousands of candidates from running, mainly from the reformist parties - particularly bad for Islamic Iran Participation Front - reformist parties could only introduce 191 candidates out of 285 seats - some reformists refused to vote - turnout 51% - conservatives won 70% of seats - 2008: conservatives held on to about 70%, but reformists won 46, an increase from 04

Rentier state

- heavily supported by state expenditure, while the state receives rent from other countries - Iran transformed into this type of state under the pahlavis because of increasing amount of income from oil - Iran received increasing amount of income by exporting oil and leasing oil fields to foreign countries. - income became so great in 70s that government no longer had to rely on internal taxes for its support - government didn't need the people anymore - one product country

Presidential election of 2009

- many were surprised that Ahmadinejad won 2005, but mostly because many reformists did not vote - rejected both major candidates - as 2009 approached, Iranian reform movement attempted to rally behind one candidate. Reformists hoped that former president Khatami would win, but he dropped out of the race and endorsed his former prime minister Mousavi - one other reformist ran and and one conservative challenged Ahmadinejad - debates focused on economy. - Ahmadinejad won with 63%, surprising many. Mousavi urged his supporters to fight the decision but without violence. Appealed to the guardian council, which investigated the fraud - recounted but confirmed that the results were correct - after election, some clerics accused foreigners of stirring up protests. Mousavi portrayed as a tool of secular foreigners who plotted the downfall of the country - gov claimed to have confessions from top reformers pleading guilty to accusations of organizing a "Velvet Revolution" to overthrow the country's leaders - election brought many different elements of political culture together for the biggest confrontation since 1979. Charges of voter fraud continued, legitimacy shaken esp by those who questioned the authority of the supreme leader.

Protests and demonstrations

- republics actions against public demonstrations did not curtail them, esp on college campuses - 1999 protests in universities across the country when government shut down reformist newspaper - late 2002: student protests when the courts ruled a death sentence for a reformist academic - summer 2003: student demonstrations escalated into mass protests over the privatization of the university system- called for overthrow and death of religious and political leaders - factory workers tend to participate in rallies against the government: high unemployment rates, low wages, and unsatisfactory labor laws - since Ahmadinejad's presidency in 05, gov renewed crackdown on protests and demonstrations - protests after 2009 election: shows Iranian capacity to react strongly to repressive government. Supporters of opposition to Ahmadinejad cried foul - biggest popular upheaval since 1979 revolution. Opposition candidates called for election to be annulled and people went to the streets. Arrests and military used - state reports 20 deaths. Protesters eventually contained but in 2011, Mousavi and Karroubi supporters marched in honor of freedom seeking protesters - military, tear gas, clubs, 2 deaths

Women and the Political system

- veil- symbol of oppression, but mostly to westerners - traditionally women in Islamic cultures have stayed home, with little education or opportunity to work outside the home - 20c Iran: women had better access to education. Educated women have resentments towards the regime - edu leads them to expect more job opportunities and more political rights than they have been granted - judges interpret sharia narrowly- consider women to be wards of male relatives - today: more than half of college students are women, well represented as doctors and government employees - not well represented in the Majles

ways the Shah overstepped the bounds of political culture

1. Seen as totalitarian, not just authoritarian, like the shahs before the Pahlavis. Created a patrimonial state with patron clientelism, but no real interest groups. True corporatism developed. 2. Broke the balance between the secular and religious state- secularized Iran too much too fast- clergy point of view 3. Ties to the west (esp US) offended nationalists and clergy - Shah created divide: modernization through ties to the west vs defense of traditional ways- esp Shiism - clerical elite opposed Shah, led revolution, took over government

Safavid Empire

1501-1722 - by mid 17c had converted nearly 90% to Shiism. (Sunni among groups along the boarders, Kurds in the northwest, Turkmen in the northeast, baluchis in the southeast, arabs in the southwest - tolerated the sunnis, and small numbers of Jews, Zoroastrian, and christians - ruled from Persian speaking city of Isfahan, most bureaucrats were Persian scribes - economic constraints: trade routes to Iran and silk route had broken up, world trade shifted to Indian and Atlantic oceans. Isfahan was far inland and agricultural production was hampered by lack of arable land - economic issues affected Safavid ability to rule because didn't have the money for large bureaucracy or standing army - had to rely on local rulers to keep order and collect taxes - in theory, this group had all power, but in reality they lacked a central state and had go seek the cooperation of semi independent leaders - geographic features fragmented the empire and many clerics lived out of reach of the government- both political and economic factors caused the monarchy to be separated from society and lost most power by 1722