KIN 212 Exam 4

How much do anxiety disorders and depression cost a year

$45 billion

Six Major Categories of Performance-Enhancing Drugs

1. Stimulants 2. Narcotic analgesics 3. Anabolic steroids 4. Beta-blockers 5. Diuretics 6. Peptide hormones and analogues

The DSDM consists of three components

1. The costs of a decision to use 2. The benefits associated with using 3. Specific situational factors that may affect the cost-benefit analysis of using Benefits Material (prize money, sponsorship, endorsements, contracts) Social (prestige, glory, acknowledgment by important others) Internalized (satisfaction of high achievement)

Prevalence of Compulsive Gambling

118 million Americans gambled in sports in some manner in 2008. 72% of NCAA Division I football and basketball athletes engage in some form of gambling. 12% of male and 3% of female college athletes have problematic or pathological gambling problems. 6% to 8% of college students are compulsive gamblers. A 2003 NCAA study showed that 35% of male athletes and 10% of female athletes bet on college sports, and approximately 60% of NCAA Division I and 40% of Division III athletes did not know the NCAA rules about gambling. Gambling by high school students is thought to be widespread.

Substance Use

98% of elite athletes said they would take a banned performance-enhancing substance with two guarantees—they would not be caught and they would win. 60% said they would do so even if it meant they would die from the side effects.

Positive addiction to exercise

A condition in which exercise is viewed as important in one's life but is successfully integrated with other aspects of life (healthy habit)

Negative addiction to exercise

A condition in which life becomes structured around exercise to such an extent that home and work responsibilities suffer

Playing Tough and Clean Hockey Intervention: Session Three

A four-step plan for controlling emotions. Respond positively to emotions, identify emotional hot buttons, develop a new response to emotional hot buttons, and develop a practice strategy to practice on-ice emotional control. The 3R (respond, relax, refocus) emotional management routine is taught to the players.

Reduction of Depression

A moderate relationship exists between exercise and depression. This is a correlation, not a cause-effect relationship. Exercise is as effective as psychotherapy in reducing depression. The positive effects are seen across age groups, health status, race, socioeconomic status, and sexes. Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise are associated with reductions in depression. Severe depression usually requires professional treatment, which may include medication, psychotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy, or a combination of these, with exercise as an adjunct. Exercise produces larger antidepressant effects when the training program is at least 9 weeks long. Reductions in depression after exercise do not depend on fitness levels. Exercising three to five times per week produces significant reductions in depression compared to once-a-week exercise.

Making Referrals

A person who has a rapport with the affected individual should schedule a private meeting to discuss the matter. Emphasize feelings rather than directly focusing on eating behaviors. Be supportive of athlete and treatment recommendations and keep all information confidential. Consistently show concern for athlete as a person. Avoid using the term eating disorder. Make and have ready potential referrals to a specific clinic or person.

Exercise addiction

A psychological or physiological dependence on a regular regimen of exercise that is characterized by withdrawal symptoms after 24 to 36 hours without exercise

Prevalence of Substance Use in Sports

Accurate assessment is difficult to achieve because of the sensitive and personal nature of the problem. Most studies have focused on alcohol and steroid use: Alcohol use: 55% to 92% of high school athletes; 87% to 88% of college athletes Performance-enhancing drugs: Reported use by only 5% of high school and college athletes (40% to 60% among elite athletes) A 2003 CDC study: 1 in 16 high school students used steroids

Reduction of Anxiety

Acute effects of exercise Aerobic exercise is associated with lower state anxiety and higher tranquility scores. Postexercise reductions in state anxiety return to preexercise anxiety levels within 24 hours. Acute effects of exercise Exercise intensities between 30% and 70% of maximal heart rate appear to be associated with the greatest reduction in postexercise state anxiety. Moderate-intensity exercise produced the greatest positive effects in affective responses. Even low-intensity exercise improved affect. Acute effects of exercise For anaerobic exercise (e.g., weightlifting), mood-enhancing effects are evident at 30% to 50% maximum heart rate. Although acute exercise is no more effective in reducing state anxiety than quiet rest or relaxation, the effects last longer. Acute effects of exercise Exercise training is particularly effective for people who have elevated levels of anxiety but will reduce anxiety even for people with low levels of anxiety. All durations of exercise significantly reduce anxiety, although larger effects have been found for periods of up to 30 minutes (especially under moderate-intensity levels). Acute effects of exercise State anxiety returns to preexercise anxiety levels within 24 hours (and maybe as quickly as 4 hours). Exercise is associated with reductions in muscle tension. Reductions in anxiety are not necessarily tied to the physiological gains resulting from exercise bouts. The anxiety reduction after exercise occurs regardless of intensity, duration, or type. Acute effects of exercise Aerobic exercise can produce anxiety reductions similar in magnitude to those with other commonly employed anxiety treatments. Anxiety reduction after exercise occurs in all types of participants (e.g., male or female, fit or unfit, active or inactive, anxious or nonanxious, healthy or nonhealthy, younger or older, patients with or without anxiety disorders).

Criteria for Aggression

Aggression is a behavior. Aggression involves harm or injury (physical or psychological). Aggression is directed toward a living organism. Aggression involves intent.

Causes of Aggression: Social learning theory

Aggression is learned through observing others (modeling) and then having similar behavior reinforced. There is support for this theory.

Causes of Aggression: Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Aggression is the direct result of a frustration that occurs because of goal blockage or failure. There is no support for this hypothesis.

Causes of Aggression: General aggression model

Aggression occurs as a result of a complex process mediated by one's thoughts, feelings, and emotions and resulting from the interaction of numerous personal and situational factors. There is support for this model.

Cultural differences

Aggressions in Chinese athletes and Western populations were very similar. Chinese athletes ruminated more about the aggression, suggesting that members of a collectivist culture are less likely to accept aggression as a means of goal achievement.

Anaerobic Versus Aerobic Exercise

Anaerobic: Short-term, or short-burst, activities not involving the transportation of oxygen (e.g., weightlifting, baseball) Aerobic: Longer-term activities that increase pulmonary and cardiorespiratory system activity (e.g., cycling, running)

Understanding Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia is potentially deadly, with a mortality rate of 5%, the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric condition. It can lead to starvation and other medical complications such as heart disease. The suicide risk of those affected is 50% higher than that of the general population. Affected people don't see themselves as abnormal.

Defining and Understanding Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia nervosa is a psychological disease characterized by the following: An intense fear of becoming obese A disturbed body image A significant weight loss The refusal to maintain normal body weight Amenorrhea

What Is Aggression?

Any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment (Baron & Richardson, 1994)

Playing Tough and Clean Hockey Intervention: Session Four Five and Six

Arousal and stress management techniques like goal setting and imagery are taught, practiced, and self-monitored by players.

Moral disengagement and aggression

Athletes justify their aggression by displacing responsibility to others (e.g., officials) or cognitively restructuring the violent action so that it is not viewed as immoral. Helps to explain why people commit aggressive acts even when they know they are wrong.

Recognition and Referral of an Athlete With Eating Problems

Be able to recognize the physical and psychological signs and symptoms of these conditions. If you suspect an eating disorder, make a referral to a specialist in the area.

Reducing the Probability of Substance Use (Prevention)

Be aware of the warning signs of substance abuse: Change in behavior (lack of motivation, tardiness, absenteeism) Change in peer group Major change in personality Major change in performance (academic or athletic) Be aware of the warning signs of substance abuse: Apathetic or listless behavior Impaired judgment Poor coordination Poor hygiene and grooming Profuse sweating Muscular twitches or tremors Provide a supportive environment (address the reasons that people take drugs). Educate participants about the effects of drug use. Inform participants that performance-enhancing drugs amount to cheating and unfair competition to enhance athletes' morality. Set good examples. Teach coping skills.

Characteristics of Compulsive Gamblers

Boastfulness Arrogance Optimism External competitiveness Intelligence

Defining and Understanding Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia is an episodic eating pattern of uncontrollable food bingeing followed by purging and is characterized by the following: An awareness that the pattern is abnormal Fear of being unable to stop eating voluntarily Depressed mood Self-deprecation

Physical Signs of Eating Disorders

Carotinemia Sores or calluses on knuckles Hypoglycemia Muscle cramps Stomach complaints Numbness and tingling in limbs Weight too low Considerable weight loss Bloating Swollen salivary glands Amenorrhea Stress fractures

Implications for Practice: Alcohol-related aggression and sport

College athletes report higher rates of alcohol-related aggression and antisocial behavior than their nonathlete counterparts, especially for male athletes. College athletes have been found to more heavily engage in binge drinking and extreme alcohol consumption.

Causes of Aggression: Revised frustration-aggression theory

Combines elements of frustration-aggression theory with social learning theory. Frustration does not always lead to aggression. It increases the likelihood of aggression by increasing arousal, anger, and other thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Increased arousal and anger result in aggression only when socially learned cues signal the appropriateness of aggression in the situation. There is support for this theory.

Compulsive Gambling

Compulsive gambling, despite its long history in competitive sport, is only now getting public attention. Gambling on sporting events is widespread.

Understanding Bulimia Nervosa

Condition is severe but less severe than anorexia. Bulimia can lead to anorexia. Bulimic people are aware that they have a problem.

Implications for Practice

Control aggression via stress or emotion management training. Keep winning in perspective. Distinguish between aggression and assertive or intense play. Teach nonviolent conflict resolution skills. Teach appropriate behavior. Establish team norms.

Exercise as an Adjunct to Therapy

Despite the psychological benefits of exercise, it should not be used in all cases of depression, stress, or other emotional disorders.

Implications for Practice: Control spectator aggression

Develop strict policies on alcohol control. Immediately penalize spectators for aggressive acts. Hire officials who don't tolerate aggression. Inform coaches that aggression won't be tolerated. Work with media not to glorify aggressive acts.

Exercise and Changes in Personality and Cognitive Functioning

Development of the self Exercise is related to participants' self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy (Fox, 1997). Regular exercise is related to increased self-esteem. Esteem-enhancement effects of exercise are especially pronounced in people with low self-esteem. Positive changes in self-concept and self-esteem were associated with participation in physical education and directed play (Gruber, 1986). Exercise programs designed to enhance self-esteem should emphasize experiences of success, feeling of increased physical competence, and attainment of goals.

How Exercise Enhances Psychological Well-Being: Psychological explanations

Enhanced feeling of control Feeling of competency and self-efficacy Positive social interactions Improved self-concept and self-esteem Opportunities for fun and enjoyment

Aggression and athletic injuries

Evidence is amassing to show that aggressive play is related to athletic injuries.

Psychological-Behavioral Signs of Eating Disorders

Excessive dieting Excessive eating without weight gain Excessive exercise that is not part of normal training program Guilt about eating Claims of feeling fat at normal weight despite reassurance from others Preoccupation with food Avoidance of eating in public and denial of hunger Hoarding food Disappearing after meals Frequent weighing Binge eating Evidence of self-induced vomiting Use of drugs such as diet pills, laxatives, and diuretics to control weight Changes in mood, and personality or atypical behaviors A strong need for control An extreme emphasis on body image

Exercise and Chronic Diseases

Exercise has been linked to positive effects on people with these conditions: Human immunodeficiency virus Multiple sclerosis Cancer Parkinson's disease Diabetes Coronary heart disease

Psychological Benefits of Exercise

Exercise increases self-esteem, feeling of enjoyment, self-confidence, and mood states. Exercise decreases physical and psychological stress as well as anxiety and depression.

Secondary exercise dependence

Exercise is a symptom of another primary pathological condition, such as an eating disorder.

Primary exercise dependence

Exercise is an end in itself, although it may include altered eating behaviors for the purpose of enhancing performance.

Exercise and Changes in Cognitive Functioning

Exercise programs conducted over long periods are associated with moderate gains in cognitive functioning. Acute aerobic exercise increased executive cognitive functioning in planning and problem solving. Aerobic physical activity has a positive effect on cognition and brain functions; executive central command is most affected by aerobic exercise. Acute exercise increased cognitive functioning in the form of working memory only for people low in working memory. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity enhances executive functioning in children with ADHD. Integrating physical activity into the classroom produced increases in children's intrinsic motivation, perceived competence, and effort.

Guidelines for Using Exercise as Therapy

Explore the clients' exercise history (good and bad experiences). Provide a precise diagnosis of the psychological problem. Use an individualized exercise prescription for duration, intensity, and frequency of exercise. Evaluate the influence of family and friends (to facilitate support). Develop a plan for any lack of adherence and irregular patterns of exercise. Make exercise practical and functional (e.g., bicycling to work, doing hard physical work). Encourage exercise as an adjunct to other forms of therapy. A multimodal therapeutic approach is more effective than the use of a single intervention. Include a variety of activities, which enhance adherence to the exercise regimen. Exercise therapy should be done only by qualified professionals. No exact criteria for training have been established. It is suggested that formal training and practical experience in both the psychological and sport sciences are necessary because of the multidisciplinary approach to treatment.

Factors Contributing to the Onset of Eating Disorder Symptoms

External Factors Negative influences on self-esteem Hurtful relationships Hurtful role models Sport performance Internal factors Negative mood Low self-esteem Perfectionism in achievement Desire for control

Typical Parental Reactions to Teenage Gambling

Feel fear; imagine organized crime is involved Think they can handle it (most common reaction) Think, Thank God it's not drugs.

Cardiovascular Fitness and Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults

Fitness training has beneficial effects on the cognitive functioning of older adults. These effects were largest for those tasks involving executive control (e.g., planning scheduling, working memory, task coordination). Fitness training combined with strength and flexibility programs have a greater positive effect on cognition than fitness training having only an aerobic component. Effects appear to occur more in females than in males. Effects on cognition were largest when exercise training exceeded 30 minutes per session. From a physiological perspective, cardiovascular exercise appears to protect the brain against the normal effects of aging and helps repair or restore the aged brain.

Research on the Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Sport

Frequency rates of eating disorders in athletes range from as low as 1% to as high as 62% across a variety of sports. Athletes appear to have a greater occurrence of eating-related problems (disordered eating) than does the general population. Athletes and nonathletes have similar eating-related symptoms. A significant percentage of athletes engage in pathogenic eating or weight loss behaviors (e.g., bingeing, fasting), although subclinical in intensity. Eating disorders and pathogenic weight loss techniques tend to have a sport-specific prevalence. Female athletes, in general, report higher rates of eating disorders than male athletes, which is similar to rates for the general population. Compared with nonathletes, it is primarily athletes in "thin build" sports that emphasize leanness (e.g., gymnastics and diving) who are at greater risk of developing eating disorders. Up to 66% of female athletes may be amenorrheic as compared to 2% to 5% of nonathletes. Although anorexia and bulimia are of special concern in sports emphasizing form (e.g., gymnastics, diving, and figure skating) or weight (e.g., wrestling), athletes with eating disorders have been found in a variety of sports.

Exercise and Hardiness

Hardiness is a personality disposition that involves a sense of personal control, commitment and purpose, and the flexibility to adapt to unexpected changes. A hardy personality and exercise in combination are more effective in preserving health than either alone.

Signs of Compulsive Gambling

Identification is next to impossible. Use the Gamblers Anonymous 20 questions for self-identification. Sport psychology professionals should make referrals when negative consequences appear. In college students Missing classes because of gambling Having trouble focusing in class because they are thinking about gambling Buying book or otherwise educating themselves on becoming a more skillful better Facing more debts than they can handle financially

How Exercise Enhances Psychological Well-Being: Physiological explanation

Increases in cerebral blood flow Changes in brain neurotransmitters (e.g., norepinephrine, endorphins, serotonin) Increase in maximum oxygen consumption and delivery of oxygen to cerebral tissue Reductions in muscle tension Structural changes in the brain

Causes (Theories) of Aggression

Instinct theory Frustration-aggression hypothesis Social learning theory Revised frustration-aggression theory General aggression model

Types of Aggression

Instrumental aggression: Occurring in the quest of some nonaggressive goal. Hostile or reactive aggression: The primary goal is to inflict injury or psychological harm on another.

Characteristics of Anorexia Nervosa

Intense fear of gaining weight or being fat, despite being underweight Weight loss to 15% below normal Disturbance in one's experience of body weight, size, and shape Females: Absence of at least three consecutive expected menstrual cycles (American Psychiatric Association, 2013)

Distinction Between Instrumental and Reactive Aggression

It is too simplistic to think of instrumental and reactive aggression as a simple dichotomy (they are opposite ends of a continuum). The clear majority of instrumental aggressive acts occur in conjunction with some type of reactive process. At times aggression might involve elements of both hostile and instrumental aggression.

The DSDM consists of three components: Costs

Legal sanctions (fines, suspensions, jail time) Social sanctions (disapproval, criticism by important others, material loss) Self-imposed sanctions (guilt, reduced self-esteem) Health concerns (negative side effects)

Sex differences

Males exhibit high frequencies of aggression when compared to females.

Game reasoning and aggression

Many athletes view aggression as inappropriate in general but appropriate in the sport environment. This is called bracketed morality.

The DSDM consists of three components: Benefits

Material (prize money, sponsorship, endorsements, contracts) Social (prestige, glory, acknowledgment by important others) Internalized (satisfaction of high achievement)

Exercise and the Reduction of Anxiety and Depression

Mental health problems account for 30% of the total days of hospitalization in the United States and 10% of the total medical cost. Although a cause-effect relationship has not been established, regular exercise is associated with reductions in anxiety and depression. High-intensity aerobic activity is not absolutely necessary in producing positive effects. Other activities (e.g., strength training, yoga) also have produced positive effects.

Exercise and Mood Changes

Mood refers to a host of transient, fluctuating affective states that can be positive or negative (e.g., feelings of elation or happiness, sadness). Exercise is related to positive changes in mood state. Exercise improves positive mood regardless of the number of negative and positive affective states in a given day. Exercisers with choice of exercise mode scored lower on negative affect than exercisers having no choice. Perception of fitness may be responsible for part of the mood-enhancing effects of exercise (as opposed to the actual level of fitness itself).

Common Side Effects of Recreational Drugs

Mood swings Distorted vision Decreased reaction time Changes in blood pressure

Aggression in Contemporary Sport

NBA Pistons-Pacers brawl. NHL player Bertuzzi's blindsided punch broke vertebra of competitor Steve Moore. Local youth ice hockey coach conducted a drill where players practice fighting. Ice hockey referees have reported being recipients of verbal and physical abuse.

Athletic performance and aggression

No clear pattern has been found, but professionals must decide if they value enhanced performance at the cost of increased aggression.

Preventing and Detecting Substance Use

Only specially trained professionals work in drug treatment programs. However, fitness professionals play a major role in prevention and detection.

Causes of Aggression: Instinct Theory

People have an instinct to be aggressive, which builds up until it must be expressed (directly or via catharsis). There is no support for this theory.

The DSDM consists of three components: Situational variables

Perceptions of prevalence (how frequently others use this drug) Experience with punishment and punishment avoidance Professional status (how much money and status might be lost) Perception of authority legitimacy (can the agency enforce the law?) Type of drug (its effects and side effects)

Chronic effects of exercise

Physical fitness is positively associated with mental health and well-being. Exercise is associated with the reduction of stress emotions such as state anxiety. Anxiety and depression are common symptoms of failure to cope with mental stress, and exercise has been associated with a decreased level of mild to moderate depression and anxiety. Long-term exercise is usually associated with reductions in traits such as neuroticism and anxiety. Appropriate exercise results in reductions in various stress indicators, such as neuromuscular tension, resting heart rate, and some stress hormones. Current clinical opinion holds that exercise has beneficial emotional effects across ages and sexes. Physically healthy people who require psychotropic (mood-altering) medication may safely exercise under close medical supervision.

Why Athletes and Exercisers Take Drugs

Physical reasons include wanting to enhance performance, rehabilitate injury, look better, and control appetite and lose weight. Psychological reasons escape from unpleasant emotions or stress, build confidence or enhance self-esteem, and seek thrills. Social reasons Peer pressure Emulating athletic heroes

Playing Tough and Clean Hockey Intervention: Session Seven Eight and Nine

Players practice skills and use them in games. Self-regulation is emphasized, goals are set, and emotions are self-monitored. Game video is reviewed and discussed.

Exercise and Quality of Life

Quality of life is a person's behavioral functioning ability—being able to do everyday stuff and living long enough to do it. Physically active people report a better quality of life. The positive effects of physical activity on quality of life can be grouped into four categories. 1. Enhanced physical functioning 2. Subjective well-being as indicated by personal enjoyment and mood alteration 3. Experiencing peak moments 4. Personal meaning College students participating in an endurance-conditioning program report a significantly higher quality of life than do nonexercisers. Older adults who are physically active report greater life satisfaction.

Characteristics of Bulimia Nervosa

Recurrent binge eating A sense of lacking control over eating behavior during the binges Engaging in regular self-induced vomiting, use of laxatives or diuretics, strict dieting or fasting, or vigorous exercise in order to prevent weight gain Average minimum of two binge-eating episodes a week for three months Persistent overconcern with body shape and weight (American Psychiatric Association, 2013)

Disordered Eating

Refers to an entire spectrum of exaggerated eating patterns involving increased health risks. The extremes of disorder eating are anorexia and bulimia. Difficulty in distinguishing athletes with an eating disorder from those that have many of the psychological symptoms of an eating disorder but no official diagnosis of an eating disorder. Lifetime prevalence of bulimia is 1.5% in women and .5% in men. Lifetime prevalence of binge eating disorder is 3.5% in women and 2.0% in men. Binge eating is more common than anorexia or bulimia and is commonly associated with severe obesity. Eating disorders have more than doubled since the 1960s. 40% to 60% of high school girls diet. 13% of high school girls purge. 30% to 40% of junior high girls worry about weight. 40% of 9-year-old girls have dieted. 5-year-old girls are concerned about diet.

Preventing Negative Addiction to Exercise

Schedule rest days. Work out regularly with a slower partner. If you're injured, stop exercising until healed. Train hard-easy: Mix in low intensity and less distance with days of harder training. If interested in health aspect, exercise three or four times a week for 30 minutes. Set realistic short- and long-term goals.

Six Dimensions of Well-Being

Self-acceptance (positive views of oneself) Positive relation to others (trusting, caring, and empathetic relationships) Autonomy (self-determined with intrinsic motivation and self-referenced standards) Environmental mastery (effective mastery of the environment to fulfill personal values) Personal growth (sense of development and self-fulfillment over time) Purpose on life (directed toward purposeful goals for living)

Aggression in Sport: Special Considerations

Spectator aggression is associated with: small-scale, on-the-field aggressive acts; younger, disadvantaged male spectators; and (in some cases) fan enjoyment and an affirmation of their social identity; aroused conditions; alcohol use.

Arguments for Legalizing Steroids in Professional Sports

Spectators like the higher level of athletic performance. Increase interest in sports (e.g., games sell out, athletic apparel sales increase). It is easier for sport organizations to manage anti-doping policies. Athletes already undertake serious health risks by participating in sports. It no longer matters whether an athlete is using PEDs if he or she does really well or looks really strong.

Defining Substance Use

Substance use disorder consists of a maladaptive pattern of psychoactive substance use indicated by one of two patterns of use: 1. Continued use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurring social, occupational, psychological, or physical problem caused or exacerbated by use of the psychoactive substance. 2. Recurrent use in situations in which use is physically hazardous. Some symptoms of disturbance have persisted for at least 1 month or have occurred repeatedly over a longer period. Drug dependency is a state in which either discontinuing or continual use of a drug creates an overwhelming desire, need, and craving for more of the substance.

Team moral atmosphere and aggression

Team norms also contribute to the moral atmosphere that influences aggression in athletes as well as coach and peer influences.

Drugs in Sport Decision Model (DSDM)

The DSDM states that individuals conduct a cost-benefit analysis of the consequences of law-breaking behavior before deciding to break a law.

Exercise and Changes in Sleep

The effects of exercise on enhancing sleep are not as compelling or as large as commonly believed. The effects are small, but they are noteworthy. Exercise produces small increases in total sleep time.

Why Exercise for Psychological Well-Being?

The hectic pace of westernized technological society causes stress and increased demands; more people than ever are feeling their ill effects. Across their lifetimes, 25% of people will have anxiety disorders and 20% depression. By the year 2020, depression will be second only to cardiovascular disease as the leading cause of death and disability. Exercise positively influences feelings of well-being and decreases anxiety and depression. Epidemiological data show that physical activity is positively associated with good mental health in the U.S. and Canadian populations.

Playing Tough and Clean Hockey Intervention: Session One

The notion of aggression as macho or cool is de-emphasized and empathy and compassion for opponents emphasized. Distinction made between aggressive (dirty) and assertive (clean) play.

Playing Tough and Clean Hockey Intervention: Session Two

The role of emotions in hockey and how one's emotions are related to aggression are discussed. The importance of controlling emotions via deep breathing is emphasized.

Special Cases of Exercise and Psychological Well-Being : Runner's High

The runner's high is a euphoric sensation, usually unexpected, of heightened well-being, an enhanced appreciation of nature, and transcendence of time and space. Preliminary results out of Germany provide initial evidence that there is a chemical change (endorphins) in the brain related to the runner's high. Characteristics conducive to the runner's high are few distractions; cool, calm weather and low humidity; and a duration of at least 30 minutes. Runners differ regarding whether and how often they experience the runner's high and may require slightly different sets of conditions to get it.

Symptoms of Negative Addiction to Exercise

Tolerance or need for increased amounts of exercise Withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety and fatigue Intention effect: Exercise often is in larger amounts than was intended Loss of control Time: More and more time devoted to exercise Conflict as exercise takes precedence over other activities Continuance: Exercise continued despite knowledge of problems

Girls' Steroid Use

Traditionally, the use of performance-enhancing drugs such as steroids has been seen as predominantly a male domain. However, research has revealed that young girls (some as young as 9 years old) are using bodybuilding steroids—not necessarily to get an edge on the playing field but to get the toned, sculpted look of models and movie stars. About 5% of high school girls and 7% of middle school girls admit to trying anabolic steroids at least once; use of the drugs has risen steadily since 1991. In teenage girls, the side effects from taking male sex hormones can include severe acne, smaller breasts, deeper voice, excessive facial and body hair, irregular periods, depression, paranoia, and fits of anger dubbed "roid rage." Steroids also carry higher risks of heart attack, stroke, and some forms of cancer.

How to Enhance Mood Via Exercise

Use rhythmic abdominal breathing. Avoid interpersonal competition. Make it a closed predictable activity. Use rhythmic and repetitive exercise movements. Exercise 20 to 30 minutes in duration, moderate intensity, 2 or 3 times per week. Make it enjoyable.

Predisposing Factors

Weight restrictions and standards Coach and peer pressure Sociocultural factors Performance demands Judging criteria Critical comments about body shape and weight Genetic and biological factors

Implications for Practice: Recognize when aggression is most likely to occur

When people are frustrated and aroused (often when losing or when they perceive unfair officiating, are embarrassed, are physically in pain, or are playing below capabilities). Losing by a large margin, losing to an opponent one is outplaying, and playing poorly are especially important situations related to aggression.

Mirrors or No Mirrors in Exercise Settings

Women who are generally sedentary and have poor perceptions of self tend to focus more often on their own physique, which appears to result in increases in negative affect since this heightens the perceived discrepancy between the actual and the ideal physique. There was not a negative effect on social physique anxiety with women who were generally more active and confident in their ability to exercise.

chronic

long term effects

acute

short term effects

Sport-specific aggression determinants include athletes behaving aggressively because

someone has committed aggression against them, they are highly ego-oriented and have a low level of moral development, they want to show how tough they are, they see it as part of their role, and they feel group pressures to be aggressive.