Islam and Muslim Empires

Allah

"God" in Arabic

Hindus

-Lived and worked under Muslim rule -Most Hindus were self-sufficient farmers -The caste system dominated Hindu life

Give two reasons why merchants were so important to muslim society

1. Allowed the economy to flourish 2. Cultural blending with Europe and other empires helped the Muslim empire survive and thrive At this time, two major sea-trading networks existed—the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. Through these networks, the Muslim Empire could engage in sea trade with the rest of the world. The land network connected the Silk Roads of China and India with Europe and Africa. Muslim merchants needed only a single language, Arabic, and a single currency, the Abbasid dinar, to travel in the empire.

Describe 3 examples of how Akbar strengthened the Mughal Dynasty and promoted religious harmony in India

1. Religious tolerance kept the empire united 2. Made sure there was always money for the empire (income tax) 3. Great military leader 4. Had Hindu wife, didn't make her convert and let her perform religious practices in the palace 5. Ended jizya, tax on non-muslims and the one on Hindu immigrants Akbar recognized military power as the root of his strength. In his opinion, a King must always be aggressive so that his neighbors will not try to conquer him. Like the Safavids and the Ottomans, Akbar equipped his armies with heavy artillery. Cannons enabled him to break into walled cities and extend his rule into much of the Deccan plateau. In a brilliant move, he appointed some rajputs as officers. In this way he turned potential enemies into allies. This combination of military power and political wisdom enabled Akbar to unify a land of at least 100 million people—more than in all of Europe put together. Liberal leader: Akbar was a genius at cultural blending. As a muslim he continued the Islam tradition of religious tolerance. He proved this by marrying Hindu women and allowing them to perform religious practices inside his palace. He ended Jizya, a tax on non-muslims throughout his empire. Created a tax similar to a present day income tax Blended Cultures As Akbar extended the Mughal Empire, he welcomed influences from the many cultures in the empire. This cultural blending affected art, education, politics, and language. Persian was the language of Akbar's court and of high culture. The common people, however, spoke Hindi, a language derived from Sanskrit. Hindi remains one of the most widely spoken languages in India today. Out of the Mughal armies, where soldiers of many backgrounds rubbed shoulders, came yet another new language. This language was Urdu, which means "from the soldier's camp." A blend of Arabic, Persian, and Hindi, Urdu is today the official language of Pakistan. The Arts and Literature The arts flourished at the Mughal court, especially in the form of book illustrations. These small, highly detailed, and colorful paintings were called miniatures. They were brought to a peak of perfection in the Safavid Empire. (See Section 2.) Babur's son, Humayun, brought two masters of this art to his court to teach it to the Mughals. Some of the most famous Mughal miniatures adorned the Akbarnamah ("Book of Akbar"), the story of the great emperor's campaigns and deeds. Indian art drew from traditions developed earlier in Rajput kingdoms. Hindu literature also enjoyed a revival in Akbar's time. The poet Tulsi Das, for example, was a contemporary of Akbar's. He retold the epic love story of Rama and Sita from the fourth century B.C. Indian poem the Ramayana (rah•MAH•yuh•nuh) in Hindi. This retelling, the Ramcaritmanas, is now even more popular than the original. Architecture: Akbar devoted himself to architecture too. The style developed under his reign is still known as Akbar period architecture. Its massive but graceful structures are decorated with intricate stonework that portrays Hindu themes. The capital city of Fatehpur Sikri is one of the most important examples of this type of architecture. Akbar had this red-sandstone city built to thank a Sufi saint, Sheik Salim Chisti, who had predicted the birth of his first son.

Arafat

A plain near to Makkah where pilgrims gather to worship, pray and ask for forgiveness. This takes place on the ninth day of the Islamic month, the day before Eid ul Adha.

Why is abstract art and calligraphy so prominent among Muslim cultures?

Abstract art and Calligraphy were popularized in Islamic empires because of the belief that trying to paint humans is an imitation of creating life and therefore an imitation of Allah. This is widely frowned upon in the Muslim world. Artists found other ways to express themselves and life by using Calligraphy and Abstract art.

Scheherazade

According to tradition, she stayed alive by telling 1,001 tales to her serial killer husband, one each night until he fell in love with her cold not bear the thought of killing her.

Hijrah

After some of his followers had been attacked, Muhammad decided to leave Mecca in 622. Following a small band of supporters he sent ahead, Muhammad moved to the town of Yathrib, over 200 miles to the north of Mecca. This migration became known as the Hijrah. The Hijrah to Yathrib marked a turning point for Muhammad. He attracted many devoted followers. Later, Yathrib was renamed Medina. In Medina, Muhammad displayed impressive leadership skills. He fashioned an agreement that joined his own people with the Arabs and Jews of Medina as a single community. These groups accepted Muhammad as a political leader. As a religious leader, he drew many more converts who found his message appealing. Finally, Muhammad also became a military leader in the growing hostilities between Mecca and Medina

Five Pillars

Faith To become a Muslim, a person has to testify to the following statement of faith: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." This simple statement is heard again and again in Islamic rituals and in Muslim daily life. • Prayer Five times a day, Muslims face toward Mecca to pray. They may assemble at a mosque (mahsk), an Islamic house of worship, or wherever they find themselves. • Alms Muhammad taught that all Muslims have a responsibility to support the less fortunate. Muslims meet that social responsibility by giving alms, or money for the poor, through a special religious tax. • Fasting During the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, Muslims fast between dawn and sunset. A simple meal is eaten at the end of the day. Fasting serves to remind Muslims that their spiritual needs are greater than their physical needs. • Pilgrimage All Muslims who are physically and financially able perform the hajj (haj), or pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once. Pilgrims wear identical garments so that all stand as equals before Allah

Fatima

Fatima was said to be a descendent of Muhammad and therefore the Fatimid Caliphate (controlled by Shi'a muslims who wanted Caliphs to be exclusively descendants of Muhammad) argued for her to be leader of the Muslim empire

Why is the Arabic term Jihad so controversial? What does it mean to most Muslims, and how do some define it differently.

For most muslims the word jihad means "striving" and can refer to the inner struggle against evil. However, the word is also used in the Qur'an to mean an armed struggle against unbelievers. This is especially pertinent today with Muslim terrorist groups. They often invoke Jihad as an excuse for their terror. This makes many western people feel skeptical towards Muslims when they are really just referring to an inner struggle.

Abu Bakr

He was Muhammad's father-in-law and took over as leader of the Muslims when the Prophet died in 632.

Sakks

Letters of credit that could be exchanged for cash in Muslim banks, similar to modern day checks

Muslim

Means "one who has submitted" a term used to describe a person of the Islamic religion

Constantinople

Mehmed the II conquered Constantinope (See Mehmed II def for more details) Constantinople became a large and wealthy city that was the imperial capital of the Byzantine empire and later the Ottoman empire, now known as Istanbul

Selimthe grim

Mehmed's grandson, Selim the Grim, came to power in 1512. He was an effective sultan and a great general. In 1514, he defeated the Safavids of Persia at the Battle of Chaldiran. Then he swept south through Syria and Palestine and into North Africa. At the same time that Cortez was toppling the Aztec Empire in the Americas, Selim captured Mecca and Medina, the holiest cities of Islam. Finally he took Cairo, the intellectual center of the Muslim world. The once-great civilization of Egypt had become just another province in the growing Ottoman Empire.

Mughals

The Gupta Empire crumbled in the late 400s. First, Huns from Central Asia invaded. Then, beginning in the 700's, warlike Muslim tribes from Central Asia carved northwestern India into many small kingdoms. The people who invaded descended from Muslim Turks and Afghans. Their leader was a descendant of Timur the Lame and of the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan. They called themselves Mughals, which means "Mongols." The land they invaded had been through a long period of turmoil.

Where is the "Muslim world"? How big is it? Which countries have the most Muslims?

The Muslim religion has about 1.3 billion followers all across the globe, in 70 countries. The center of the Muslim world is in Mecca. Medina is another important city to Muslims Egypt is the largest Muslim nation in the world.

Suleyman I

The Ottoman Empire didn't reach its peak size and grandeur until the reign of Selim's son, Suleyman I (SOO•lay•mahn). Suleyman came to the throne in 1520 and ruled for 46 years. His own people called him Suleyman the Lawgiver. He was known in the West, though, as Suleyman the Magnificent. This title was a tribute to the splendor of his court and to his cultural achievements. He conquered the important European city of Belgrade in 1521. The next year, Turkish forces captured the island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean and now dominated the whole eastern Mediterranean. Applying their immense naval power, the Ottomans captured Tripoli on the coast of North Africa. They continued conquering peoples along the North African coastline. Although the Ottomans occupied only the coastal cities of North Africa, they managed to control trade routes to the interior of the continent. In 1526, Suleyman advanced into Hungary and Austria, throwing central Europe into a panic. Suleyman's armies then pushed to the outskirts of Vienna, Austria. Reigning from Istanbul, Suleyman had waged war with central Europeans, North Africans, and Central Asians. He had become the most powerful monarch on earth. Only Charles V, head of the Hapsburg Empire in Europe, came close to rivaling his power.

Safavid

The Ottomans' only real rivals for power in the Muslim World were the Safavids, based in Persia. The Safavids were Shiites, as was most of Persia, while the Ottomans and their territories were mostly Sunni. The Safavid dynasty had its origins in an established Sufi order which had flourished in Azerbaijan since the early 1300s. Its founder was Sheikh Safi Al-Din (1252-1334), after whom it is named.

House of Wisdom

The Prophet's emphasis on study and scholarship led to strong support of places of learning by Muslim leaders. After the fall of Rome in A.D. 476, Europe entered a period of upheaval and chaos, an era in which scholarship suffered. The scientific knowledge gained up to that time might have been lost. However, Muslim leaders and scholars preserved and expanded much of that knowledge. Both Umayyads and Abbasids encouraged scholars to collect and translate scientific and philosophical texts. In the early 800s, Caliph al-Ma'mun opened in Baghdad a combination library, academy, and translation center called the House of Wisdom. There, scholars of different cultures and beliefs worked side by side translating texts from Greece, India, Persia, and elsewhere into Arabi

Persia

The Safavid empire ruled over persia for a time, creating a blended culture of the Ottomans, Persians, and Arabs. Persian rugs are a good representation of the cultural blending that occured in the Safavid empire, they began strictly Persian and began to change and appeal to europeans as the Empire began to blend with other civilizations.

Esfahan

The Shah built a new capital at Esfahan. With a design that covered four and a half miles, the city was considered one of the most beautiful in the world. It was a showplace for the many artisans, both foreign and Safavid, who worked on the buildings and the objects in them

Abbasid

The Umayyad fall came due to extreme political opposition among their people and inside the government, after they fell the Abbasid family gained power. The Abbasids developed a strong bureaucracy to conduct the huge empire's affairs. A treasury kept track of the money flow. A special department managed the business of the army. Diplomats from the empire were sent to courts in Europe, Africa, and Asia to conduct imperial business. To support this bureaucracy, the Abbasids taxed land, imports and exports, and non-Muslims' wealth. Rival Groups Divide Muslim Lands The Abbasid caliphate lasted from 750 to 1258. During that time, the Abbasids increased their authority by consulting religious leaders. They failed to keep complete political control of the immense territory. Independent Muslim states sprang up, and local leaders dominated many smaller regions, this allowed a smaller areas like the Fatmid to begin to gain traction and control larger areas while still attached to the Abbasid Caliphate.

Damascus

The Umayyads moved the Muslim capital to Damascus

How was the Quran revealed to Mohammad

The original source of authority for Muslims is Allah. According to Islamic belief, Allah expressed his will through the angel Gabriel, who revealed it to Muhammad. While Muhammad lived, his followers memorized and recited the revelations he received from Gabriel. Soon after the Prophet's death, it was suggested that the revelations be collected in a book. This book is the Qur'an (kuh•RAN), the holy book of the Muslims

Qur'an

The original source of authority for Muslims is Allah. According to Islamic belief, Allah expressed his will through the angel Gabriel, who revealed it to Muhammad. While Muhammad lived, his followers memorized and recited the revelations he received from Gabriel. Soon after the Prophet's death, it was suggested that the revelations be collected in a book. This book is the Qur'an (kuh•RAN), the holy book of the Muslims Many Muslims believe that the true Qur'an is only one written in Arabic as that is the true word of Allah

Devshirme

The sultan's 20,000 personal slaves staffed the palace bureaucracy. The slaves were acquired as part of a policy called devshirme (dehv•SHEER•meh). Under the devshirme system, the sultan's army drafted boys from the peoples of conquered Christian territories. The army educated them, converted them to Islam, and trained them as soldiers

How is the hajj a transformative experience for those who make the pilgrimage to Mecca? Provide examples from "Inside Mecca"

The woman learns that muslims come in all colors, looks, shapes, and sizes and are able to feel included. The man from malaysia is able to come closer to god and strive to be better at every job he has from boss to husband to father. And the other man is able to find the brotherhood and equality within the muslims that he was striving for. All three of them are able to truly connect to god which then leads them to what they wanted to attain.

Cordoba

capital of Muslim Spain, an economic center, hundreds of workshops, culture and learning flourished there

Yathrib

final destination of Muhammad's hijra and the home of the first community of Muslims; later renamed Medina; located in the northwest of present-day Saudi Arabia

Mosque

A muslim house of worship, not only a place for the 5 daily prayers but also a place where members of the Muslim community can congregate

Jihad

"Jihad" is a loaded term—and a concept that illustrates a deep gulf of miscommunication between Islam and the West. There are those in each community who see Jihad as a clash of civilizations—and act on those beliefs. But Jihad literally means "exerted effort" to most Islamic scholars and Muslims, and represents a range of activities. The concept of Jihad as a struggle for self-improvement is little known among non- believers. Yet Prof. Noha Aboulmagd-Forster of the University of Chicago stresses that it may be the most common understanding of the term. "Something widely quoted by the Muslim 'man on the street' is that the most difficult Jihad is the one of the soul," she said. "The biggest trouble is not with your enemy but with yourself." While inner struggle is one meaning of Jihad, many others evidently use it to describe engagement with outside enemies. "Religiously, Jihad is the expending of utmost effort in upholding and defending justice," said Sheikh Idris, of the Saudi Arabian Embassy. Idris explained that he recognizes two kinds of Jihad because there are two kinds of violations of justice: Jihad with words against false beliefs, and Jihad with the sword against acts of injustice. "The first is the basic and continuous Jihad," Idris said. "It was mentioned in the Qur'an very early in the history of Islam and at a time when Muslims were weak and even persecuted. God said to Muhammad, 'Do not obey those who reject the truth, but wage Jihad with the Qur'an against them.'"

Mehmed II

(Just intro to who Mehmed II is) Mehmed I beat out his 3 brothers for the throne when Timur turned his attention to China, his son, Murad II defeated the Venetians, invaded Hungary, and overcame an army of Italian crusaders in the Balkans. He was the first of four powerful sultans who led the expansion of the Ottoman Empire through 1566. Mehmed II Conquers Constantinople: Murad's son Mehmed II, or Mehmed the Conqueror, achieved the most dramatic feat in Ottoman history. By the time Mehmed took power in 1451, the ancient city of Constantinople had shrunk from a population of a million to a mere 50,000. Although it controlled no territory outside its walls, it still dominated the Bosporus Strait. Controlling this waterway meant that it could choke off traffic between the Ottomans' territories in Asia and in the Balkans. Mehmed II decided to face this situation head-on. "Give me Constantinople!" he thundered, shortly after taking power at age 21. Then, in 1453, he launched his attack.Mehmed's Turkish forces began firing on the city walls with mighty cannons. One of these was a 26-foot gun that fired I , 200-pound boulders. A chain across the Golden Horn between the Bosporus Strait and the Sea of Marmara kept the Turkish fleet out of the city's harbor. Finally, one night Mehmed's army tried a daring tactic. They dragged 70 ships over a hill on greased runners from the Bosporus to the harbor. Now Mehmed's army was attacking Constantinople from two sides. The city held out for over seven weeks, but the Turks finally found a break in the wall and entered the city. Mehmed the Conqueror, as he was now called, proved to be an able ruler as well as a magnificent warrior. He opened Constantinople to new citizens of many religions and backgrounds. Jews, Christians, and Muslims, Turks and non-Turks—all flowed in. They helped rebuild the city, which was now called Istanbul.

Medina

(See Yathrib defenition)

Muslims

A Muslim is simply someone who practices Islam.

Al-Razi

A Persian scholar named al-Razi was the greatest physician of the Muslim world and, more than likely, of world civilization between A.D. 500 and 1500. He wrote an encyclopedia called the Comprehensive Book that drew on knowledge from Greek, Syrian, Arabic, and Indian sources as well as on his own experience. Al-Razi also wrote Treatise on Smallpox and Measles, which was translated into several languages. He believed patients would recover more quickly if they breathed cleaner air.

Sunni

A branch of Islam whose members acknowledge the first four caliphs as the rightful successors of Muhammad

Anatolia

A large peninsula at the western edge of Asia. This was the stronghold of Muslim Empires including the Ottomans.

Umayyad

After the final "rightly guided caliph" was assassinated in 661 B.C a family called the Umayyad's came to power. The Umayyads abandoned the simple life of previous caliphs and began to surround themselves with wealth and ceremony similar to that of non-Muslim rulers. These actions, along with the leadership issue, gave rise to a fundamental division in the Muslim community between the Shi'a and the Sunni Muslims In the interest of peace, the majority of Muslims accepted the Umayyads' rule. However, a minority continued to resist. This group developed an alternate view of the office of caliph. In this view, the caliph needed to be a descendant of the Prophet. This group was called Shi'a, meaning the "party" of Ali. Members of this group are called Shi'ites. Those who did not outwardly resist the rule of the Umayyads later became known as Sunni, meaning followers of Muhammad's example. Another group, the Sufi (SOO•fee), rejected the luxurious life of the Umayyads. They pursued a life of poverty and devotion to a spiritual path

Jahangir

Akbar's son called himself Jahangir (juh•hahn•GEER), or "Grasper of the World." However, for most of his reign, he left the affairs of state to his wife, who ruled with an iron hand. Jahangir's wife was the Persian princess Nur Jahan. She was a brilliant politician who perfectly understood the use of power. As the real ruler of India, she installed her father as prime minister in the Mughal court. She saw Jahangir's son Khusrau as her ticket to future power. But when Khusrau rebelled against his father, Nur Jahan removed him. She then shifted her favor to another son. This rejection of Khusrau affected more than the political future of the empire. It was also the basis of a long and bitter religious conflict. Jahangir tried to promote Islam in the Mughal state, but was tolerant of other religions. When Khusrau rebelled, he turned to the Sikhs. This was a nonviolent religious group whose doctrines contained elements similar to Hinduism and Sufism (Islamic mysticism). However, the Sikhs see themselves as an independent tradition and not an offshoot of another religion. Their leader, Guru Arjun, sheltered Khusrau and defended him. In response, the Mughal rulers had Arjun arrested and tortured to death. The Sikhs became the target of the Mughals' particular hatred

Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus was a muslim-controlled state in Spain which was created when a member of the Umayyad family fled to Spain to escape the wrath of the Abbasid's. He met up with a Berber army which helped him create Al-Andalus.

hajj

All Muslims who are physically and financially able perform the hajj (haj), or pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once. Pilgrims wear identical garments so that all stand as equals before Allah

Arab

An Arab is a person from, or whose ancestors come from the Arabian peninsula (in southwest Asia), or anyone whose first language is Arabic (the language of the Arabian Peninsula).

What is the difference between an Arab and a Muslim?

An Arab is a person from, or whose ancestors come from the Arabian peninsula (in southwest Asia), or anyone whose first language is Arabic (the language of the Arabian Peninsula). while a Muslim is simply someone who practices Islam.

Janissary

An elite force of 30,000 soldiers known as janissaries was trained to be loyal to the sultan only. Their superb discipline made them the heart of the Ottoman war machine. In fact, Christian families sometimes bribed officials to take their children into the sultan's service, because the brightest ones could rise to high government posts or military positions.

Akbar

Babur's grandson was called Akbar, which means "Great." Akbar certainly lived up to his name, ruling India with wisdom and tolerance from 1556 to 1605. Military Conquerer: Akbar recognized military power as the root of his strength. In his opinion, a King must always be aggressive so that his neighbors will not try to conquer him. Like the Safavids and the Ottomans, Akbar equipped his armies with heavy artillery. Cannons enabled him to break into walled cities and extend his rule into much of the Deccan plateau. In a brilliant move, he appointed some rajputs as officers. In this way he turned potential enemies into allies. This combination of military power and political wisdom enabled Akbar to unify a land of at least 100 million people—more than in all of Europe put together. Liberal leader: Akbar was a genius at cultural blending. As a muslim he continued the Islam tradition of religious tolerance. He proved this by marrying Hindu women and allowing them to perform religious practices inside his palace. He ended Jizya, a tax on non-muslims throughout his empire. Created a tax similar to a present day income tax Blended Cultures As Akbar extended the Mughal Empire, he welcomed influences from the many cultures in the empire. This cultural blending affected art, education, politics, and language. Persian was the language of Akbar's court and of high culture. The common people, however, spoke Hindi, a language derived from Sanskrit. Hindi remains one of the most widely spoken languages in India today. Out of the Mughal armies, where soldiers of many backgrounds rubbed shoulders, came yet another new language. This language was Urdu, which means "from the soldier's camp." A blend of Arabic, Persian, and Hindi, Urdu is today the official language of Pakistan. The Arts and Literature The arts flourished at the Mughal court, especially in the form of book illustrations. These small, highly detailed, and colorful paintings were called miniatures. They were brought to a peak of perfection in the Safavid Empire. (See Section 2.) Babur's son, Humayun, brought two masters of this art to his court to teach it to the Mughals. Some of the most famous Mughal miniatures adorned the Akbarnamah ("Book of Akbar"), the story of the great emperor's campaigns and deeds. Indian art drew from traditions developed earlier in Rajput kingdoms. Hindu literature also enjoyed a revival in Akbar's time. The poet Tulsi Das, for example, was a contemporary of Akbar's. He retold the epic love story of Rama and Sita from the fourth century B.C. Indian poem the Ramayana (rah•MAH•yuh•nuh) in Hindi. This retelling, the Ramcaritmanas, is now even more popular than the original. Architecture: Akbar devoted himself to architecture too. The style developed under his reign is still known as Akbar period architecture. Its massive but graceful structures are decorated with intricate stonework that portrays Hindu themes. The capital city of Fatehpur Sikri is one of the most important examples of this type of architecture. Akbar had this red-sandstone city built to thank a Sufi saint, Sheik Salim Chisti, who had predicted the birth of his first son.

Cairo

Cairo (the Fatimid capital)

Caliph

Caliph means successor Used to describe Leaders of the Muslim empire There were 4 "rightly guided caliph's" these were the 4 caliph's that succeeded Muhammad, they were Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali

Istanbul

Capital of the Ottoman Empire; named this after 1453 and the sack of Constantinople.

Babur

In 1494, an II-year-old boy named Babur inherited a kingdom in the area that is now Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. It was only a tiny kingdom, and his elders soon took it away and drove him south. But Babur built up an army. In the years that followed, he swept down into India and laid the foundation for the vast Mughal Empire. Babur was a brilliant general. In 1526, for example, he led 12,000 troops to victory against an army of 100,000 commanded by a sultan of Delhi. A year later, Babur also defeated a massive rajput army. After Babur's death, his incompetent son, Humayun, lost most of the territory Babur had gained. Babur's 13-year-old grandson took over the throne after Humayun's death

Baghdad

In 762 B.C after the Abbasid caliphate took control of the Islamic empire they moved the empire's capitol to Baghdad in an attempt to consolidate power. The location on key trade routes gave the caliph access to trade goods, gold, and information about the far-flung empire Four Social Classes Baghdad's population, made up of different cultures and social classes, was typical for a large Muslim city in the eighth and ninth centuries. Muslim society was made up of four classes. The upper class included those who were Muslims at birth. Converts to Islam were in the second class. The third class consisted of the "protected people" and included Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. The lowest class was composed of slaves. Many slaves were prisoners of war, and all were non-Muslim. Slaves most frequently performed household work or fought in the military

Islam

Islam literally means means "submission to the will of Allah" Is a term used for the Religion of Muhammad

Ismail

Isma'il became a religious tyrant. Any citizen who did not convert to Shi'ism was put to death. Isma'il destroyed the Sunni population of Baghdad in his confrontation with the Ottomans. Their leader, Selim the Grim, later ordered the execution of all Shi'a in the Ottoman Empire. As many as 40,000 died. Their final face-off took place at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Using artillery, the Ottomans pounded the Safavids into defeat. Another outcome of the battle was to set the border between the two empires. It remains the border today between Iran and Iraq.

Shari'a

It is a body of law for Muslims. It is not a single set of laws that all Muslims follow.

Shah Jahan

Jahangir's son and successor, Shah Jahan, could not tolerate competition and secured his throne by assassinating all his possible rivals. He had a great passion for two things: beautiful buildings and his wife Mumtaz Mahal . Nur Jahan had arranged this marriage between Jahangir's son and her niece for political reasons. Shah Jahan, however, fell genuinely in love with his Persian princess.

Nur Jahan

Jahangir's wife was the Persian princess Nur Jahan. She was a brilliant politician who perfectly understood the use of power. As the real ruler of India, she installed her father as prime minister in the Mughal court. She saw Jahangir's son Khusrau as her ticket to future power. But when Khusrau rebelled against his father, Nur Jahan removed him. She then shifted her favor to another son.

Muhammad

Muhammad was born into the clan of a powerful Meccan family. Orphaned at the age of six, Muhammad was raised by his grandfather and uncle. He received little schooling and began working in the caravan trade as a very young man. At the age of 25, Muhammad became a trader and business manager for Khadijah (kah•DEE•juh), a wealthy businesswoman of about 40. Later, Muhammad and Khadijah married. Theirs was both a good marriage and a good business partnership. Revelations Muhammad took great interest in religion and often spent time alone in prayer and meditation. At about the age of 40, Muhammad's life was changed overnight when a voice called to him while he meditated in a cave outside Mecca. According to Muslim belief, the voice was that of the angel Gabriel. After much soul-searching, Muhammad came to believe that the Lord who spoke to him through Gabriel was Allah. Muhammad became convinced that he was the last of the prophets. He began to teach that Allah was the one and only God and that all other gods must be abandoned. People who agreed to this basic principle of Islam were called Muslims. In Arabic, Islam (ihs•LAHM) means "submission to the will of Allah." Muslim (MOOZ•lim) means "one who has submitted." Muhammad's wife, Khadijah, and several close friends and relatives were his first followers. By 613, Muhammad had begun to preach publicly in Mecca, but he met with some hostility. Many Meccans believed his revolutionary ideas would lead to neglect of the traditional Arab gods. They feared that Mecca would lose its position as a pilgrimage center if people accepted Muhammad's monotheistic beliefs

Sunna

Muhammad's example, followed by Muslims

al-jabr

Muslim scholars believed that mathematics was the basis of all knowledge. AlKhwarizmi, a mathematician born in Baghdad in the late 700s, studied Indian rather than Greek sources. He wrote a textbook in the 800s explaining "the art of bringing together unknowns to match a known quantity." He called this technique al-jabr—today called algebra

Osman

Osman was a ghazi (warrior for Islam) he was very successful and eventually established an Islamic state. He was called Othman by the west and his followers were the Ottomans. This was the beginning of the Ottoman Empire.

Cultural Blending

Patterns of Cultural Blending Each time a culture interacts with another, it is exposed to ideas, technologies, foods, and ways of life not exactly like its own. Continental crossroads, trade routes, ports, and the borders of countries are places where cultural blending commonly begins. Societies that are able to benefit from cultural blending are those that are open to new ways and are willing to adapt and change. The blended ideas spread throughout the culture and produce a new pattern of behavior. Cultural blending has several basic causes. Causes of Cultural Blending Cultural change is most often prompted by one or more of the following four activities: • migration • pursuit of religious freedom or conversion • trade • conquest

What was the world like that Mohammad was born into?

SEE SECTION 10-1 IF NEED BE (Don't really know what he wants for this) (Muhammad Early Life) Muhammad was born into the clan of a powerful Meccan family. Orphaned at the age of six, Muhammad was raised by his grandfather and uncle. He received little schooling and began working in the caravan trade as a very young man. (State of the world around Muhammad) The Arabian Peninsula is a crossroads of three continents—Africa, Europe, and Asia. At its longest and widest points, the peninsula is about 1,200 miles from north to south and 1,300 miles from east to west. Only a tiny strip of fertile land in south Arabia and Oman and a few oases can support agriculture. The remainder of the land is desert, which in the past was inhabited by nomadic Arab herders. Desert and Town Life On this desert, the Arab nomads, called Bedouins , were organized into tribes and groups called clans. These clans provided security and support for a life made difficult by the extreme conditions of the desert. The Bedouin ideals of courage and loyalty to family, along with their warrior skills, would become part of the Islamic way of life. The areas with more fertile soil and the larger oases had enough water to support farming communities. By the early 600s, many Arabs had chosen to settle in an oasis or in a market town. Larger towns near the western coast of Arabia became market towns for local, regional, and long-distance trade goods. Crossroads of Trade and Ideas By the early 600s, trade routes connected Arabia to the major ocean and land trade routes, as you can see on the map on the next page. Trade routes through Arabia ran from the extreme south of the peninsula to the Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) empires to the north. Merchants from these two empires moved along the caravan routes, trading for goods from the Silk Roads of the east. They transported spices and incense from Yemen and other products to the west. They also carried information and ideas from the world outside Arabia

Shah Abass

Shah Abbas, or Abbas the Great, took the throne in 1587. He helped create a Safavid culture and golden age that drew from the best of the Ottoman, Persian, and Arab worlds. Reforms Shah Abbas reformed aspects of both military and civilian life. He limited the power of the military and created two new armies that would be loyal to him alone. One of these was an army of Persians. The other was a force that Abbas recruited from the Christian north and modeled after the Ottoman janissaries. He equipped both of these armies with modern artillery. Abbas also reformed his government. He punished corruption severely and promoted only officials who proved their competence and loyalty. He hired foreigners from neighboring countries to fill positions in the government. To convince European merchants that his empire was tolerant of other religions, Abbas brought members of Christian religious orders into the empire. As a result, Europeans moved into the land. Then industry, trade, and art exchanges grew between the empire and European nations. A New Capital The Shah built a new capital at Esfahan

Berber

Spain had already been conquered and settled by Muslims from North Africa, who were known as Berbers. The Berber armies advanced north to within 200 miles of Paris before being halted at the Battle of Tours in 732. They then settled in southern Spain, where they helped form an extraordinary Muslim state in al-Andalus

Describe two periods from two different Muslim Empires that have been called "Golden Ages". What made each of them so golden? Give examples.

Suleyman came to the throne as one of the wealthiest rulers in the world. His strength owed much to the work his father Selim who had stabilized the government, battled the Safavid Empire of Persia into adopting a non-aggression policy, and conquering the Mamluk empire of Egypt and Syria. These conquests, which united the lands of Eastern Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean under a single ruler, brought a time of peace and stability, under which the Ottoman Empire flourished. The Ottoman Empire now included so much of the territory where Islam was practiced, and so many of the Islamic holy places, that Suleiman was widely regarded as the religious leader of Islam, as well as the earthly ruler of most Muslims. The Savafid empire was born of conquest and conflict. The empire truly took off when Isma'il took power and conquered all of present day Iran. Isma'il turned out to be a cruel and ruthless leader. After this dark time the empire entered a golden age during the rule of the Shah Abbas. This was a time of great reform, artistry, advancement, and more cultural blending not only with the surrounding countries but into Europe as well.

Fatimid

The Fatimid caliphate was formed by Shi'a Muslims who claimed descent from Muhammad's daughter Fatima. The caliphate began in North Africa and spread across the Red Sea to western Arabia and Syria. However, the Fatimids and other smaller states were still connected to the Abbasid caliphate through religion, language, trade, and the economy

Caligraphy

The art of beautiful handwriting. This was popularized in Islamic empires because of the belief that trying to paint humans is an imitation of creating life and therefore Allah. It is frowned upon, due to this belief Calligraphy and Abstract art were widely popularized.

Sufi

The branch of Islam that believes in a more mystical connection with Allah.

Hadith

The compiled work of the life and teachings of Muhammad.

Ali

The fourth rightly guided caliph

Mecca

The holiest city in the Muslim religion. Every year millions of Muslims make the Hajj, or pilgrimage, to mecca. This city is where the Muslim religion truly took off and where Mohommad the profit was born.

Ottoman

The most successful ghazi was Osman. People in the West called him Othman and named his followers Ottomans. Osman built a small Muslim state in Anatolia between 1300 and 1326. His successors expanded it by buying land, forming alliances with some emirs, and conquering others. The Ottomans' military success was largely based on the use of gunpowder. They replaced their archers on horseback with musket-carrying foot soldiers. They also were among the first people to use cannons as offensive weapons. Even heavily walled cities fell to an all-out attack by the Turks

Ramadan

The ninth month of the Muslim year, during which strict fasting is observed from sunrise to sunset.

Sikhs

This was a nonviolent religious group whose doctrines contained elements similar to Hinduism and Sufism (Islamic mysticism). However, the Sikhs see themselves as an independent tradition and not an offshoot of another religion. Their leader, Guru Arjun, sheltered Khusrau and defended him. In response, the Mughal rulers had Arjun arrested and tortured to death. The Sikhs became the target of the Mughals' particular hatred

Why is Mohammad's escape from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD important?

This was a turning point for Mohammad. Prior to escaping to Medina his followers were being attacked because they followed Mohammad. This was important to Mohammad because when he was in Medina he gained a large following. With this following he was able to march back into Mecca and take it from the current leaders who denied him his religion years ago.

Timur

Timur the Lame Halts Expansion: The rise of the Ottoman Empire was briefly interrupted in the early 1400s by a rebellious warrior and conqueror from Samarkand in Central Asia. Permanently injured by an arrow in the leg, he was called Timur-i-Lang, or Timur the Lame. Europeans called him Tamerlane. Timur burned the powerful city of Baghdad in present-day Iraq to the ground. He crushed the Ottoman forces at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. This defeat halted the expansion of their empire

What does Islam have in common with other monotheistic faiths, and how is it different?

Unlike many other religions, Islam has no priests or central religious authority. To Muslims, Allah is the same God that is worshiped in Christianity and Judaism. However, Muslims view Jesus as a prophet, not as the Son of God. They regard the Qur'an as the word of Allah as revealed to Muhammad, in the same way that Jews and Christians believe the Torah and the Gospels were revealed to Moses and the New Testament writers. Muslims believe that the Qur'an perfects the earlier revelations. To them, it is the final book, and Muhammad was the final prophet. All three religions believe in heaven and hell and a day of judgment. The Muslims trace their ancestry to Abraham, as do the Jews and Christians. Muslims refer to Christians and Jews as "people of the book" because each religion has a holy book with teachings similar to those of the Qur'an. Shari'a law requires Muslim leaders to extend religious tolerance to Christians and Jews. A huge Muslim empire, as you will learn in Section 2, grew to include people of many different cultures and religions

Aurangzeb

When Shah Jahan became ill in 1657, his four sons scrambled for the throne. The third son, Aurangzeb , moved first and most decisively. In a bitter civil war, he executed his older brother, who was his most serious rival. Then he arrested his father and put him in prison, where he died several years later. After Shah Jahan's death, a mirror was found in his room, angled so that he could look out at the reflection of the Taj Mahal. A master at military strategy and an aggressive empire builder, Aurangzeb ruled from 1658 to 1707. He expanded the Mughal holdings to their greatest size. However, the power of the empire weakened during his reign. This loss of power was due largely to Aurangzeb's oppresSion of the people. He rigidly enforced Islamic laws, outlawing drinking, gambling, and other activities viewed as vices. He appointed censors to police his subjects' morals and make sure they prayed at the appointed times. He also tried to erase all the gains Hindus had made under Akbar. For example, he brought back the hated tax on non-Muslims and dismissed Hindus from high positions in his government. He banned the construction of new temples and had Hindu monuments destroyed. The Hindu rajputs, whom Akbar had converted from potential enemies to allies, rebelled. Aurangzeb defeated them repeatedly, but never completely. In the southwest, a Hindu warrior community called Marathas founded their own state. Aurangzeb captured their leader but could never conquer them. Meanwhile, the Sikhs transformed themselves into a brotherhood of warriors. They began building a state in the Punjab, an area in northwest India. Aurangzeb levied oppressive taxes to pay for the wars against the increasing numbers of enemies. He had done away with all taxes not authorized by Islamic law, so he doubled the taxes on Hindu merchants. This increased tax burden deepened the Hindus' bitterness and led to further rebellion. As a result, Aurangzeb needed to raise more money to increase his army. The more territory he conquered, the more desperate his situation became. By the end of Aurangzeb's reign, he had drained the empire of its resources. Over 2 million people died in a famine while Aurangzeb was away waging war. Most of his subjects felt little or no loyalty to him

How did Mohammad create the first Muslim communities and spread the faith to others?

When in Yathrib, at the end of his hijrah Mohammad attracted many loyal followers. In Medina, Muhammad displayed impressive leadership skills. He fashioned an agreement that joined his own people with the Arabs and Jews of Medina as a single community. These groups accepted Muhammad as a political leader. As a religious leader, he drew many more converts who found his message appealing. Finally, Muhammad also became a military leader in the growing hostilities between Mecca and Medina. In 630, the Prophet and 10,000 of his followers marched to the outskirts of Mecca. Facing sure defeat, Mecca's leaders surrendered. The Prophet entered the city in triumph. He destroyed the idols in the Ka'aba and had the call to prayer made from its roof. Most Meccans pledged their loyalty to Muhammad, and many converted to Islam. By doing so, they joined the umma, or Muslim religious community. Muhammad died two years later, at about the age of 62. However, he had taken great strides toward unifying the entire Arabian Peninsula under Islam

Why is the Quran important to muslims?Give examples

While Muhammad lived, his followers memorized and recited the revelations he received from Gabriel. Soon after the Prophet's death, it was suggested that the revelations be collected in a book. This book is the Qur'an (kuh•RAN), the holy book of the Muslims. The Qur'an is written in Arabic, and Muslims consider only the Arabic version to be the true word of Allah. Only Arabic can be used in worship. Wherever Muslims carried the Qur'an, Arabic became the language of worshipers and scholars.

Arabian nights

a King named Shahriyar married a new woman every day and killed her at the end of that same day. A woman named Scheherazade knew her fate when she married him, she decided to tell him stories for 1001 nights, by the end of these nights the king had fallen in love with her and decided not to kill her

What are three important reasons for the rapid spread of Islam?

he Muslim armies were well disciplined and expertly commanded. However, the success of the armies was also due to weakness in the two empires north of Arabia. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been in conflict for a long period of time and were exhausted militarily. Another reason for Muslim success was the persecution suffered by people under Byzantine or Sassanid rule because they did not support the official state religions, Christianity or Zoroastrianism. The persecuted people often welcomed the invaders and their cause and chose to accept Islam. They were attracted by the appeal of the message of Islam, which offered equality and hope in this world. They were also attracted by the economic benefit for Muslims of not having to pay a poll tax. Treatment of Conquered Peoples Because the Qur'an forbade forced conversion, Muslims allowed conquered peoples to follow their own religion. Christians and Jews, as "people of the book," received special consideration. They paid a poll tax each year in exchange for exemption from military duties. However, they were also subject to various restrictions on their lives. Before entering the newly conquered city of Damascus in the northern Arabian province of Syria, Khalid ibn al-Walid, one of Abu-Bakr's chief generals, detailed the terms of surrender.

Sultan

means "overlord" or "one with power". Orkhan I (son of Osman) proclaimed himself as Sultan.

Al-Khwarizmi

muslim mathematician who created the technique of "al-jabr" or algebra

Shia

the branch of Islam whose members acknowledge Ali and his descendants as the rightful successors of Muhammad