JSIS 200

Manila galleons were Spanish trading ships that made round-trip sailing voyages once or twice per year across the Pacific Ocean from the port of Acapulco in New Spain to Manila in the Spanish East Indies. Spanish merchants traded silver bars with silk, cotton cloths, gold, jewelry and spices that both Asian and European sea traders brought to the port. The Manila galleon voyages directly linked the Americas with Asia, which was the last big connection in the global chain of commerce.

Manila galleon voyages

I. Introduction A. Before the 1500s most of Afro-Eurasia was integrated into a surprisingly complex system of commerce. 1. The following regions all played major roles in global commerce before the 1500s: (a) Western Europe (b) Asia (c) Middle East 2. The system itself was comprised of multiple facets; including, sea trade and port cities, and land locked êntrepots. B. Considering its central location and interaction with multiple ruling entities, the Middle Eastern "regional circuit" was perhaps the most involved of the three. II. There were a great number of trade routes which ran through the Middle East before the 1500s A. They were essential to trade in the centuries before marine travel became easier and safer than land travel B. The Northern, Middle, and Southern Routes 1. Silk, textiles, cotton, copper, gold, Ivory, slaves, and spices 2. Europeans crossed the routes going all the way to China, and the Chinese did the opposite, but Middle Eastern participation in this global system was mainly their acting as middle men. III. The Middle route was the was the "easiest, [and] cheapest," and most popular of the three *see chapter 6 (Abu-Lughod) A. Sinbad's route [middle route] 1. Ran through the Levant, Baghdad, the Persian Gulf and eventually ending on the southern tip of present day India B. When this route was blocked for any reason the Northern and southern routes were used more often IV. Major regional hindrances to the "world system," through this region of Afro-Eurasia, resulted in use of Northern and Southern routes A. For example: Mongol Conquest of Mesopotamia 1. Bagdad falls after centuries of being the greatest Islamic capitol V. Conclusion Thesis: Abu Lughod discusses how the Western Europeans and Asians contributed to a world system of economic and political strength. There was more to the world system than Europe. Asia had significant contributions Evidence: +Asian - Pax mongolica, protect traders. Facilitate from East Asia to Western Europe. The Mongols conquered the territories that bordered their empire by making this intimidation factor and using other territories' troops to fight to expand. People who interrupted trade had to pay the cost by nine fold back to the government. The Mongol expansion led to a world system because of how extensive their empire was. Maritime systems using the monsoon winds to connect East Africa to South Asia. Trade in the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf. Asian and Arab advancements have parallels with Europe. Credit transactions were highly developed in the Middle East and China. There was flexibility and harmony is religion as well because the Mongols allowed their citizens to practice whatever they want. The Mongols were from shamanism and did not want to interrupt productivity by forcing belief systems. Additionally, they were extremely interested in learning about other cultures. +Western Europe - Champagne Fairs were the beginnings of capitalism. Held in France, merchants would bring natural resources and goods from all over to create this giant market. Goods came from different parts of Europe, Africa, and Middle East. People would purchase what they need and take them back to their hometowns. Once again, another economic factor that contributed to the global system. Fairs were well organized by the counts. They guaranteed property rights and trading rights to the participants. Provided protection to parties involved. Created contracts to guarantee protection and maximize profit. Spread of culture and art. Created a linked European economy . The fairs ended when the channels of trade in Venice in Genoa of Italy opened to conduct maritime trade. Transporting goods and resources were much more efficient. Abu Lughod - Claims that the fairs lost their edge. A number of reasons led to the downfall - the Little Ice Age and the Black Plague Conclusion: Although the world system was not entirely included because of the absence of the Americas, but it was the beginning. Lughod's Before European Hegemony, shines a light onto the contributions of more eastern states and society.

In Abu-Lughod's polycentric and integrated world before 1500 large regions of the world were integrated. Discuss the "world system" of this time and the workings of at least one of its major regional circuit - Western European, Middle Eastern, or Asian?

Simon Bolivar was a South American soldier that was instrumental in South America's revolutions against the Spanish Empire. He led the countries of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia to independence. These successes were in part by having natives and African's fight against the Spanish. Venezuela won its revolt and Simon Bolivar became Venezuela's president.

Simon Bolivar

In 1884-1885, the Chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck, organized the Berlin Conference to manage colonization and trade in Africa. Countries like France, Britain, Germany, and the United States came together to carve out Africa by obtaining treaties with the local chiefdoms and states in Africa. This started the Scramble for Africa. Whatever was stated at the Berlin Conference in terms of rule and governance in Africa overrided the current structures within Africa. (Yinong Su) important decisions made on BC: free trade among colonies; no invasion to the colonial territories that were already in others' control

Berlin Conference

The Black death was one of the worst diseases that hit the world in history. Killed half of European population. Millions to hundreds of millions of people died in the middle of 1300s to this disease. Fleas spread the plague throughout Eurasia on rats. Many states and economies died out from the plague, such as the Mongols and the Champagne fairs. Slowed down the trade of Afroeurasia. World trade in this period declined dramatically. (Matt GP) Initially spread from Asia and killed one-third of Europe's population (1346 - 1353)

Black Death/Bubonic Plague

Annual fairs that were held in the Champagne and Brie of France in the Middle Ages. The fairs were important in reviving the economy in Europe by serving as markets for textiles, leather, fur, and spices. These fairs were highly organized and were the beginnings of organized economies and capitalism. The decline of the fairs was a combination of the Little Ice Age, the plague, and the start of sea trade between Venice and Flanders. the importance of rule of law, protection of merchants, geographical advantages and introduction of Italian banking system led to the success of the fair

Champagne Fairs

The Columbian Exchange took place during the 15th and 16th centuries after Christopher Columbus' "discovery of the New World in 1492. Culture, crops, people, disease, and ideas were exchanged from the New and Old World. Millions of natives in the Americas died from diseases, such as smallpox and yellow fever, and numerous slaves were brought from Africa to work on plantations. Columbian Exchange led to the Triangle Trade where Europeans traveled to Africa for slaves, dropped them off in the Americas to work on the plantations and obtain the resources, and then took the resources back to Europe to manufacture goods. Further led to the colonization of America.

Columbian Exchange

Timeline （Yinong Su) Failure of the McCartney's mission and British trade deficit against China led to the smuggling of Opium->Manchu Empire's ban on opium->First Opium War China was defeated completely->Unequal treaty: Treaty of Nanking (gave Hong Kong to Britain) Other European powers and Japan followed Britain's step to scramble the China More unequal treaties and force China to open more ports and to give sovereign territory and resources. Taiping Rebellion (1850-1851) Boxer movement 1900 (first against the central government but later opposed to foreign imperialism. Hey day of imperialism in China: Eight-Nation Alliance invaded the capital-Beijing in 1900 Imperialism in China By 1800, China was a prosperous country with a highly developed agricultural system. China was not industrialized, but workers in small workshops were able to produce most of the goods the Chinese needed. Because China was practically self-sufficient, its emperors had little interest in trading with Europeans. For decades, Europeans could do business only at the port of Canton. Despite pleas from Britain and other nations, China refused to open other ports to foreigners. The Chinese regarded European goods as inferior to their own and bought few goods from the European merchants at Canton. · 19th century · Civil disorder: Taiping Rebellion, Boxers · Military defeats on land and sea by foreigners—Britain, France, Japan, and then 8 nations in 1900-01 o Opium Wars o Sino-Japanese War · Unequal treaties that required China to pay hundreds of millions in reparations o Century of national humiliation · Stagnation of economy · Bureaucracy corrupt and resisted reform · Beginnings of Western learning in early 19th C, Increasingly W. science & langs; schools & study abroad; arsenals, factories, shipyards · Self-Strengthening Efforts in late 19th C: Western technology & Chinese institutions/practices Imperialism in China During the 19th century, China was a semi-colonial power. This means that although China was never officially under colonial rule, they experienced a wave of imperialist tendencies, beginning with the MacCartney Mission and leading into the presence of Western technology and education, the systemic addiction to opium and European control over the drug, and eventually the Taiping Rebellion. Furthermore, a sequence of military defeats resulting in unequal treaties that required China to pay exorbitant amounts to Britain, France, Japan, Russia, and other colonizers stagnated the economy. The precedent to Western imperialism in China was the MacCartney Mission of 1793, where British envoy George MacCartney aimed to ease trade restriction on China's northern ports with Britain. The mission failed, which led to "trade without diplomacy," where British used their military prowess to coerce China into opening trade. Western learning began to penetrate Chinese society in the early 19th century, as Western science and language increased; study abroads to Europe and the Americas increased etc. Systemic addiction to opium and control of the source to open trade routes; forced Chinese to buy the drug from the British and a war over the territory where poppies grew. In the First Opium War, there was a clear Western technological advantage over the Chinese forces. The Taiping Rebellion began with a radicalist who returned from the desert claiming he was the brother of Jesus Christ. Normally, he would have not garnered the attention of millions as he subsequently did, but the West supported his rebellion and it grew into a major movement. Chinese repeatedly suffered major military defeats in the 19th century, both on land and by sea. Eight nations defeated China between 1900 and 1901 (Lecture?). One of the treaties that came about in response to China's defeat was the Treaty of Nanking, that gave Britain the right to take over Hong Kong. This was not a total physical occupation of China, but falls under the umbrella of "semi-colonialism;" the city opened up ports, abolished the monopoly of trade, etc. Further treaties, like the Treaty of Tiangjin, gave rights for foreigners to travel freely and trade in Beijing. The Boxer Protocol of 1901, which involved nine European powers, punished Chinese officials and demanded $330 million in reparations (4 times the amount of government revenue). Imperialism in India Imperialism: extension of sovereignty or control, direct or indirect, political or economic, by one gov't, nation, or society over another. Justified on the underlying premise that a nation has an inherent right, based on moral or material superiority, to impose its preeminent values and techniques over an indigenous society or nation it regards as inferior. The Long 19th Century: Refers to the period between the years 1789 and 1914. It begins with the French Revolution that established a republic in Europe and ends with the start of World War I that ended the long-enduring European power balance of the 19th century proper (1801-1900). Imperialism affected the Long 19th c. in India was based on four main tenants in order to maintain and enhance power. This includes Economic and military superiority, Importance of local allies, Internal weakness, and Psychological culture. As a result of the long 19th century there were two responses in India. First, mutiny such as the rebellion of 1857. In addition it also caused subaltern repercussions such as a long history of uprising and insurrections. Imperialism in India -The British gained imperial rule of India over the French after the 7 years war. in the long 19th century. -British continued to exploit and extract wealth from India until the Sepoy Mutiny -A disregard for local customs led to rebellion, which eventually led to the whole of India being claimed under the British Crown -India as a colony under the British Crown flourished, as a producer of raw materials such as cotton -Infrastructure (trains, schools, markets, etc.) and education improved in India. This led to an educated upper cast and paved the way for eventual movements towards independence. Though never under full colonial rule, the Chinese Qing government was under Western and then Japanese suzerainty. As exemplified in the blundered Macartney Mission, the demand for Western goods in China was extremely minimal. Due to the high demand in Europe, particularly Britain, for Chinese goods, a massive trade imbalance existed with a deficit on the British side and a surplus for China. To counter this imbalance, Britain began large scale opium smuggling. Due to the alarming rate of expansion of the opium trade, the Qing government sent Lin Zexu to crackdown on and eliminate the British opium trade. Following the closing of Guangzhou and the destruction of massive amounts of British opium in Humen, the vastly superior British navy assaulted Chinese ships, trade routes, and eventually took Guangzhou and Shanghai. The British victory in the first opium war began a series of unequal treaties extracted from China intended to pry open its ports to trade and to weaken the Qing government. These treaties granted Britain cash concessions, access to multiple treaty ports, sovereign territory within Chinese cities and ports (including total dominion of Hong Kong), and extraterritoriality. Other incursions by European powers soon after led to "jackal diplomacy," using an old Chinese strategy of using "barbarian against barbarian" to European advantage, including "most favored nation" (MFN) clauses to grant concessions gained by one Western power to all Western powers, in effect "feeding from the scraps" of other treaties. This policy of MFN, unequal treaties, and deeper concessions led to a dividing of China amongst European powers, engaging in a balance of power strategy to keep each other in line, and the Qing government intact, but inept. After World War I, Europe could not afford to maintain its claims in China as significantly, so Japan took control of most concessions in China, including colonizing Manchuria, moving further inland during WWII. Due to millennia of Chinese centrality and dominance in Asia, the colonization of China deeply wounded China's national identity. The "Century of Humiliation" as it became known in China caused severe social disorder and civil unrest. The Taiping, Nian, and Muslim Rebellions reveal deep dissatisfaction with the Qing government as a result of deteriorating economic conditions due to Western concessions and "national humiliation". The Taiping Tianguo, or Kingdom of Heavenly Peace, led by Hong Xiuquan, is perhaps the most notable of its time. The loss of life during the Taiping Rebellion alone is estimated to be around 30 million (twice the casualties of WWI). The Boxer Uprising of 1900 was characterized by the targeting of foreigners and Chinese Christians (though compared to Chinese Christians killed, the number of foreigners attacked is minimal). Distinct from previous uprisings, the Boxer movement was coopted and supported by the Qing state. In response, Western powers invaded Beijing and other cities, wiping out Boxer supporters and committing widespread atrocities such as the raping of Chinese women, looting, pillaging, and destroying cities, and killing on a large scale. In addition to this destruction, the Western powers used this opportunity to extract even further indemnities, reparations, and concessions from China. Though Western powers had been extracting slaves and resources in Africa for hundreds of years, it wasn't until around 1870 that industrialization and technological advances allowed Europeans to travel deeper inland to the heart of the African continent. Strategically devised, the colonization of Africa was planned at the Berlin Conference in1884-85 to divide up the continent among European powers. The dividing up of Africa was rife with European competition and rivalry, and was executed under a similar philosophy with that of China and even within Europe, that to maintain order, a balance of power must be achieved to ensure no single European nation would be able to attain hegemonic power. Through indirect rule by Britain (using or forcing local power-holders and elites to maintain control) or a centralized administrative direct rule by the other European powers, Imperial rule in sub-Saharan Africa was characterized by the extraction of raw materials and natural resources to fuel marketization and industrialization in Europe. The manufactured goods from Europe would then be resold to African colonies for capital gains.Socio-politically, the colonization of Africa was a source of national pride amongst European peoples, as they maintained Europe was bringing civilization and light to a dark, savage region. This "savage" discourse ironically produced and was used to justify the inhumane and "savage" treatment of African peoples by European sovereigns. Due to such treatment and the project of colonization, many groups, notably ones in German East Africa, rose in violent conflict against their colonizers. Largely unsuccessful, social unrest and violence was brutally repressed. Additionally, as the borders between European holdings were drawn without foreknowledge of ethnic groups or political systems, many African groups were split and divided along these lines, leading to increased tensions and, as Stelios Michalopolous argues, the long term effect of civil strife and ethnic violence to this day. Imperialism: Extension of sovereignty or control (direct or indirect) political, economic, social, by one power or nation. Imperial agent has inherent right to impose preeminent values and techniques over indigenous society or nation as inferior Imperialism is facilitated by economic and military superiority India Presence of British East India Company Mughal Empire declined in 18th Century Not profitable initially because had to import silver to pay for goods (indigo, salt, cotton cloth) Method to enhance power: Military-defeated the Mughals with military and controlling the military resources. Loaned out the military to settle local conflict People began to be dependent on the British military to settle local wars Alliances - maintaining strong relationships with the local elites developed bureaucracy and military 1848 Controlled economy monopoly over salt and opium land revenues outlet of British manufactured goods and overseas investments supplied raw materials to Britain Acquisition of revenue collecting rights of rich agricultural area of Bengal East India Company has access to land tax - made lots of money Indirect control in other areas - thru Indian rulers Monopoly of coercive power: military and police state sponsored education, knowledge, idea of modernity and westernization divide and rule - religion, caste, locality, language Responses: Resistance Mutiny/Rebellion 1857 Return to traditional methods. Go back to the way things were in the past. Passing reforms as assertive defensive reaction to colonialism of British Sub-Saharan Africa Method to enhance power Military and technology maxim gun steam ship Flowing goods into Africa for the use of slaves. Population loss European strength over Africa Berlin Conference - Carve out Africa Exploit land and resources Religion Missionaries went to spread Christianity Leopold's Congo - missionaries reported the negative effects of what was happening in the Congo Divided Africa among ethnic lines Reaction Did not really know what was happening to them because they were receiving benefits from the Europeans Some tribes resisted and fought back against the Europeans from murdering their leaders and terrorizing the towns. Capturing people to work in slavery Many deaths and mutilation Europeans had gun power African army defeats Germany expedition: battle of Dogba in 1892, French against Dahomey - French won Conflict of local African tribe refusing to assimilate to French imperialism. Although French was providing protection to dogba. Dahomey still wanted to remain independent from the third republic of france.

Define imperialism and its workings in the long 19th century in any two of the following areas: a. India; b. China, c. sub-Saharan Africa. What policies and practices did imperial powers use to maintain and enhance power and control and what responses did these evoke in colonized societies?

American and Haitian Similarities/Differences Both of these revolutions were brought about by colonies; however Haiti was a slave revolt whereas the American Rev was started by the upper class. Also the American Revolution was against Britain and the Haitian Revolution was against France. The American Revolution was against the Monarch, however the Haitian Revolution was against slavery. Both of these Revolutions were successful. American and French Similarities/Differences Both the French and American Revolution were against a monarch, and advocated for a representative style of government driven by Enlightenment ideas. The French Revolution tried to conquer and surrounding lands of France to spread democracy and freedom and rights. Both of these revolutions were successful, however the American Revolution granted the 13 colonies independence from Britain whereas the French Revolution overthrew and replaced the existing government with their own representative style of government. Also, the French Revolution was started by the lower class's grievances against the aristocracy and monarch, but the American Revolution was driven by American upper class elites who were against the monarch (and taxation and representation). French Revolution was extremely bloody compared to the American Revolution wit the Reign of Terror (executing individuals who were against the revolution). Killings were carried out by Robespierre who was the head of the draconian committee of Public Safety. The French had different stages that included the National Assembly, then the Jacobins, and finally Napoleon. French and Haitian Similarities/Differences The Haitian Revolution started during the French Revolution. The Haitian and French Revolutions were similar because each revolution was against the oppression of lower classes through means such as feudalism (peasantry) and slavery. Both of these revolutions were also very violent, such as the execution of Louis XVI in France, and the massacre of free colored people and white in Haiti. American Rev Origins: 1765-1783, started in the upper class with the Declaration of Independence Development: Unfair taxation and misrepresentation were among the grievances, later the Tea Party would rebel against the British monopoly on tea imports Immediate Impact: The 13 Colonies got their independence, less taxation, alliance with France, Britain becomes weaker. Treaty of Paris (recognition of American sovereignty, borders of America and the British American empire, fishing rights, all weapons of the British in the american side will be forfeited). Treaty of Versailles French Rev Origins: 1789-1799, sparked by Enlightenment and grievances against the aristocracy, feudalism, and monarch. The economy was not healthy; poor harvests, rising food prices, and an inadequate transportation system made food even more expensive. The sequence of events leading to the revolution included the national government's fiscal troubles caused by an inefficient tax system and expenditure on numerous large wars. The attempt to challenge British naval and commercial power in the Seven Years' War was a costly disaster Development: After first constitution failed, Louis XVI was executed, and majority party, the Jacobins, represent a majority. France's first written constitution echoed the more moderate voices in the Assembly, establishing a constitutional monarchy in which the king enjoyed royal veto power and the ability to appoint ministers. This compromise did not sit well with influential radicals like Maximilien de Robespierre (1758-1794), Camille Desmoulins (1760-1794) and Georges Danton (1759-1794), who began drumming up popular support for a more republican form of government and the trial of Louis XVI. Immediate Effects: France is no longer a monarchy, representative government put in place, more nationalism in France Haitian Rev Origins: 1791-1804, Was a slave uprising against France, whites and free colored people out numbered 10:1 by slaves Development: Occurred during the French Rev, in 1804 Whites and Mixed Race people were slaughtered Immediate Effects: Haiti gains independence, US plantation owners feared of the spreading of slave uprisings, many individuals fled to S. Louisiana

Discuss the similarities and differences in the origins, development, and immediate consequences of the American, French, or Haitian Revolution? Compare and contrast these three revolutions.

Encomienda was a system where the Spanish crown gave grants to conquistadors to rule over a certain number of natives. In return for protection of the natives and instruction of Christianity, the conquistador would receive tributes from the natives, such as gold and labor. Encomienda was designed to meet the needs of the mining economy but was detrimental to the native population and rise in agriculture led to the hacienda system.

Encomienda

Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan traveler during the 14th century. He is known for his extensive travels, which he published in the Rihla. Over 30 years, Ibn Battuta traveled the Islamic world and many non-Muslim lands, spanning from Eastern Europe to Southeast Asia. His purpose for his exploration was to go on a Hajj to Mecca.

Ibn Battuta

Imagined communities was a concept formed by Benedict Anderson. Imagined communities describes nationalism because individuals identify as being a part of a community without knowing the majority of the other individuals who comprise this community. They may never know each other but they share similar interests and identity as part of the same nation. Both limited and sovereign. (Yinong Su) Imagined Communities are not based on daily face-to-face interaction. For example, nationalism is a good example of imagined communities that are entities and communities of sentiment constructed or invented through political action (from Professor's PPT). The concept of "Imagined Communities" is important for the rise of nationalism and spread of national movements and social movements in the 18-20th centuries.

Imagined Communities

A term that began during the French Revolution in the late 1700s, the term applied to supporters of left-wing revolutionary opinions. The Jacobins were known for creating a strong government that could deal with the needs of war, economic chaos, and internal rebellion. They supported the rights of property, and represented a middle class position. Jacobin's supported free trade and a liberal economy. Also, they created the General maximum to control prices and create stability for workers, poor, and revolution. The Terror

Jacobins

The use of janissaries began under Sultan Murad after 1377. Janissaries were originally composed of war prisoners and slaves, but more men were needed for battle and war. Therefore, the Ottoman's began taking Christian adolescent bodys, put them through education and training, to fill the corps in the military. These adolescents were kidnapped on the basis of devsirme, a blood tax imposed in the villages of the Balkans. •Janissaries (yeni cheri or new soldier)—elite infantry in 15th C. (forcibly conscripted in conquered areas such as Balkans; majority Christians); practice of devshirme (child recruitment)—levy of young male children 8-9 years old, brought to Istanbul & forced to learn Turkish and to convert

Janissaries

The major first uprising. The Rebellion of 1857 took place in India and began as a mutiny of sepoys of the East India Company. More direct rules and imperial rules occurred. Rise of Indian nationalism. This mutiny/rebellion led to the end of the East India Company in 1858 became many more revolts began to increase throughout Central India against the European presence. It forced the British to reorganize the army, financial system, and administration in India.

Indian Mutiny/Rebellion 1857

La Malinche was a Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast who played a role in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. She was an interpreter and advisor to Hernan Cortes. La Malinche was a slave given to the Spaniards by the natives of Tobasco in 1519. She became a mistress of Cortes and gave birth to his first son, one of the first Mestizos.

Malinche (Dona Marina)

The Malthusian trap suggests that for most of human history, income was stagnant because technological advances and discoveries resulted to more people, not improvements in standards of living. The population will outgrow the ability to feed itself. pessimistic view on the impossibility of real progress was first made in 1798, ironically, just as the industrial revolution was getting underway.The Industrial Revolution in the 18th century broke the Malthusian trap by dramatically increasing incomes of citizens and increase in production. Revolution of British and Holland.

Malthusian trap

A trend of climatic cooling that affected weather conditions chiefly in the Northern Hemisphere approximately from the late 13th to mid-19th century. Ir shortened the growing season, hampered crop harvesting, made sheep and cattle more susceptible to epidemic diseases, and caused famines. Food prices increased, living conditions shrank, and poverty increased. (Panorama, 427).

Little Ice Age

The Meiji Restoration was a chain of events that restored imperial rule in Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Japan was falling behind the colonial powers of Europe and the Restoration would give the emperors the necessary powers to incorporate western advances but keep eastern values. The effects of the Meiji Restoration led to a rapid industrialization which strengthened the military. Lords and samurai classes were eliminated, and people were now all equal. (Yinong Su) The end of the shogunate. During the Meiji Restoration. The the country experienced significant social, political and economic change-including the abolition of the feudal system and the adoption of a cabinet system of government. In addition, the new regime opened the country once again to Western trade and influence, and oversaw a buildup of military strength that would soon propel Japan onto the world stage.

Meiji Restoration

The theory of mercantilism states that there is a certain amount of wealth in the world and that it is in a nation's best interest to accumulate it. Mercantilism was meant to serve the interests of the empire, not the colony. Colonies existed to produce raw materials that were needed to create a product back in the empire. European empires heavily practiced mercantilism with the New World during the era of exploration and colonization.

Mercantilism

Ali was the Ottoman Albanian commander in the Ottoman Empire. He is considered the founder of modern Egypt because of the dramatic military, economic and cultural reforms he instituted. Muhammad Ali's goal was to end traditional rule in Egypt and become more modernized and Western. His reforms were based off of motives to keep the reign of rule within his family and reap the profits for himself.

Muhammad Ali

Natural rights are fundamental human rights based on natural law/ These rights are inalienable and do not discriminate based on a certain sex, gender, religion, race, or nationality. versus monarchy. equal rights (Yinong Su) Fundamental human rights based on universal natural law, as opposed to those based on man-made positive law. philosophers such as John Locke endorsed natural rights and believed everyone is born with an equality with certain rights, regardless of their nationality. Natural rights play an important part in the Declaration of Independence of the U.S.

Natural rights

Peter was the tsar of Russia from 1682 - 1725. He pulled Russia out of medieval times by centralizing the government, modernizing the army, creating a navy, and subjecting the peasants. His policies allowed him to have an aggressive foreign policy. He expanded the reaches of the tsar and made Russia a strong European power "westernize Russia" (Yinong Su) Peter the Great was the tsar of Russia from 1682 until his death in 1725. He played a huge role in reviving the Empire of Russia by expanding, modernizing, and westernizing the empire. He is such an important figure because of his time spent in order to transform Russia into a major European power through his reforms on education, women's rights in society (mostly noble women).

Peter the Great

Pax Mongolica translates to Mongol Peace. This was a time where the Mongolian Empire provided protection to the merchants traveling across Eurasia to trade their goods. If the merchant was attacked or the goods were stolen, the Mongols would have their men go after those perpetrators and severely punish them. Marco Polo, and missionaries successfully traveled across Eurasia in the middle of the 13th century. (Yinong Su) Also, the powerful Mongol Empire crossed Europe and Asia, and provided political stability which secured the trade routes over land.

Pax Mongolica

Plantation complexes in the Southeastern United States refers to the built environment (or complex) that was common on agricultural plantations in the American South from the 17th into the 20th century. The complex included everything from the main residence down to the pens for livestock. A plantation originally denoted a settlement, in which settlers were "planted" to establish a colonial base. Southern plantations were generally self-sufficient settlements that relied on the forced labor of slaves, similar to the way that a medieval manorial estate relied upon the forced labor of serfs Drug Foods Generally large-scale, relative to other farms and settlements around them, and highly specialized in the raising of one particular crop, New World plantations employed a substantial workforce to plant, tend, harvest, and—in many cases—process staple commodities for export, usually to European markets. The plantation was strongly connected to transatlantic flows of produce, capital, and labor. It was an institution that defined Atlantic commercial activity during the 18th century and remained a central pillar of the New World economy during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Plantation Complex

The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed views of society and nature.The scientific revolution began in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance period and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment. The importance of the scientific revolution moves away from trusting the Catholic Church and past findings, and begin to question and discover the natural world more intensively. Scientists: Galileo, Copernicus, Newton Influenced the Enlightenment

Scientific Revolution

The Scramble for Africa occurred between 1881 and 1914. European powers and the United States met in Berlin to determine which parts of Africa would be delegated to each European power. Africa was not thoroughly explored and mapped out, so lines were drawn arbitrarily. The purpose of drawing the lines and owning these parts of Africa were to remain powerful against the United States and Russia. One of the highlights of the Scramble was when King Leopold exploited and terrorized the people of the Congo for their natural resources.

Scramble for Africa

Strong West African empire during the 15th and 16th centuries. One of the largest islamic empire in the history. The Songhay dominated the Saharan Trade and encompassed metropolitan centers of Timbuktu and Gao. The height of their empire was under the rule of Askia Mohammed, and the start of decline of under Askia Musa. This empire fell to the Moroccans of the Saadi Empire by losing the Battle of Tondibi, which started in 1591.

Songhay Empire

The Taiping Rebellion was a massive civil war in southern China from 1850-1864 against the Manchu Qing Dynasty. Led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed that he was the younger brother of Jesus, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was established. The Kingdom ruled about 30 million people and pushed for common property, equality for women, and replacement of traditional Chinese thoughts with Christianity. This rebellion had over 20 million deaths and was crushed by the Qing with the help of French and British forces.

Taiping Rebellion

Tanzimat was a series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876. The Sultans Abdulmecid and Adulaziz created these reforms to modernize the Ottoman Empire. Tanzimat called for institutions that would guarantee life, property, and honor to all subjects of the empire regardless of race or religion. Ottoman incorporate non-muslim and non Turks. Also, these reforms included standardized taxation of the people. Tanzimat led to the sultan's abuse of government power and little action because everything had to be run through the sultan. Establish Sharia law.

Tanzimat

This is what my class came up with: The fossil fuels and access to New World resources prevent West Europe from ending up on labor-intensive path by "reliving the strain on Europe's supply of what was truly scarce:land and energy.( Pomaranze, p.23) Due to different factors, both domestic and international, Europe made the New World an "almost inexhaustible source of land-intensive products and outlets for western Europe's relatively abundant capital and labor." (Pomaranze, p.23) The fossil fuels and access to New world resources did not just facilitate the capital accumulation of Europe, but essentially prevent the ecological dead end of development. Both fossil fuels and New World resources ease the shortage of basic engine that crucial to any possible development. Since the ultimate strain of supply became less severe, the domestic labor was free from labor-intensive agricultural activities, Europe could more easily undergo a population increase and urbanization without meet the limit of basic need for individual. The extra energy and resources made it possible for West Europe to specialize in manufacture without hurting its own agricultural production, thus they could better sharpen West Europe's competitive edge by freeing labor for industrial activities and providing basic resource for rapid expansion of industry. Also, those resource advantages could facilitate the living condition on personal level, spur the consumption of non basic need, thus help shape a more conducive market for capital accumulation. The explanations for the European hegemony are various. Besides the access to resources, the warfare before 1800 is also a possible explanation. Such relatively violent state made Europe better at weapon making and war craft than other parts of the world. Thus it help Europe seize control of lucrative trade route and secure its oversea expansion. Biological disadvantage of indigenous people to certain disease made many parts of the world vulnerable to European power. Certain cultural factors also played a huge role. Such as Western culture's focus on individual pursuit and the awareness of personal property which was essential to the development of capitalism, rational and systematically way of understanding the world which gave rise to the modern science, fragmented situation fostered the competitive awareness which encourage people to explore and expand, etc. Also, there were environmental factors which claims that Europe's environment, geographic locations and climates were more conducive for higher productivity and population densities. Also, the technological advances which stemmed from the emerging modern science largely enhance the productivity and work efficiency, and Europe benefited from its booming scientific development which generated better results that more practical rather than theoretical science in other parts of the world. Also, the certain features of Europe economy which made it closer to the ideal capitalism market are also attributed to the take off of Europe. In contrast, 18th century's China faced a series of obstacles that seriously impede its development. The basic problem is the conflict between resources and growing population. China not only lack the oversea resources like the those of West Europe, but also convenient access to its resources. Moreover, the overemphasize on agricultural life and family blood tie strictly ties Chinese people to their land. Both the agricultural reform and the labor flow from agricultural activities to industry was unrealizable. With no extra land and resources, no institutional reform and technological advancement which could enhance the agricultural productivity, and literally "no way to run", the food supply of China failed to catch up with the population growth. Thus China eventually face its ecological cul de sac. Also, the domestic independence of different regions also held back some specific area, like Yangzi delta's development. Politically speaking, China's highly centralized political and the rooted notion of absolute power of emperors lower its administrative efficiency during 18th century, hatching corruption and institutional ossification to an unprecedented level. The political structure remained unchanged until 1911, letting the fate of China to be decided by a single person. Such centralized rule contributed to many institutions that opposed to free international trade, domestic migrant toward capital and the adoptions of advance Western values and technologies without any counter-voice until the very late 19th century. Besides those factors, culture also played a huge role. In addition to the attachment to home land, the deifying of the emperor, Chinese society's political power standard really demeaned the value and success of commercial life, and the commercial activities were easily subjected to policies and tradition, made Chinese market far from being a more ideal one for capital growth in the very first place. And the ossification in education system, the downplay in nature science in Chinese society, and the practical nature of Chinese way of understanding their world made China fail to foster modern science, which was also crucial to development. England's coal deposits were located almost exactly where manufacturers would have placed them if they had had a say in the matter; transportation costs therefore were low and were made still lower by the ready availability of efficient water transport. Compare this development-friendly geographic distribution in Europe with the geographic distribution in China. Although China was blessed with large coal reserves, they were located for the most part in the thinly populated northwest, hundreds of miles from the potential manufacturing centers in the south and east. The flow of cotton, sugar, timber, and tobacco to Europe from the New World gave economic development there a significant boost at a critical time; China enjoyed no advantage even remotely comparable

That England did not end up on a labor-intensive path "was the result of important and sharp discontinuities, based on both fossil fuels and access to New World resources" (Pomeranz, p 13). Why were fossil fuels and access to New World resources important for the development of Britain? What other factors enabled it to "take off" and experience the Industrial Revolution and not China? What factors limited China's development in the 18th century? Explain.

Toussaint L'Ouverture was born a slave in Saint Domingue. During the French Revolution, Jean Rousseau refused to abolish slavery and the sugar plantations infuriated land owners and slaves in the colonies. This led to massive slave revolts in Haiti and Toussaint led this revolution against the French in 1791 and won. In 1803, Toussaint L'Ouverture negotiated for Haiti's independence, but was kidnapped by the French and died in prison.The success of the Haitian Revolution shook the institution of slavery throughout the New World.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in Valladolid of Spain in 1494. This treaty divided the newly discovered lands outside of Europe between the Portuguese and Spanish along the 46'30' W of Greenwich. Land west of the line would belong to Spain while land to the East of the line would belong to Portugal. The treaty was drawn up to resolve the conflict of land ownership in the New World after Christopher Columbus' and other explorers' journey to the New World. The international community never agreed to this disposition that Spain and Portugal agreed to.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The Columbus first voyage to America first pave the way for Europeans in 1492. Spain exploit the new world and take from it as many riches as possible The Spanish had a number of technological advantages which allowed them to quickly overwhelm the Indians, even though the Indians were superior in number. The Spanish brought steel weapons and explosives as well as firearms. All Indians encountered in the islands were primarily primitive. On the mainland, however, they encountered more advanced civilizations, but which were also vulnerable to European diseases and technology. They brought epidemic diseases to America caused mass of local Indian died. The Spanish had no understanding or tolerance for Indian culture. Indian men had been hunters and warriors, who did not labor daily. The Spanish considered them lazy and indolent, and forced them to work in silver and gold mines and also to work the fields. This was women's work for the Indians, and as a result, thoroughly demoralized them. Additionally, the Spanish considered them expendable, and frequently worked them to death. This cruel treatment, together with the onset of European diseases, was disastrous. By 1500, Indians in the West Indies were practically extinct. In all of Spanish America, Indian population declined from 50 million to 4 million in less than one hundred years. Beginning in 1503, the Spanish replaced Indian labor with African slaves. Clearing out huge swaths of forest land, the Portuguese built giant sugar plantations. The demand for sugar in Europe was great, and the colony soon enriched Portugal. In time, the colonists pushed further west into Brazil. They settled even more land for the production of sugar. Along the way, the Portuguese—like the Spanish—conquered Native Americans and inflicted thousands of them with disease. Also like the Spanish, the Portuguese enslaved a great number of the land's original inhabitants.

What enabled Spain and Portugal to carve out a vast empire in the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries?

The trans-atlantic slave trade lasted from 16th to 19th centuries By 18th century, slaves became Africa's main export After discovering and colonizing the New World, the European powers needed a source of free/cheap labor to work on: coffee, cocoa and cotton plantations, in gold and silver mines, in rice fields, the construction industry, timber, and shipping The colonizers included the Portuguese, the British, the French, the Spanish, the Dutch, and North Americans. at first they used Native Americans but they died off quickly from disease and abuse Africans were more immune to the European diseases Africans were the only dense pool of labor available on the Atlantic rim other than Europe European governments and businesses had no legal authority to enslave other Europeans Although indentured servitude was employed to transport European laborers to the Americas, this could never meet the high demand for labor on plantations Europeans could not take African slaves by invading into the African continent because they fought back successfully however they could do this with the help of African elites/kings with power and wealth agreed to sell them captured Africans from other tribes This further increased economic disparity between the elites and the poor in Africa They realized they could buy slaves, gold, and other products in return for textiles and other manufactured items This became one of the legs of the triangular trade system: Raw materials cultivated by slave labor from the New World were sent to Europe for processing The manufactured goods made from the materials were sent to Africa to pay local elites The local elites captured people from nearby kingdoms and villages and handed them over to the Europeans who shipped them to the New World Slave raids in Africa essentially eliminated all able bodied individuals from an area either from capture or being killed, which left all the young and the elderly to starve and die This led to the stagnation of the African population until the 19th Century The importation of Africans into the Americas led to a huge population boom and the diversification of the population. Also created a deep social divide between rich white and poor black communities that would last long after the emancipation of slaves. Slave rebellions were common and one big example of this was in Haiti, where the slaves successfully rebelled against their French masters and created the Republic of Haiti in the early 19th century (only successful slave revolt that formed a new independent state) consequences on africa: lots of wars broke out between warlords, fought over control of slave capture and rading high death toll from wars led to development of predatory regimes disrupted/led to a lot of changes in the social structures european powers intervened to make sure no centralized african states could gain power and hamper their operations left the continent underdeveloped, disorganized and vulnerable Factors in developing the slave trade Era of exploration led to colonization of the Americas starting in the 16th century Europe did not have the land and natural resources to support its citizens not enough agriculture to support the growing population. Problem of Malthusian trap - unable to feed its population Going to the Americas was a solution to exploit the land and resources to take back to the Old World Making use of the land required lots of labor. Africa was a great source for slaves which provided the necessary cheap labor to bring back natural resources. Additionally, the natives that were being enslaved by the colonists and Europeans were rapidly dying from disease brought over by the Europeans. Indentured servitude did not meet the quanity of workers that were needed in America Having slaves - cheap labor - would equate to greater profits for the Europeans while supporting their citizens. Effects: Americas Spread of disease to the native population. Millions of natives and slaves died from disease by the inter mixing of the new and old world small pox, syphylus, malaria Spread of different animals and plants Horses, donkeys, cows - Euro to Americas Chile peppers to the Old World from Americas Deforestation, destruction of land for plantations to produce raw materials and drug foods coffee, tobacco Intermixing across ethnic lines. Class systems, racism, and discrimination. Pure Europeans were at the very top while slaves from Africa were at the bottom. Different racial combinations had more or less access to opportunity and freedom. Sub Saharan Africa Supported the economy by selling slaves- short term Tribes did receive influx of goods from the new world and riches, but in the long run, it did not benefit Africa kept good trading relations with the Europeans Long term effect- civil wars within the tribes and states Using guns to take members from other tribes for slaves Decrease in population loss of resources

What factors led to the development of the Atlantic slave trade and what effects did it have on sub-Saharan Africa and the Americas?

Zheng He's expeditions were meant to exude the Ming Dynasty's dominance and imperialism over the trade in the Indian Ocean in the early 1400s. His fleets consisted of over 20,000 crewmen in one voyage. He's voyages gave and received gifts along the expeditions throughout the lands that border the Indian Ocean. In exchange for ivory and exotic animals, Zhnge He gave gold, silver, silk ,and porcelain. He had 7 voyages total and died on his last one.

Zheng He Expeditions