Kines 199 test 2 Study guide

•Motor development Affects the other kinesiology subdisciplines: Examples?

-Affects biomechanics -Affects motor learning and control -Affects psychology

Summary and Synthesis

1.Different theoretical perspectives of motor development have emerged over time. 2.Although each perspective is unique, there are often benefits to viewing motor development from different perspectives. 3.The maturational perspective has had a lasting impact on how changes in motor development occurs; however, the ecological perspective is now more widely used by researchers.

Which of the following is the range of normal body mass index? 12.3 to 18.4 18.5 to 24.9 25 to 31.2 31.3 to 37.5 37.6 to 43.8

18.5 to 24.9

Title IX, which required equal opportunity for girls and women in sport, was passed in 1958 1964 1972 1979 1983

1972

swimming reflex

2 weeks to 4 months - horizontal in water with head above water - swimming movements. Also breath holding reflex occurs. After 1 mo infant can be scared by having head submerged.

Research has shown that boys and girls as young as _________ years old can increase their strength with a variety of resistance training methods. 3 6 10 12 14

6

Women can typically produce ________ of the force that men can exert, although most of these differences can be attributed to differences in arm and shoulder strength rather than in trunk or leg strength. 10% to 30% 20% to 40% 50% to 70% 60% to 80% 70% to 90%

60% to 80%

the best predictor of adult sport involvement is participation during childhood and adolescence. In fact, about ______ of eventual sport participants become involved in sports by age 8. 10% >90% 50% 65% 75%

75%

Intermodal Perception

7•Events are perceived through various modalities. •Two perspectives exist: 1.Infants must learn how unique sensations from different modalities are related to one another. Infants must learn about the world from unified information coming through different modalities

What topics related to movement do we study in Kinesiology?

:Foundational: •Anatomy •Physiology •Biomechanics •Motor control •Motor learning •Psychology of movement/activity •Development •Exercise Physiology Applied: •Fitness •Exercise Prescription •Differently abled populations •Psychological skills for performance •Strength training Exercise testing

Adult Participation

Adult participation levels may be limited by these factors: Stereotypes of appropriate activity levels Limited access to facilities and programs Childhood experiences Concerns over personal limitations on exercise Belief that exercise is harmful to health Lack of role models Lack of knowledge about appropriate exercise programs

Adults' Attributions

Adults evaluate themselves in these ways: •Observing past and present accomplishments and failures •Comparing themselves with others •Receiving verbal persuasion from others •Observing their physiological state or fitness level

_____________ is the total energy available to meet the demands of prolonged activity. Anaerobic power Anaerobic capacity Aerobic power Aerobic capacity Maximal oxygen uptake

Aerobic capacity

Assessing Aerobic Performance

Aerobic performance (longer exercise bouts) •Performance may be graded (get more intense in stages). •Effort can be maximal or submaximal. •Maximal oxygen uptake is often measured to see how efficiently participant uses oxygen. •Can measure highest exercise load tolerated before exhaustion, but this carries risk. •A 1600 m run can be used as field test for youth.

Assessing Anaerobic Performance

Anaerobic performance (tasks 10-30 s long) Typically, total work output is measured. Possible field tests include 50 yd or 50 m dash or sprinting flight of stairs.

Developmental Changesin Punting: Legs

Ball-contact phase 1.No step or short step, ankle flexed 2.Long step, ankle extended Leap and hop

Developmental Changesin Punting: Arms

Ball-release phase 1.Upward toss 2.Late drop from chest height 3.Late drop from waist height 4.Early drop from chest height ● Ball-contact phase 1.Arm drop 2.Arm abduction Arm opposition

Cardiovascular Structure and Function

Changes in structure and function in adulthood: •Loss of cardiac muscle •Loss of elasticity in cardiac muscle •Thickening of left ventricle •Fibrotic changes in valves •Loss of elasticity in major blood vessels •Maximum achievable heart rate with exercise declines. •Stroke volume in some older adults declines. •Cardiac output declines.

Respiratory Structure and Function

Changes with aging: •Elasticity of lung tissue declines. • •Vital capacity decreases, especially in smokers. • •Oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange loses efficiency.

Sequence of Rudimentary Locomotoion

Crawling -Body drag - Creeping -Abdomen clear Walking -With support, alone (well), backward, stairs, and perfected •7 months: Gets on hands and knees. • •8 months: Creeps on hands and knees. 9 months: Pulls to stand; cruises furniture. •10 months: Stands alone. • •12 months: Walks alone.

Children's Reasons for Persistence

Desire to •be competent by improving skills or attaining goals •affiliate with or make new friends •be part of a team •undertake competition and be successful •have fun improve fitness

Rate Limiters in Jumping

Development of enough force to bring own body into the air from a still position

Adult Activity Levels

Duda & Tappe (1988, 1989a,b) proposed that adult exercise participation reflects three interrelated factors: 1.Personal incentives, such as a desire to demonstrate mastery, compete, be with others, receive recognition, maintain health, cope with stress, or improve physical fitness 2.A sense of self, particularly in regard to one's self-esteem for physical activity 3.Perceived options, or the opportunities a person has in a given situation, such as transportation to various sites where adult programs are offered

_______________ characteristics are culturally based and relate to cultural similarities that connect groups. Ethnic Racial Socioeconomic Gender Age

Ethnic

____________ occurs when a parent or significant other encourages activities that are deemed gender appropriate. Gender neutrality Gender roles Gender expectations Gender references Gender typing

Gender Typing

Muscular Dystrophy

Implications for Care: •Watch for respiratory infections and heart problems. Treatments include physical therapy, orthopedic devices, surgery, and medications to reduce muscle stiffness.

Increasing Balance

Increase stability. Improve strength, coordination, and proprioception.

Increasing Stability

Increase the base of support. Lower the center of gravity.

•Variability:

Individual differences exist.

•Universality:

Individuals in a species show great similarity in development.

Grasping Reflex

Instincts for Survival and Protection •Sucking •Rooting •Moro •Grasping Tonic neck

Visual Perception

Involves perception of -space -objects movement

Auditory Perception

Involves perception of •location •differences in similar sounds •patterns •auditory figure and ground

Kinesthetic Perception

Involves perception of these elements: •Single vs. multiple touch points •Objects •Body •Limb movements •Spatial orientation and direction

Overarm Striking: Older Adults

Jagacinski, Greenberg, & Liao (1997) -Studied iron shot (did not require maximal force). -Older golfers reach peak force earlier in swing. -Older golfers may need to exert more force than younger golfers for same shot. -Most older golfers were just as accurate as younger golfers. Haywood & Williams (1995) -Studied tennis players' first serves. -Studied older servers at moderate levels. -Two former teaching professionals were categorized at the highest levels (i.e., maintained coordination of movements).

Tactile Localization

Newborns can feel touches. •Perception of touch location improves in early childhood. • Thresholds for discriminating between one touch and two nearby

Developmental Changes in Catching

Note: Task and environmental constraints greatly affect the difficulty of catching. • Arm action 1. Little response 2. Hugging 3. Scooping 4. Arms "give" Hand action 1.Palms up 2.Palms in 3.Palms adjusted ● Body action 1.No adjustment 2.Awkward adjustment Proper adjustment

Newton's Second Law

Object's force is related to mass and acceleration (F = m ´ a). thus Object's acceleration is related to force applied and inversely related to mass (a = F / m).

Skeletal Growth

Ossification (bone development) mesoderm cell à cartilage à bone •800 ossification centers at birth •Epiphyseal plate, growth plate •Osteoblasts •Osteoclasts Modeling resorption

Contemporary Views

Perceptual-motor activities are important. They give children experience in performing skills based on perceptual information. They reinforce concepts such as shapes and directions. Motor and cognitive development are intertwined. •Parts of prefrontal cortex and contralateral neocerebellum are coactivated. •Prefrontal cortex might be involved in motor activity. •Caudate nucleus and neurotransmitter dopamine are involved in neural circuits. Ecological views include the following: Reality does not need to be constructed. Perception of environment is ahead of purposeful movement. Perception-action loops guide movement (there is little research evidence of these loops).

Historical Views of perception

Perceptual-motor theories of the 1960s Identified perception as the precursor of movement and cognition. Speculated that learning disabilities could be remediated through perceptual-motor programs. Early evaluations were flawed. Little evidence exists that perceptual-motor programs improved classroom skills. Piaget Reality is constructed by relating action to sensory information. Children move through stages. Perception and action are not well organized in infancy.

Social Situations

Play environments and games can act as constraints. •Lack of adequate space can diminish opportunities for gross motor activity. •Gender-typed play environments, games, and toys can deprive girls of opportunities to perform complex, difficult skills. • Play with toys can act as constraints. •May encourage children to be active or inactive •Gender typing via toys -Toys marketed to boys tend to be more complex and encourage more vigorous activity than those marketed to girls. -Toys can encourage traditional gender roles. -Marketing, advertising, and packaging of toys can lead to gender typing. Gender typing via toys (continued) •Parents enjoy giving their children the same kinds of toys they played with as children. •Parents can promote gender typing by negatively reinforcing play with toys they judge to be gender inappropriate.

Crawling Reflex

Pressure against feet when prone - crawling movements - disappears by 4 months and voluntary crawling appears about 6 month

Locomotor Reflexes

Resemble later voluntary locomotor movements •Crawling •Stepping (walking) •Swimming

Gender Typing

Socializing agents, including significant others, often encourage children to participate in "gender-appropriate" activities. •Boys: "masculine" sports •(list some) •Girls: "feminine" sports •(list some) •Societal attitudes about gender-appropriate activities can restrict physical activity options for boys and girls. • In the United States, these attitudes are slowly changing; however, they still exist

Developmental Changes in Anaerobic Performance

Some of these factors change with growth. •Body size •Ability to metabolize fuel sources in the muscles •Quick mobilization of oxygen delivery systems

Auditory Development: Sensation

Three structures involved in hearing: 1.External ear 2.Middle ear 3.Cochlea of the inner ear

Newton's Third Law

To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. When you push on something, it pushes back on you!

Developmental Changesin Overarm Throwing

Trunk action 1.None, and no forward or backward movements 2.Block rotation 3.Differentiated rotation ● Backswing 1.None 2.Shoulder flexion 3.Upward backswing Downward, circular backswing Upper arm action 1.Oblique 2.Aligned but independent 3.Lagging ● Forearm action 1.No lag 2.Lag Delayed lag Foot action 1.No step 2.Homolateral step 3.Short contralateral step Long contralateral step

Exert Force in Primary Movement Plane

Use force in the plane of motion in which you want to move yourself or an object. Avoid rotational movements that reduce force in the desired plane.

Constraints

What constraints exist during the reflexive period? -Structural -Functional -Environmental physical -Environmental sociocultural Task: goals, rules, equipment

Rate Limiters

What important rate limiters during infancy may control the development of the following? -Crawling -Reaching -Walking

What is self efficacy

a persons belief in their capacity to successfully perform a particular task Along with goal setting, self efficacy is one of the most powerful motivational predictors of how well a person will perform at almost any endeavor Determines effort, persistence, and strategy in the accomplishment of tasks

Which of the following is part of a four-part philosophy designed to enhance the enjoyment and benefits of children's participation in sport? Winning isn't everything, nor is it the only thing. Failure is not the same thing as losing. Success is not synonymous with winning. a and b a, b, and c

a, b, c

A positive relationship between motor competence and physical activity level has been found in which age groups? early childhood middle and late childhood adolescence b and c a, b, and c

a,b,c

Which of the following changes occur in the typical adult who begins exercising? increase of fat-free mass increase in bone density decrease of fat mass no changes; body composition is maintained a, b, and c

a,b,c

Which of the following statements is true? a. Muscle mass increases steadily as children age. b. Other factors besides muscle mass contribute to strength levels. c. Neural influences such as myelination of nerve fibers and improved muscle coordination are related to strength gains. a and b a, b, and c

a,b,c

______________ is a multistage process that takes place in the brain and includes selecting, processing, organizing, and integrating information received from the senses. a. Perception b. Habituation c. Proprioception d. Sensation e. Spatial orientation

a. Perception

The following reflexes are observed prenatally: a. Sucking, Moro, Asymmetrical tonic neck b. Tonic neck, Moro, and rooting c. Babinski, Moro and sucking d. Sucking, rooting, Babinski

a. Sucking, Moro, Asymmetrical tonic neck

I am interested in whether playing football impacts social development in a specific way. I divide students in two groups. One plays football and the other plays cards. I measure social development with a survey afterwards. Identify the independent variable(s). a. Type of game played is the independent variable. b. Playing cards and playing football are the independent variables. c. The survey score is the independent variable. d. The answers to the survey are the independent variables.

a. Type of game played is the independent variable.

Very young children's throws tend to consist primarily of what type of action? a. arm action b. wrist action c. trunk action d. leg action

a. arm action

The maturational perspective explains developmental change as a function of maturational processes, in particular through the development of the a. central nervous system b. physical body c. muscular system d. peripheral nervous system

a. central nervous system

Reflexes are: a. expressed in the same way each time they are elicited b. spontaneous movements c. present in infants then disappear in older children and adults d. all present before birth

a. expressed in the same way each time they are elicited

Growth occurs in the following way(s): a. from the head down b. caudulocephalic c. cephalocaudal d. proximodistal e. from fingers and toes upward

a. from the head down c. cephalocaudal d. proximodistal

The quantitative increase in size or magnitude is a. growth b. development c. maturation d. aging

a. growth

A major difference between motor learning and motor development is that a. motor learning results from practice b. motor development depends on age c. motor learning is universal d. motor development is sequential

a. motor learning results from practice

The current view is that which of the following systems are interrelated? a. motor, perceptual, and cognitive b. perceptual and cognitive only c. motor and perceptual only d. motor and cognitive only

a. motor, perceptual, and cognitive

Which of the following kinesthetic receptors play the major role in position and movement sense? a. muscle spindles b. joint receptors c. vestibular semicircular canals d. b and c e. a, b, and c

a. muscle spindles

A skilled two-handed catcher would be expected to demonstrate which component of the developmental sequence related to hand action? a. palms adjusted b. palms in c. palms up d. palms down

a. palms adjusted

The capacity for cells and/or bodily systems to take on a new function as needed is termed: a. plasticity b. hypertrophy c. hyperplasia d. maturation

a. plasticity

In this class the most important learning activities include: a. preparing for and attending class, and participating in class activities, discussions, and projects. b. taking notes. c. memorizing facts. d. ability to take tests and quizzes.

a. preparing for and attending class, and participating in class activities, discussions, and projects.

Which of the following does not support your development of an hypothesis in an experimental research project? a. the results of your research project. b. the dependent variable. c. observations in the world. d. previous research.

a. the results of your research project.

The response associated with the Babinski reflex is a. toe extension b. toe flexion c. toe contraction around object d. leg extension and toe flexion

a. toe extension

Which of the following is characteristic of proficient punting? a. using the arms in opposition to the legs after the ball has dropped b. short step onto the supporting leg immediately before the punting leg swings forward c. keeping a slight bend in the knee at ball contact d. a and b e. a, b, and c

a. using the arms in opposition to the legs after the ball has dropped

Which of the following is true about exposure to excessive environmental noise? a. It can result in permanent hearing loss. b. Its effects only occur in older adulthood. c. Its effects can be reversed. d. Its effects are only detrimental in industrial work settings.

a. It can result in permanent hearing loss.

Aversive socialization includes which of the following? when teachers or coaches reward students for proper skill execution when teachers or coaches embarrass children in front of peers when teachers or coaches overemphasize performance criteria at the expense of learning b and c a, b, and c

b and c

How is anaerobic performance typically assessed? 1-mile run Quebec 10-second test Wingate 30-second test b and c a, b, and c

b and c

Peak oxygen consumption is related to which of the following? strength body size maturity status a and b b and c

b and c

What techniques are used to estimate body fat in a research or clinical context? scale weights skinfold thickness measures water displacement measurements b and c a, b, and c

b and c

Which of the following is (are) true about anaerobic training in youth? a. Boys reach a much higher peak and mean power measurement than girls. b. If anaerobic training is stopped, peak and mean power measurements decrease. c. The size of the difference between trained and untrained youth could be related to length of training. b and c a, b, and c

b and c

Which of the following is a potential cause for the loss of strength with aging? dramatic increase in type IIa muscle fibers loss of motor neurons in the spinal cord general inactivity b and c a, b, and c

b and c

Which of the following is an example of a social or cultural environmental constraint? age race religion b and c

b and c

Which of the following is true of muscle type I and type II development? a. At birth 100% of muscle fibers are specialized. b. Although at birth 20% of muscle fibers are not yet specialized, muscle fiber type is genetically determined and little influenced by nurture. c. Because at birth 20% of muscle fibers are not yet specialized, we can influence our children's ratio of Type I to Type II fibers with specific activities. d. Every person has a similar ratio of Type I to Type II fibers.

b. Although at birth 20% of muscle fibers are not yet specialized, muscle fiber type is genetically determined and little influenced by nurture.

Which of the following is true of bone development?' a. Thyroid hormones cause growth plates to close in late adolescence. b. Bone remodeling continues throughout the lifespan c. Bone density loss begins around age 50, after muscle loss starts, as a result of aging. d. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts cease their activity when growth plates close in late adolescence.

b. Bone remodeling continues throughout the lifespan

he paper on negative PE experiences showed: a. Being picked last, not getting playing time, and being cut from a team all impact adult physical activity levels. b. Both men and women who experienced being picked last in PE class exercised less than others. c. Only women's negative experiences impacted their adult physical activity levels. d. One in four PE teachers allow student team captains to pick teams even though this is inappropriate.

b. Both men and women who experienced being picked last in PE class exercised less than others.

Which of the following is characteristic of older adults compared to young adults when balancing? a. The strength of muscle response is more consistent. b. More time passes before the leg muscles respond to a perturbation to balance. c. The lower leg muscles respond first to a perturbation to balance.

b. More time passes before the leg muscles respond to a perturbation to balance.

Which of the following occurs in the typical older adult? a. The heart maintains its elasticity. b. The major blood vessels around the heart lose elasticity. c. Fibers of the valves of the heart undergo little change.

b. The major blood vessels around the heart lose elasticity.

__________________ perception is the type of intermodal perception that coordinates the properties of objects first seen and then felt. a. Kinesthetic-visual b. Visual-kinesthetic c. Spatial-temporal d. Visual-auditory

b. Visual-kinesthetic

You are working in a child development center. You notice that one of your children, an 18 month old girl, seems to be exhibiting the asymmetric tonic neck reflex. Is this a concern? a. Yes, this leads to synergistic responses. b. Yes. She should not have this reflex at 18 months. c. No, as long as she has her postural responses, she's ok.

b. Yes. She should not have this reflex at 18 months.

The developmental process for overarm throwing is a good example of how a. people don't need to achieve top levels in all body components in order to exhibit the advanced form of the skill b. body components (e.g. arms versus legs) do not reach the same developmental stage at the same time c. body components (e.g. arms versus legs) reach the same developmental stage at the same time

b. body components (e.g. arms versus legs) do not reach the same developmental stage at the same time

Anomalies present at birth are called a. genetic defects b. congenital defects c. extrinsic defects d. congenital defects only if they are genetic

b. congenital defects

What is the primary rate limiter for galloping? a. balance b. coordination c. strength d. body proportion or size

b. coordination

The process by which cells become more specialized is: a. plasticity b. differentiation c. hyperplasia d. hypertrophy

b. differentiation

Which of the following determine(s) how much catch-up growth takes place when a positive environment is restored after negative extrinsic factors have retarded growth? a. flexibility of the negative influence b. duration of the negative influence c. timing of the negative influence

b. duration of the negative influence c. timing of the negative influence

The ______________ system exerts its control over specific cellular functions through chemical substances called hormones. a. nervous b. endocrine c. skeletal d. cardiorespiratory

b. endocrine

The difference between task and environmental constraints is a. task constraints are always about rules b. environmental constraints could cover a number of different tasks c. task constraints cover a number of different environments d. task constraints are always about objects

b. environmental constraints could cover a number of different tasks

What type of perception allows us to find embedded objects in a background? a. depth b. figure and ground c. whole and part

b. figure and ground

The __________________ is the overall controller of the endocrine system. a. pituitary gland b. hypothalamus c. adrenal cortex d. gonadal system

b. hypothalamus

_________, which refers to an object's resistance to motion, is related to the mass of an object. a. weight b. inertia c. force d. momentum

b. inertia

An example of an individual structural constraint is a. basketball size b. leg length c. height of the monkey bars on a playground d. size of a soccer field

b. leg length

Which of the following neural development processes occurs mostly AFTER birth? a. migration b. myelination c. differentiation d. neurogenesis

b. myelination

A _________________________ system is one whose development lags behind other systems and can delay the emergence of a motor skill. a. dynamical b. rate limiting c. morphological d. determiner

b. rate limiting

A longitudinal research study involves observing the same individual or group a. for at least 1 year b. on numerous occasions over time c. for at least 1 month d. at only one point in time

b. on numerous occasions over time

The stimulus for the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex is a. tipping the body b. turning the head c. extended arm d. a loud noise or sudden movement

b. turning the head

The acuity of infants' vision is about ______ that of adults, and it reaches adult levels of acuity by ______ years of age. a. 10%; 5 b. 50%; 16 c. 5%; 10 d. 5%; 21

c. 5%; 10

You learn in class that most children develop a three point pencil grip at a certain age. You are talking with your sister, who claims that her son achieved that skill one year earlier, so your teacher must be wrong. To counter her argument you tell her about: a. Environmental versus task constraints b. Longitudinal versus cross sectional research c. Universality versus variability d. Process versus product

c. Universality versus variability

The information processing perspective holds that the human brain acts like a. a pendulum b. a video game c. a computer d. an ecosystem

c. a computer

What term refers to the actions or behaviors for or permitted to an actor by the places, objects, and events in and of an environment? a. vestibular perturbations b. body scaling c. affordances d. locomotor experience e. spatial organization

c. affordances

When do the secondary sex characteristics appear? a. at an older age in early maturers than late maturers b. at the same age no matter whether one is an early maturer or a late maturer c. at a younger age in early maturers than in late maturers

c. at a younger age in early maturers than in late maturers

The theoretical perspective that most clearly includes environmental influences is a. maturational b. information processing c. ecological

c. ecological

he developing child is termed a(n) __________________ from the second to eight week of prenatal development. a. fetus b. blastocyst c. embryo d. infant

c. embryo

An example of an individual functional constraint is a. number of players on a team b. leg length c. memory capacity d. weight of a bottle of water

c. memory capacity

Center of ___________ is a common measure of balance. a. velocity b. impact c. pressure d. intensity e. force

c. pressure

Findings from research suggest that the roles of race, ethnicity, social background, and other factors in family socialization are __________ and __________ to characterize on a group basis. complex; difficult simple; easy unclear; impossible complex; easy simple; complex

complex; difficult

__________________ is the perception of actual object size despite the size of its image as projected on the retina. a. Shape constancy b. Spatial orientation c. Habituation d. Size constancy

d. Size constancy

Kinesthetic spatial orientation involves which of the following? a. the body's location b. the body's orientation c. laterality d. a and b e. a, b, and c

d. a and b

What period(s) show the most rapid increase in adipose tissue? a. during the first 6 postnatal months in both boys and girls b. In preadolescence and adolescence in girls c. In preadolescence and adolescence in boys d. a and b e. a, b, and c

d. a and b

When placed in an infant walker, an infant will often be able to walk or move from place to place using a walking pattern. What rate limiter(s) does an infant walker overcome or adjust for? a. balance b. strength c. neuronal plasticity d. a and b e. a, b, and c

d. a and b

Which of the following concepts is associated with the perception-action perspective of catching? a. affordance b. optic array c. developmental profile d. a and b e. a, b, and c

d. a and b

Which of the following could be considered individual constraints, or rate limiters, on early motor development? a. posture b. strength c. gravity d. a and b e. a, b, and c

d. a and b

Which of the following describe changes in walking pattern for older adults? a. decreased step length b. increased toe-out by approximately 3 degrees c. narrower gait d. a and b e. a, b, and c

d. a and b

Children rely on which of the following to maintain static balance? a. feedforward (anticipatory) postural adjustments b. visual cues c. proprioceptive feedback d. b and c e. a, b, and c

d. b and c

Which of the following are sources of information about distance and depth perception? a. detection of edges b. retinal disparity c. motion parallax d. b and c e. a, b, and c

d. b and c

the order of early locomotor development is: a. creeping, crawling, cruising, walking forward, walking backward b. crawling, cruising, creeping, walking forward, walking backward c. cruising, creeping, crawling, walking forward, walking backward d. crawling, creeping, cruising, walking forward, walking backward

d. crawling, creeping, cruising, walking forward, walking backward

______________________occurs when individuals propel themselves on one foot and land on the other foot. a. hopping b. jumping c. galloping d. leaping

d. leaping

Which of the following crosses the placental barrier? a. blood b. drugs with molecular weights over 1000 c. large viruses d. oxygen

d. oxygen

An individual's _______________ is the ability to resist movement or disruption. a. force absorption b. relationship between rotating limbs and projected objects c. balance d. stability

d. stability

Coincidence-anticipation performance is well developed by what age period? a. early childhood b. middle childhood c. late childhood d. teen years e. adulthood

d. teen years

The term for substances foreign to the human body that have detrimental effects on human development is a. blastocyts b. hyperplasias c. congenital factors d. teratogens

d. teratogens

Which of the following hormones is most associated with skeletal development? a. growth hormones b. estrogens c. androgens d. thyroid hormones

d. thyroid hormones

When throwing for accuracy as opposed to speed, most people a. switch to underarm throwing b. use a more advanced developmental pattern of throwing c. don't change their throwing patterns d. use a less advanced developmental pattern of throwing

d. use a less advanced developmental pattern of throwing

Which of the following values of correlation indicates the best relationship between two variables? a. .67 b. .10 c. 5.3 d. -.96

d. -.96

For the purposes of this class the definition of aging is a. changes that occur in people after age 30 b. changes that occur in people after age 60 c. any processes that occur with the passage of time and result in changed behavior d. processes that occur with passage of time and leading to loss of function or reduction of adaptability

d. processes that occur with passage of time and leading to loss of function or reduction of adaptability

Peak oxygen uptake __________ throughout adulthood, a trend that is related to the __________ in maximum heart rate and in muscle mass. declines; decrease increases; decrease declines; increase increases; increase stays the same; lack of change

declines; decrease

Which of the following is characteristic of proficient sidearm striking? a. a step into the hit toward the oncoming ball b. differentiated trunk rotation c. arm extension before contact d. a and b e. a, b, and c

e. a, b, and c

The epiphyseal, or growth, plates close at relatively younger ages in which of the following groups? a. boys b. girls c. early maturers d. a and c e. b and c

e. b and c

Locomotor experience facilitates which of the following? a. manipulative skills b. perception of surface texture and slope c. depth perception d. a and b e. b and c

e. b and c

A cultural phenomenon in the United States that may act as a constraint for girls' motor behavior is enforcement of Title IX by schools playing with peer groups on the playground a and b

enforcement of Title IX by schools

•Nurture -

environmental

•Nature -

genetic, predisposed, innate, happens despite environment

Which type of strength test involves exerting force against an immovable resistance? isometric isotonic isokinetic eccentric concentric

isometric

adult activity levels

personal incentives, sense of self, perceived options all relate to adult exercise participation

Aging

process occurring with passage of time, leading to loss of adaptability or full function and eventually to death

Physical maturation:

qualitative advance in biological makeup; cell, organ, or system advancement in biochemical composition

Physical growth:

quantitative increase in size or body mass

A common test of flexibility is the sit-and-reach test 90/90 hamstring test V-sit test inverted plank test seated wall test

sit-and-reach test

The ____________ process is that by which one learns a social role within groups with certain values, morals, and rules. environmental cultural stereotypical socialization religious

socialization

socialization process

socializing agents: family, peers, coaches, teachers Social situations: Games, play environment, toys Personal attributes: strength, skill, motivation, perceived ability THESE ALL RELATE TO SOCIAL ROLE

- what two principles trade off

stability and mobility Balance = the best combination of stability and mobility for a given task and situation.

•Motor control:

the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of movement

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

§Mental retardation §Hyperactivity §Delayed development of gross motor skills such as rolling over, sitting up, crawling and walking §Delayed development of fine motor skills such as grasping objects with the thumb and index finger, and transferring objects from one hand to the other §Impaired language development §Memory problems, poor judgement, distractibility, impulsiveness §Problems with learning §Seizures

Other Sociocultural Constraints: Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status

• It is often difficult to distinguish between sociocultural constraints and individual constraints. •Racial characteristics are biological based and relate to genetic similarities within groups. •Ethnic characteristics are culturally based and relate to cultural similarities that connect groups. •Socioeconomic characteristics can sometimes be interrelated to racial and ethnic characteristics. It is important to examine differences among groups without suggesting a priori that differences are biological in nature

Cerebral Palsy

•1 in 200 children •Static encephalopathy - not progressive •Atypical motor control - either hyperactive reflexes or hypo active •Affects people to varying degrees, variety of causes/risk factors - cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, preterm birth, poor maternal health and lack of prenatal care

History of the Maturational Perspective

•1930s: Gesell, McGraw • •Suggested invariable, genetically determined sequence of development (individuals can have unique timing) • •Research: Co-twin control strategy

Locomotor and PostureMotor Milestones

•2 months: Lifts head in prone position. • •3 months: Lifts shoulders (turns head). 5 months: Rolls over, sits unsupported.

Fetal Development

•8 weeks to birth • •Continued growth by hyperplasia (cell number) and hypertrophy (cell size) • •Cephalocaudal (head to toe) and proximodistal (near to far) • •Plasticity (capability of taking on a new function)

Rate-Limiting Constraints

•A system that lags in development can be a developmental rate limiter. • •Give an example of a system (skeletal, muscle, adipose, neurological, endocrine) acting as a developmental rate limiter.

Cytomegalovirus

•About 1 in 150 children is born with congenital CMV infection. And about 1 of every 5 children born with congenital CMV infection will develop permanent problems (such as hearing loss or developmental disabilities) due to the infection. •Related to herpes, but asymptomatic. •Prevent transmission by handwashing, not sharing cups, toothbrushes, etc. with young children

Acuity

•Acuity is sharpness of sight. • •In the first month, acuity is 20/400 (5% of adult level). • •Infant can differentiate facial features at 20 inches. • •Acuity is approximately 20/30 by age 5 years and 20/20 by age 10.

Muscle Fiber Type

•Adult muscle is composed of type I and type IIa, IIx, and IIb fibers. • •At birth, 15 to 20% of fibers are undifferentiated. • •By age 1, distribution of muscle fiber type is similar to adult distributions. • Exact proportions vary among individuals

Flexibility in Adulthood

•Adults gradually lose flexibility, especially in little-used joints and after age 50. • •Adults who maintain training for flexibility maintain their levels.

Nervous System in Older Adults

•Aging involves loss of neurons, dendrites, synapses, neurotransmitters, and myelin. •One theory of aging suggests that breaks in neural network links cause detours and therefore slowing. •Exercise promotes improved cognitive function.

Newton's First Law

•An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion until acted upon by a force. -Inertia is resistance to motion, related to mass. •Heavier objects are harder to start and stop -Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. •The faster something moves the harder to stop.

Anticipation

•Anticipation is involved in many manipulative tasks and interception skills. • •Studies often involve coincidence-anticipation tasks (anticipating completion of movement to coincide with arrival of moving object).

Rate Controllers in Later Walking

•Any of the changes associated with the aging process can act as rate controllers •Most obviously, changes in structural constraints can influence walking

Proficient Punting

•Arms are extended to drop ball before final stride. •Arms then drop to sides and move into opposition to legs. •Punter leaps onto supporting leg, swings punting leg vigorously up to make contact. •Punting leg is kept straight; toes are pointed.

Early Galloping, Sliding, Skipping

•Arrhythmic and stiff movements •Little or no arm movement •Little or no trunk rotation •Exaggeration of vertical lift •Short stride or step length

Physiological Maturation

•As children and youth become older, they grow in size and mature. • •Children vary in maturation rate. • •It is difficult to infer maturity from age alone, size alone, or age and size together.

Bimanual Reaching and Manipulation

•At 2 months, infants show bilateral arm extension and reaching. • •Around 4.5 months, infants reach for objects with both arms (usually one hand reaches and grasps object first). • •During year 1, infants alternate between predominantly unimanual and predominantly bimanual reaching. •By 12 months, we see pulling apart and insertion actions. • •After 18 months, infants manipulate objects cooperatively with both hands • •Early in year 2, infants use objects as tools. By end of year 2, we see comp

Hand-Mouth Movements

•At 3 to 4 months, infants become consistent in moving the hand to the mouth. • •By 5 months, they open the mouth in anticipation of the hand's arrival. • •Not a lot of other research on hand/face movement

Individual Variation

•Average ages for peak height velocity and tapering of growth are based on groups. • •Individuals can differ from the averages. • •In what ways can individuals vary from the average pattern?

Aerobic Performance in Adulthood

•Average maximal oxygen uptake per kilogram of body weight falls about 1% per year after the 20s. • •Athletic and active adults maintain higher maximal oxygen uptake than do sedentary adults.

Balance in Childhood

•Balance improves throughout childhood and adolescence. • •Pattern of improvement is task specific. • •Trend is to rely more on kinesthetic information and less on visual information. •

Balance Training for Older Adults

•Balance improves with practice in responding to perturbations. • •Exercise programs that stress strength and balance reduce falls.

: Early Punting

•Ball is tossed up rather than dropped. • •Punter often contacts ball with toes rather than instep.

Motor Skill and Fitness

•Barnett, van Beurden, Morgan, Brooks, & Beard (2008) -Study involved measuring motor skills and fitness of children between 8 and 12 years old. -Follow-up occurred 5 years later. -Object control skill performance predicted adolescent fitness of boys and girls. Self-perception is related to motor skill competence and fitness •Rivilis et al. (2011) -Recent review of studies indicated that poor motor proficiency is associated with high body composition, low cardiorespiratory fitness, lower strength and endurance, lower anaerobic capacity and power, and less physical activity.

Developmental Changes Are Predictable

•Based on optimizing biomechanical principles of motion and stability over time. •Can be seen across variety of motor skills. •Often produce more force, velocity, or accuracy. KINETIC CHAIN

Long-Lasting BeliefsFrom Maturation Theory

•Basic motor skills emerge automatically. • •There is no need for special training. • •Mild deprivation does not arrest development. • The nervous system is most important

Assessment of Flexibility

•Because flexibility is joint specific, it must be measured for each joint assessed. •A goniometer is often used. -Axis is placed over joint center. -Instrument arm is aligned with limb at extremes of movement range. •Sit-and-reach test is common measure but has disadvantages.

Postural Reactions

•Begin around 4 months. •Help maintain posture in changing environment. •Initially are similar to reflexes; then are incorporated into general repertoire •Involve more components than primitive reflexes

Relative Growth

•Body as a whole follows sigmoid pattern; specific parts, tissues, and organs have different growth rates. • •Body proportions change from head-heavy, short-legged form at birth to adult proportions. • •In adolescence, boys increase in shoulder breadth.

Importance of Body Composition

•Body composition determines appearance. •It affects self-concept. •It is related to working capacity. •Excess weight adds to workload. •Excess fat limits range of motion. •Obesity places one at risk of diseases.

Fat Distribution

•Body fat distribution changes with growth. • •Children have more internal than subcutaneous fat. • •Subcutaneous fat increases from age 6 or 7 years until age 12 or 13 in boys and girls. • •Subcutaneous fat then continues to increase in girls.

Body Composition

•Body mass can be divided into two types of tissue: lean tissue- which includes muscle, bone, and organs, and fat, or adipose tissue. •The relative percentages of fat-free and fat tissues make up body composition.

Affordances Incorporate Body Scale

•Body scale is a person's size relative to the environment. • •Body scales change over the life span. • •Scaling of sports equipment and environments allows people of various sizes to perform similar movements.

Body Systems (Individual Structural Constraints)

•Body systems are influenced by extrinsic factors. • •It is important to know -the average pattern of change within each system -the range of individual variations for a system

Bone Loss

•Bone loss in women begins slowly during the third decade and can increase shortly before or after menopause. •The total bone loss in women by age 70 is approx. 25-30%. •Bone loss estimates for men at age 70 are about half of what women experience (12-15% by age 70).

Skeletal System in Adults

•Bone undergoes remodeling throughout the life span. •Old bone is absorbed; new bone is formed. •In adulthood, bone growth slows, fails to keep pace with reabsorption. Bone becomes more brittle.

Ecological Perspective

•Both branches reject CNS as executive controller of nearly limitless opportunities for movement. •Control is distributed throughout the body, at both global and local levels. •This challenging perspective allows for new types of experiments and new ways of thinking about old questions.

Adipose Tissue in Older Adults

•Both men and women tend to gain fat during adulthood, but this is not inevitable. • •Increases in trunk fat are notable, but subcutaneous fat on limbs tends to decrease.

Postnatal Neurological Growth

•Brain growth increases rapidly after birth. •Growth involves these factors: -Increases in size of neurons -Prolific branching to form synapses -Increases in glial cells for support and nourishment of neurons -Increases in myelin to insulate axons •Stimulation of learning increases number of synaptic connections.

Purposes of Reflexes

•Built-in responses facilitate survival. • •Reflexes allow "dialogue" with environment. • •Reflexive movements result in sensory consequences (adaptation). • •Reflexes provide building blocks for future movement.

Genetic Causesof Atypical Development

•Can be dominant disorders (defective gene from one parent) or recessive disorders (defective gene from each parent). • •Can result from mutation of a gene. • •Effects on growth and maturation are variable.

Example

•Can children benefit from strength training? IV#1 - training, with two levels - training and no training IV#2- age of children 10-12 and 13-15 IV #3 - gender DV: strength (could be several different measures)

Causal Attributions

•Causal attributions are the reasons people give for their successes and failures. • •People tend to act in ways that confirm their beliefs. •A person with high self-esteem makes the following causal attributions: -Internal—person responsible for own success or failure -Stable—outcome-influencing factors consistent from one situation to next -Controllable—person in control of outcome-influencing factors •A person with low self-esteem makes the following causal attributions: -External—success and failure due to influences outside the person -Unstable—outcome based on fluctuating influences (e.g., luck) -Uncontrollable—person unable to control or influence outcome

Characteristics of Motor Development

•Change in movement behavior. -Continuous -Age related -Sequential •Depends on underlying processes, e.g. -Endocrine system -Neurology -Body composition

System Changes Contributingto Balance Difficulty in Older Adults

•Changes in sensory receptors • •Loss of strength • •Arthritic conditions in joints • Slower nerve conduction speed

Secondary Sex Characteristics

•Characteristics appear as a function of maturation. • •They appear at a younger age in early maturers. • •Have you seen variations among a group of preteens in appearance of secondary sex characteristics? Which ones?

Development of Strength: Summary

•Childhood is a period of steady increase in strength. •Adolescent girls continue a steady increase. •Adolescent boys experience a spurt of growth in strength. •Strength levels are stable in young adulthood. •Strength declines in older adulthood, gradually at first. • •Training can improve strength throughout the life span. • •Strength is related to muscle mass and neurological factors.

Developmental Changes in Anaerobic Performance: Children

•Children have less anaerobic power output than adults. • •Muscle mass is smaller. • •Absolute quantities of energy reserves are smaller. •Energy reserves increase (muscle mass increases). • •Tolerance of by-products of metabolic process improves. • •Mean and peak anaerobic power improve. •Gender differences reflect muscle mass differences. • •Improved neuromuscular coordination contributes to improved performance of anaerobic activities. • •More mature children have better anaerobic performance.

Changes in Aerobic Performance During Childhood

•Children have smaller stroke volume, and thus, smaller cardiac output (hypokinetic circulation). • •Children compensate in part with higher heart rates. • •Children have lower concentrations of hemoglobin (the blood protein that carries oxygen). • •Children have an efficient system but cannot exercise for as long as adults can. •Heart size increases. •Hemoglobin concentration increases. •Oxygen-extraction ability decreases to adult levels. •Ability to sustain exercise is related to body size and maturity level. •By late adolescence and into adulthood, trained men have an advantage over trained women.

Early Catching

•Children initially position arms and hands rigidly, sometimes trap ball against chest. • •Children sometimes turn their head away or close their eyes.

Early Jumping

•Children often begin simple jumping before age 2. •People can perform either vertical or horizontal (standing long) jump. •Early characteristics: -Jumping only vertically -One-foot takeoff or landing -No or limited preparatory movements

Development of Self-Esteem

•Children under 10 depend on appraisals of and comparisons with peers to determine physical competence (Horn & Hasbrook, 1986; Horn & Weiss, 1991). • •Children of all ages develop self-esteem from feedback and appraisals from teachers and coaches (Smoll & Smith, 1989).

Laterality

•Children with developmental delays often struggle to cross midline of body with hand and arm to complete a task on opposite side. •

Children's Attributions

•Children with high self-esteem give internal, stable, controllable reasons for outcomes. •Children with low self-esteem tend to make inaccurate attributions about outcomes and exhibit the following behaviors: -Unwillingness to try challenging tasks -Lack of effort to do well -Avoidance of participation

True Experimental Research

•Choose theoretical foundation •Ask a question •Create hypothesis •Design experiment to deliberately manipulate a condition to see the result •Collect and analyze data •Does data support hypothesis? •Discuss, place result into context, application

Early Sidearm Striking

•Chopping motion (elbow extension) • •Little leg and trunk movement

Social Interactions

•Comparison to peer performance can begin as young as 5 years of age. •Young children are not as accurate in the adolescents in their self-evaluations •Feedback and appraisal from teachers and coaches can also influence self-esteem.

Embryonic Development

•Conception to 8 weeks (first two weeks blastocyst) •Differentiation of cells to form specific tissues and organs -Mesoderm -Endoderm -Ectoderm •Limbs formed at 4 weeks •Human form noticeable at 8 weeks

Challenges to Balance

•Consider some surfaces that make balance difficult as you attempt to move across them.

Developmental Changes of Jumping

•Continuous growth in body size and strength contribute to quantitative improvements. •It is not guaranteed that every child will eventually master jumping.

Early Locomotion

•Crawling ("commando crawl"): moving on hands and abdomen •Creeping: moving on hands and knees •Other forms of early locomotion - what other ways do babies get around?

Visual Changes With Aging

•Declines in vision have implications for skill performance and everyday living tasks. • •Presbyopia affects ability to see nearby images (can be corrected with lenses). - •Older adults need more light in dim environments.

Rate Controllers in Hopping

•Depends on the postural system's ability to balance the body on one limb for a succession of hops •Ability to generate enough force to life the body with one limb, recover, and quickly generate enough force to hop again

Movement FacilitatesPerceptual Development

•Deprivation can put people at risk of deficient perceptual development. • •Movement experience might influence survival of synaptic connections in early development.

Descriptive Research

•Descriptive research describes the present status of people, attitudes, and progress.

Ecological Perspective

•Development driven by interrelationship of individual, environment, and task (importance of multiple systems) • •Neural system one of many responsible for action • •Two branches 1. Dynamical systems 2. Perception-action

Motion and Stability

•Developmental changes in movement occur according to biomechanical principles. •Motion and stability are two principles within the larger field of biomechanics. •Motion and stability are known as the "physics" of movement.

Assessment of Ballistic Skills

•Developmental sequences can be used as checklists. •People are in a developmental step if a majority of executions (usually out of five attempts) fall into that category. •Observation should be conducted from the appropriate direction. -Side views show forward step, trunk action, lagging. -Rear views show arm angles.

Perception Gives Meaning

•Developmentalists have much to learn about the role of movement in perceptual development. •Some view perception and action, or movement, as inseparable.

Role of Action in Perception

•Developmentalists suspect that movement is important to perceptual development. • •Movement is necessary for the coupling, or linking, of perception and movement.

Spatial Orientation and Direction

•Directionality improves in late childhood. • •Transposing right and left improves in adolescence.

Constraints and Atypical Development

•Disabilities: differences in structural, functional individual constraints. •Must consider all interacting constraints •May result in delayed, different motor development.

Constraints

•Discourage or limit certain movements. •Encourage or permit other movements. •"Shape" movement. -Channel away from some movements while towards others

Children's Reasons for Dropping Out

•Dislike of coach •Lack of playing time •Too much pressure •Too much time required •Overemphasis on winning •Lack of fun •Lack of progress Lack of success

Assessment of Extentand Rate of Postnatal Growth

•Distance curves show extent of growth. • •Velocity curves show rate of growth. • •Peaks on velocity curves show ages at which rate of growth changes from faster to slower.

Short-Term Studies

•Dollman, Olds, Norton, & Stuart (1999) -Study compared two cohorts of 10-year-olds in 1985 and 1997. -In 1997, the least fit children were associated with lower average performance in walking and running. - •Olds & Dollman (2004) -Continued study of the 1997 group. -Decreased performance was tied to decreasing levels of physical activity in the children studied. Muscatine Study (Janz, Burns, & Mahoney, 1995) -Study involved 2-year follow-up of 120 children starting at age 10. -Higher systolic blood pressure and body fat were associated with decreased physical fitness.

Physiological Responsesto Prolonged Exercise

•During a prolonged period of activity, the following responses occur: -Oxidative breakdown of food stores -Depletion of local energy reserves - •Aerobic power is the rate at which long-term oxygen demand is met. • •Aerobic capacity is the total energy available for prolonged activity. •Body increases heart and respiratory rates, cardiac output, and oxygen uptake to deliver oxygen to muscles. • •Cardiac output can increase through increased heart rate or increased stroke volume.

Physiological Responsesto Short-Term Exercise

•During brief intense activity, oxygen reserves and energy sources are depleted. •Such activity is termed anaerobic (without oxygen). -Anaerobic power is the rate at which the body can meet demand for short-term intense activity. -Anaerobic capacity is the maximum oxygen deficit the body can tolerate. •As exercise period lengthens, anaerobic system contributes less and aerobic system takes over.

Developmental Changes in Walking

•Early childhood: -By age 4, essential components of an advanced walk are present •Older adulthood: -Maximizing stability -Out-toeing increases. -Stride length decreases. -Pelvic rotation decreases. -Speed decreases. -Objects are used as balance aids.

Prenatal Development

•Early development is controlled by genes. -Normal development -Inherited abnormal development - •The embryo or fetus is sensitive to extrinsic factors. -Positive effects Negative effects

Developmental Changes of Running

•Early running: -As children grow, qualitative changes in running patterns, combined with physical growth and maturation, generally result in improved quantitative measures of running. •Later running: -Patterns help increase stability and balance. -Decreases appear in •stride length, •range of motion, •number of strides, and •Speed. -Rate controllers are balance and strength. -Exercise can allow seniors to run for years!

Perception of Affordances

•Ecological view: It is the affordance that is perceived. -Affordances involve what the environment permits, given the capabilities of the performer. -They are perceived directly, without cognitive analysis of object characteristics. •Example: Stairs afford climbing. -Warren (1984) related stair height to leg length. -No single model has been found to apply over the life span.

Emotions

•Emotions associated with participation in sport and physical activity affect self-esteem development. • Enjoyment in pre- and young adolescents is furthered by perceptions of high ability, mastery, low parental pressure, and greater parent and coach satisfaction

Forms of Descriptive Research

•Ex post facto (after the fact) •Case studies •Correlation studies •Developmental studies •Survey studies

Exercise as a Strategyto Reduce Obesity

•Exercise can offset the decrease in basal metabolic rate that accompanies caloric restriction. •Exercise promotes development of muscle tissue, which requires more calories for maintenance. •Exercise expends calories. •Exercise is effective in controlling obesity over the life span.

Fetal Hydantoin Syndrome

•Exposure to Dilantin (anti-seizure med) •The symptoms of this disorder may include abnormalities of the skull and facial features, growth deficiencies, underdeveloped nails of the fingers and toes, and/or mild developmental delays. Other findings occasionally associated with this syndrome include cleft lip and palate, having an unusually small head (microcephaly) and brain malformations with more significant developmental delays.

Extrinsic Causesof Abnormal Development

•Extrinsic factors can affect fetus through nourishment or physical environment. • •Teratogens delivered through nourishment system act as malformation-producing agents. • •Some teratogenic effects result from too much of a substance; some, from too little. •Placenta screens some substances (e.g., large viruses) but not all harmful ones. • •Harmful environmental factors include pressure, temperature, X and gamma rays, oxygen-deficient atmospheres, pollutants. • •Tissues undergoing rapid development at time of exposure are most vulnerable.

Teratogens

•Fetal alcohol •Fetal hydantoin syndrome (Dilantin) •Meth, nicotine, opiod addiction •Zika virus •Cytomegalovirus •Lead •Lack of O2 at birth - cerebral palsy

Developmental Changes in Hopping

•Few children under 3 can hop repeatedly •Adaptations of the neuromuscular system that moderates the force of landing •Due, at least in part, to an interaction of individual constraints in the body and within the framework of the principles of motion

Aspects of Object Perception

•Figure and ground (objects of interest seen as distinct from background) • •Whole and part -Parts of a picture or object discriminated from whole, yet can be integrated -Parts and whole perceived simultaneously - •Shape and orientation (object recognized even if its orientation changes)

Flexibility

•Flexibility is the ability to move joints through a full range of motion. • •It can benefit sport and dance performance. • •Limited flexibility can be a factor in injury. • •Flexibility is specific to each joint.

Height

•Follows sigmoid pattern. • •Girls -Peak height velocity occurs at 11.5 to 12 years. -Growth in height tapers off around 14, ends around 16. - •Boys -Peak height velocity occurs at 13.5 to 14 years. -Growth in height tapers off around 17, ends around 18. - •Long growth period of males contributes to absolute height differences.

Weight

•Follows sigmoid pattern. • •Is susceptible to extrinsic factors, especially diet and exercise. • •People grow up; then fill out. Peak weight velocity follows peak height velocity (by 2.5-5 months in boys, 3.5-10.5 in girls).

Assessment of Catching

•For comparisons, task and environmental constraints must be consistent. • •The number of catches in a set of attempts can be scored. • The developmental sequence can provide information about the movement process

Assessment of Strength

•Force is exerted against resistance. -Isotonic or isokinetic strength if limbs move -Isometric if exerted against immovable resistance - •Must specify muscle group, movement, speed of movement, and joint angle. •Common isotonic tests use 1-repetition maximum. • •Common isometric tests use dynamometer or cable tensiometer. • •Functional strength tests include chin-ups, flexed-arm hang, and rope climbing.

Throwing

•Forms -Underhand (one- or two-hand) -Sidearm -Overarm (one- or two-hand) •Assessment: -Product measures (outcome): accuracy, distance, ball velocity -Process measures (movement pattern): developmental sequences

Motor Milestones

•Fundamental motor skills -Building blocks (leading to complex motor skills) -Cumulative, sequential •Specific movements that lead to general actions

Rate Limitersfor Galloping, Sliding, Skipping

•Galloping -Coordination (uncoupling legs) -Differential force production (legs performing different tasks) • •Sliding: coordination (turning to one side) • •Skipping: coordination (ability to perform two tasks with one leg)

Developmental Changes in Galloping, Sliding, Skipping

•Galloping is the first to emerge (around 2-3 years of age). •Sliding comes next. •Skipping is usually the last to emerge (around 4-7 years of age).

Nervous System

•Genes direct its development. • •Extrinsic factors exert influence, especially in the formation of synaptic connections.

Body Composition and Exercise in Children and Youths

•Genetic and environmental factors have an effect. • •Two environmental factors can be manipulated. -Diet -Exercise •Preschoolers in physical education had less subcutaneous fat. - •Parizkova (1968, 1977) -Study followed 100 boys, in four activity-level groups, longitudinally for 4 years from age 10.7 years. -Active boys maintained level of fat weight; inactive boys increased in fat weight. •Parizkova (1972) -Study followed 41 of the boys for another 3 years. -The pattern continued. • •Parizkova (1977) -Study followed 16 of the boys for another 6 years. -By age 21 years, fat weight was variable and reflected lifestyle. Parizkova (1973, 1977) -Study simultaneously followed boy and girl swimmers from age 12 to age 16. -By age 15, boys were taller, heavier, leaner. -Both boys and girls showed increased lean body mass at the expense of fat weight.

Growth and AgingChange Individual Constraints

•Genetic and extrinsic factors combine to influence growth and aging. • •We observe patterns in growth and aging. -Universality: patterns that hold for all humans -Specificity: individual variation • •Educators and therapists can make tasks developmentally appropriate.

Body Scaling in Grasping

•Grip movements are body scaled •Key is hand size relative to object size. •Ratio of hand size to object size is consistent for transitioning from using one hand to using two hands to pick up object.

Cessation of Bone Growth

•Growth at the epiphyseal plates stops at different times for different bones. • •All typically close by age 18 or 19. • •Closure occurs at a younger age in girls. What does this reflect about the connection between skeletal growth and maturation?

Growth Hormone

•Growth hormone is secreted by anterior pituitary gland. • •It is necessary for normal growth. • •Deficiency can result in growth abnormality.

Skeletal System: Early Development

•Growth in bone length occurs at secondary centers at the ends of bones. •These centers are called epiphyseal plates, growth plates, or pressure epiphyses. •Increase in bone girth is called appositional growth. •Traction epiphyses are where muscle tendons attach to bones.

Training Effect in Children

•Growth status and maturation level must be considered. •Trigger hypothesis (Katch, 1983) holds that the hormonal levels of puberty are necessary for substantial training effect. •Aerobic training yields small improvements at best in preadolescents. •Aerobic training yields significant improvements after puberty.

Assessment of Skeletal Age

•Hand and wrist X ray is compared with standards for average skeletal development by chronological age. • •X ray is matched with picture for ossification at ends of long bones and in short round bones. • •If X ray taken at a given chronological age matches the standard for an older age, then the person is an early maturer.

Proficient Catching

•Hands "give" with the ball to gradually absorb force. • •Catcher moves from side to side or forward and back to intercept the ball. • •Fingers are pointed up for high balls and down for low balls.

Auditory Changes With Aging

•Hearing loss (presbycusis) is more frequent in older adults. •Some loss might have a physiological source. •Some loss might result from lifelong exposure to environmental noise. •Absolute and differential thresholds generally increase. •Hearing amid a noisy background is more difficult.

Adulthood and Aging

•Height is stable in adulthood but may decrease in older adulthood. -Compression of cartilage pads -Osteoporosis - •Average adult starts gaining weight in the 20s. -Diet and exercise Loss of muscle mass

Self-Produced Locomotion

•Held and Hein (1963) -Placed kittens in a merry-go-round, one kitten in a gondola, the other able to walk. -Both had equivalent perceptions, but only one was able to move. -Motor skill development in the passive kitten was hindered. •Bertenthal, Campos, & Barrett (1984); Kermoian & Campos (1988) -Locomotor experience was provided to prewalkers by baby walkers. -Locomotor experience, rather than age, was associated with response to heights. -Perception of spatial relationships was enhanced by locomotor experience. •Lockman (1984); McKenzie & Bigelow (1986) -Study challenged infants to move around barriers. -Spatial perception improved with increased locomotor experience. - •Gibson et al. (1987) -Locomotor experience influenced perception of surfaces and slopes. -With increased experience, infants showed more sensitivity to surfaces and slopes.

Early Hopping

•Hopping starts later than jumping. • •Early characteristics: -Support leg is lifted rather than used to project body. -Arms are inactive. -Swing leg is held rigidly in front of body.

Catching

•Ideally, objects are caught in the hands so they can be manipulated. •Needing to intercept an object makes catching more difficult.

Body Awareness

•Identifying body parts: Children improve in labeling. • •Knowing body's spatial dimensions: Children master up and down, then front and back, and finally side to side. •Laterality (knowing sides of body are distinct): -Children show adultlike responses by age 10 years. -Labeling left and right improves in late childhood. •Lateral dominance (preferring one eye, ear, hand, or foot over the other): -Infants show preferences. -Handedness is established around age 4 years. -No evidence shows that pure dominance is necessary.

Endocrine System in Older Adults

•Imbalances may develop among the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. • •Thyroid disorders are more prevalent. • •Decreasing gonadal hormone levels are associated with loss of bone and muscle tissue.

Rett Syndrome

•Incidence: 1 in 10,000 female births although may be more common (mistaken as autism) •Defect on X chromosome (lethal to males who only have 1 X). Development appears normal until 6-18 months of age, followed by loss of acquired speech and hand skills, slowing of head growth and development of stereotyped repetitive hand movements (i.e., handwashing, hand wringing, hand tapping, hand clapping and hand mouthing), loss or difficulty with mobility.

Turner Syndrome

•Incidence: 1 per 2,500-5,000 girls •Only girls have Turner syndrome; they have one X chromosome and are missing the second sex chromosome. Affected girls have broad chests, webbed necks, short stature, and specific health problems. They do not show normal sexual development. They may show normal verbal ability but lower than average ability in processing visual and spatial information. •Implications for Care •Provide instruction and support related to visual and spatial processing. Hormone therapy helps with bone growth and development of female characteristics.

Muscular Dystrophy

•Incidence: 1 per 3,000 to 4,000 boys Only boys acquire this X-linked recessive-gene defect, which causes a progressive muscular weakness because of a gene's failure to produce an essential protein needed by muscle cells. Between ages 2 and 5, affected boys begin to stumble and walk on their toes or with another unusual gait. They may lose the ability to walk between ages 8 and 14 and may later die from respiratory and cardiac problems

Cystic Fibrosis

•Incidence: 1 per 3,300 children from European American backgrounds and 1 per 9,500 children from Hispanic American backgrounds •Children with this recessive-gene defect have glands that produce large amounts of abnormally thick, sticky mucus, which creates serious problems for breathing and digestion. CF is usually noticed in infancy due to persistent coughing, wheezing, pneumonia, and big appetite with little weight gain. •Many individuals with CF now live well into their 40s. •Be aware of symptoms that require medical care. The condition is often treated with physical therapy, medication, and bronchial drainage.

Klinefelter Syndrome

•Incidence: 1 per 500-1,000 boys •Only boys have Klinefelter syndrome; they have one Y chromosome and two X chromosomes. Diagnosis may not occur until adolescence, when testes fail to enlarge. Affected boys tend to have long legs, to grow modest breast tissue, a/1d to remain sterile. They tend to show lower than average verbal ability and some speech and language delays. •Implications for Care •Offer an enriched verbal environment. Medical treatment may be given to support development of male sexual characteristics.

Down Syndrome

•Incidence: 1 per 700-1,000 births •Children with Down syndrome have one extra chromosome (trisomy 21) •Physical characteristics include a protruding tongue, thick lips, flat nose, short neck, wide gaps between toes, short fingers, specific health problems, and risks for heart problems and hearing loss. Mental retardation can range from mild to severe. •Children often have good visual discrimination skills and may be better at understanding verbal language than producing it. •Implications for Care: Provide explicit instruction in any delayed skills (e.g., in language). Address health issues such as heart problems and potential feeding difficulties

Neurofibromatosis

•Incidence: Mild form occurs in 1 per 2,500-4,000 births; severe form occurs in 1 per 40,000-50,000 births •Children with this dominant-gene defect develop benign and malignant tumors in the central nervous system. Learning disabilities are somewhat common and mental retardation occurs occasionally. Most individuals experience only minor symptoms, such as having colored and elevated spots on their skin.

To Move an Object Farther or Faster

•Increase force delivered to object. •Increase distance over which force is applied. •Example: bobsled

Increasing Velocity:Rotating Limbs and Projected Objects

•Increase rotational velocity (swing it faster). -But to do this we need to decrease inertia by bending our limbs •Increase relative length (fully extend it at release or contact). KINETIC CHAIN

Adding Distance to Improve a Kick

•Increase step length (linear distance). • •Increase range of motion (rotational distance).

Variables in True Research

•Independent Variable -Comes before -Manipulated factor -Has multiple "levels" •Dependent Variable -The measurement taken to determine result of IV manipulation

Rate Limiters, or Controllers

•Individual constraints that inhibit or slow attainment of a motor skill • •Rapidly changing during early childhood

Extrinsic Influenceson Postnatal Growth

•Individuals are especially sensitive during periods of rapid growth. • •Catch-up growth demonstrates extrinsic influences.

Labyrinthine Righting Reflex

•Infant is supported upright. • •Stimulus: Tilt infant. • •Response: Head moves to stay upright. Gravitational forces and changes in the equilibrium "Righting" of the head

Moro Reflex

•Infant starts in supine position. • •Stimulus: Shake head (e.g., by tapping pillow). • •Response: Arms, legs, and fingers extend; then arms and legs flex.

Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex

•Infant starts in supine position. • •Stimulus: Turn head to one side. • •Response: Same-side arm and leg extend.

Developmental Changes in Flexibility

•Infants and toddlers are very flexible. In what positions have you seen babies illustrate this fact? •Studies show that declines in flexibility start in childhood. •Flexible people can maintain or improve levels. •Girls as a group are more flexible than boys. -Flexibility exercises are socially acceptable for girls. -Girls participate in activities stressing flexibility. -What are some of these activities? • •In adolescence, flexibility is variable; some people lose a significant degree.

Differences

•Infants can discriminate basic speech sounds at 1 to 4 months of age. •Accuracy in discrimination improves in childhood. •Older adults may have difficulty with speech perception due to declines in sensitivity to pure tones.

Figure and Ground

•Infants can distinguish a sound from ambient noise. • •Little else is known. • •Older adults have more difficulty hearing conversations amid background noise.

Visual Development: Sensation

•Infants have functionally useful vision. • •By 6 months of age, vision is adequate for locomotion through the environment.

Development of Space Perception

•Infants have the mechanics for retinal disparity and motion parallax. •By 6 months, infants perceive depth. •Depth perception is refined to adultlike levels in adolescence. •Number of older adults who fail depth perception tests is greater than the number of younger adults.

Development of Object Perception

•Infants may use depth and motion more than edges. •Children refine figure-and-ground and whole-and-part perception, especially under difficult conditions. •Preadolescents reach adult levels (adult sensitivity goes beyond that needed to perceive objects in the everyday world).

Visual-KinestheticIntermodal Perception

•Infants seem to relate objects they can see to objects they have mouthed. • •Recognition of an object across modalities is shown in the first year, but selecting items that match across modalities comes later. • •Finer discriminations improve in childhood (visual-first presentation is easier).

Tool Use in First Year

•Infants use trial-and-error exploration. •Infants relate objects to other objects and to surfaces. •Affordances involve relationships between objects. •Self-generated opportunity for perceptual learning exists (tool use facilitates perceptual development).

Audition in Infancy

•Infants' threshold for sound is higher than adults' but allows detection of normal speaking voice. • •Rapid improvement is seen in the first week. • •At 3 months, infants hear low-frequency sounds well.

Gonadal Hormones

•Influence on growth, sexual maturation (sex organs, secondary sex characteristics) • •Androgens -Secreted by testes (boys), adrenal glands (boys, girls). -Hasten epiphyseal growth plate closure. -Promote growth of muscle mass. •Estrogen -Secreted by ovaries (girls), adrenal cortex (girls, boys). -Hastens epiphyseal growth plate closure. -Promotes accumulation of fat.

Significant Others

•Influential people who are considered socializing agents • •Parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and coaches

Psychosocial Influences

•Interaction of individual (functional) constraints with environmental (sociocultural) constraints • •Emotions, perceived ability, and other personal attributes

Developmentof Coincidence Anticipation

•Interception success is often related to ball size, speed, trajectory, and other task and environmental constraints. •

Intermodal Development Summary

•Intermodal coordination begins at birth. • •Performance of matching tasks and subtle discrimination improves throughout childhood and adolescence. • •Accuracy of performance is related to order of presentation (easiest versions present visual information first).

Rapid Aiming Movements

•Involve an initiation and acceleration to peak velocity; then a deceleration and termination phase. • •Young adults tend to have symmetrical phases; older adults move less far in acceleration phase, thus have longer deceleration phase.

Galloping, Sliding, Skipping

•Involve combination of skills previously obtained: stepping, hopping, leaping . •Gallop and slide are asymmetric. -Gallop: forward step on one foot, leap on other -Slide: sideways step on one foot, leap on other - •Skip is symmetric: alternating step-hops on one foot, then on the other.

Posture Control and Balance

•Involves visual, auditory, and kinesthetic input from proprioceptive and vestibular receptors. •Posture and balance are maintained in various situations. -Stationary and moving -On various body parts and surfaces •Posture and balance are specific to environmental and task constraints.

Maximal Oxygen Uptake VO2Max

•It is defined as the largest amount of oxygen the body can consume during aerobic work. •It is strongly related to lean body mass. •Maximal oxygen uptake increases linearly from age 4 years to late adolescence in boys and to age 12 to 13 years in girls. •Maximal oxygen uptake per kilogram of body weight is then stable in boys and declines slightly in girls.

Jumping, Hopping, Leaping

•Jump: Person propels self off ground with one or two feet; lands on two feet. • •Hop: Person propels self off ground with one foot; lands on same foot. • •Leap: Person propels self off ground with one foot, extends flight period, and lands on opposite foot.

Manual Performance in Adulthood

•Kauranen & Vanharanta (1996) -Manual performance declined after age 50. -Movements slowed; coordination scores declined. •Hughes et al. (1997) -Strength declined. -More individuals exceeded time thresholds. •Some loss in coordination of handwriting •Accuracy maintained, especially in well-practiced tasks

Kicking

•Kicker strikes ball with foot. • •Kicker must have perceptual abilities and eye-foot coordination to make contact (kicking a moving ball is difficult for children).

Kinesthetic Development: Sensation

•Kinesthesis arises from proprioceptors. • •Two types of proprioceptors: -Somatosensors Vestibular apparatus

Symptoms of Visual Problems (Any Age)

•Lack of eye-hand coordination • •Squinting • •Under- or overreaching for objects • •Unusual head movements

Early Neural Development

•Late in prenatal period, neurons start to fire electrical impulses (first at random, then forming circuits). • •Experience might play a role in synaptic proliferation (strengthening some connections, weakening others). • •Neural network becomes more efficient with experience.

Proficient Running

•Less stability, more mobility •Increased stride length •Planar movement •Narrow base of support •Trunk rotation •Opposition

Early Overarm Striking

•Limited trunk rotation • •Swing with collapsed elbow • •Little or no lag with swing forward • •Looks like early throwing

Catching in Older Adulthood

•Little research is available. •Catching might be influenced by factors affecting movement speed or ability to reach. •Older adults are somewhat less accurate and more variable on coincidence-anticipation tasks. Older adults can improve with practice

Research Designs in Motor Development

•Longitudinal -An individual or group is observed over time. -Study can require lengthy observation. •Cross-sectional -Individuals or groups of different ages are observed. -Change is inferred, not actually observed. •Sequential or mixed longitudinal: mini-longitudinal studies with overlapping ages

Muscular System in Adults

•Loss of muscle mass is minimal until age 50. • •By 80, average 30% of muscle mass is lost. • •Loss occurs in number and size of muscle fibers (the latter usually after age 70). • •Whether type II fibers undergo greater loss is unclear.

Proficient Overarm Striking

•Lower and upper trunk are rotated more than 90 degrees. • •Elbow is held between 90 and 119 degrees at start of forward movement. • •Racket lags behind arm in forward swing. • •Movement is sequential.

Strength in Adolescenceand Young Adulthood

•Males add more muscle mass in adolescence. • •Males are generally stronger, especially in the arms and shoulders. •Size does not account for all gender differences. -Cultural norms can affect motivation. -Cultural norms can affect habitual activity levels. •After growth ceases, increases in muscle mass are associated with resistance training.

Achievement Goals

•Mastery Goals -Develop competence -Make progress -Improve self -Overcome difficulties with effort and persistence •Performance Goals -Prove ones competence -Display high ability -Outperform others -Succeed with little apparent effort

Theories of Motor Development

•Maturational perspective • •Information processing perspective • •Ecological perspective

Training Programs in Adulthood

•Maximal oxygen uptake increases. •Stroke volume increases. •Maximal cardiac output increases. •Oxygen is better extracted from blood at muscle sites. •Ventilation improves. ••Adults who remain active decline in aerobic endurance only gradually. •Sedentary adults who begin training can increase maximal oxygen uptake and improve blood lipid levels. Improvement is associated wi •Maximal oxygen uptake increases. •Stroke volume increases. •Maximal cardiac output increases. •Oxygen is better extracted from blood at muscle sites. Ventilation improves.

Early Walking

•Maximizes stability and balance over mobility •Arms are in high guard. •Feet are out-toed and spread wide apart. •Independent steps are taken. •Rate controllers are strength (to support body on one leg) and balance.

Measurement of Visual Acuity

•Measurement often involves reading block letters where size of spaces between parts of letters can be manipulated. • •Results are expressed on the Snellen scale in which 20/20 vision requires no correction.

Assaiante Model

•Model identifies four time periods: -Birth to standing: cephalocaudal direction of muscle control -Standing to age 6 years: coordination of upper and lower body -Age 7 years through adolescence: refinement of head stabilization -Adulthood: refined control of degrees of freedom in the neck •Task of childhood: Learn how different frames of reference complement each other during movement.

Early Overarm Throwing

•Mostly arm action • •Elbow pointed up • •Throw executed by elbow extension alone

Information Processing Perspective

•Motor Development driven by external processes (Nurture) •Basic tenet: brain acts like a computer -The passive human responds to stimuli in the environment. -Important concepts: Input, encoding, processing, feedback. •Young adults often studied first as basis of comparison for performance of children and older adults

Maturational Perspective

•Motor development driven by maturation of systems (Nature) -Specifically, the Central Nervous System • •Minimal influence of environment • •Characteristics of motor development -Qualitative Discontinuous

What Is Locomotion?

•Moving from place to place • •Moving on one, two, or four limbs -Crawling, walking, running -Hopping, skipping, galloping, using other modes

Muscle mass and strength

•Muscle mass growth follows sigmoid pattern. •Force a muscle can exert depends in part on its cross-sectional area. •Neurological factors are also involved. •Strength does not always change in parallel with muscle size.

Self-Esteem

•Myth: Boosting self - esteem will boost motivation •Self-esteem is an outcome of having one's needs fulfilled, not a cause of behavior. It is used as an indicator of mental health. •Artificially inflating self-esteem is not the answer to low self-esteem and can make problems like narcissism worse.

Development of Shapeand Orientation Perception

•Newborns are sensitive to object shape. • •Newborns perceive faces. Do they identify mother's face more readily than others? • •Children refine their ability to detect subtle changes in object orientation.

Location

•Newborns turn in the direction of sound. •By age 3 years, children can locate even distant sounds. •Little is known about infants' perception of the distance of sounds. •Older adults with presbycusis have difficulty locating sounds.

Auditory-Visual Intermodal Perception

•Newborns turn toward a sound. • •Discrimination of patterns across these modalities improves in childhood. • A task is easier for children when visual pattern is presented first.

Early Kicking

•No step is taken with nonkicking leg. • •Kicking leg pushes forward.

Obesity

•Obesity rates are increasing around the world and at all ages. • •Chances are that obese children remain obese into adulthood. • •About one-quarter of U.S. children and adolescents are obese. •Metabolic and thyroid disorders account for less than 1% of cases. • •Rapid increase implicates environmental rather than genetic factors. -People are less active. -Diets have increased in fat and sugar.

Perception of Objects

•Object attributes are size, shape, and motion. •Perception is based on information about edges. •Edges are classified as either boundaries or not boundaries. •Boundaries are assigned to objects.

Running

•Occurs 6 to 7 months after walking starts. • •Defined by -50% phasing between the legs -flight phase followed by single support

Developmental Changes in Overarm Throwing: Adulthood

•Older adults demonstrate moderately advanced steps. •Differences are observed between the sexes. •Ball velocities are moderate. •Musculoskeletal constraints might influence movement patterns used. •Change is slow, involves decline (and more variability) in performance, and is typically related to control rather than coordination.

Balance Changes With Aging: Older Adults

•Older adults take longer to initiate a response to perturbation. • •They sometimes use the opposite pattern of younger adults. •

Developmental Changes in Anaerobic Performance: Adulthood

•Once adult body size is attained, anaerobic performance is stable. • •Improvement reflects training alone. • In older adulthood, a loss of muscle mass can result in declining anaerobic performance

Using Newton's Third Law

•Oppositional movements and directional force •We can move forward faster by pushing back when we walk/run •Sideways motions can diffuse forward energy: produce force in one plane only

Spontaneous Movements

•Original theory: extraneous, no purpose • •Current theory: building blocks, similar to some voluntary movements • •Examples -Spontaneous arm movements (resemble reaching) -Spontaneous kicking (resembles adult walking)

Postnatal Development

•Overall growth follows sigmoid (S-shaped) pattern. • •Timing of spurts and steady periods can vary among individuals. • Timing differs between the sexes

Fetal Nourishment

•Oxygen and nutrients diffuse between fetal and maternal blood in placenta. • Poor maternal health status can affect fetus

Significant Others: Parents

•Parents are particularly important during early childhood. • •Gender of both child and parent matters. -Fathers tend to reinforce gender typing in boys Same-sex parent may be more influential

Body Compositionand Exercise in Teenage Girls

•Parizkova (1963, 1977) -Study followed 32 gymnasts and 45 nontraining girls for 5 years. -Girls who did not train gained fat weight. • •Those who trained -showed no overall trend to add fat weight -gained subcutaneous fat during inactivity -lost fat and gained muscle during training increased caloric intake during training

Body Compositionand Exercise in Teenage Boys

•Parizkova (1968a 1977) -Divided 100 boys into four groups by activity level. -Most active group involved in basketball or track at least 6 hours per week. -Least active group participated only in unorganized and unsystematic activity. At four year follow up: Most active group the proportion of fat decreased; Least active group increased significantly in absolute fat weight

Significant Others: Peers

•Peer groups are particularly important after childhood. • •Peers provide a strong influence for group activities, including team sports and nonsport clubs. • •Peer group preference for passive activities can lead once-active children into sedentary adolescence.

Socialization Process

•People and situations influence individuals in their choice of activities throughout their lives. •Three major elements: 1.Significant others (influential or important people, called socializing agents) 2.Social situations (places where socialization takes place- schools, home, playgrounds) 3.Personal attributes (individual constraints)

Recent Research

•Perception develops ahead of movement skills. • •Movement skills are acquired with guidance from perceptual information. • •New actions make new information (perceptions) available. • •Exercise stimulates brain activity that facilitates learning and memory.

Auditory-KinestheticIntermodal Perception

•Perception improves in childhood (knowledge of object names is relevant). - •More research is needed.

Ballistic Skills

•Performer applies force to an object to project it. •Examples include throwing, kicking, striking.

Fundamental Manipulative Skills

•Performer gains possession or control of an object. • Catching is the most common

How Do Children Learn to Arriveat the Right Place?

•Perhaps children learn that the ratio is zero when they stand still and catch a ball. •Eventually they learn to move to keep the ratio at zero. •Experience is important in learning to move to catch. •Parents, teachers, and coaches can manipulate information constraints during exploratory practice. •Identifying important sources of information might also help novice adults.

Endocrine System

•Plays role in regulating growth and maturation through chemical substances called hormones. • •Excess or deficiency can alter growth. • •Major hormones involved in growth: -Growth hormone -Thyroid hormones -Two gonadal hormones. •These hormones stimulate protein anabolism (tissue building). • •Endocrine-neurological feedback loops regulate hormone levels. • •Each hormone may have a critical role in development at specific phases in life span. • •Insulin plays indirect role, is vital for carbohydrate metabolism.

Anaerobic Training

•Preadolescent and adolescent boys improve anaerobic performance with anaerobic training. • •One study found improvements in prepubescent girls. • Master athletes who train sufficiently maintain anaerobic performance as they age

Assessment of Infant Perception

•Preferential looking -Infants look at new or novel objects over familiar ones. -Attention wanders from objects to which the infant is habituated. - •Researchers habituate an infant to an object or pattern; then present a familiar object or pattern and a new one. •If infants can detect a difference, they tend to look at the new object. •

Grasping

•Prehension' is the grasping of an object. • •Halverson proposed 10 phases of development in 1931. -Transition from power to precision grips -Used a 1 inch cube only - •Hohlstein (1982): Object size and shape influence type of grasp (by 9 months, infants shape hand to match object as they reach).

Growth, Maturation, and Aging: Summary

•Prenatal development is influenced by genetic and extrinsic factors. • •Most extrinsic factors are influential through the nourishment system. • •Growth abnormalities can be caused by genes, the environment, or both. •Whole-body growth follows a sigmoid pattern (with timing differences between the sexes and among individuals). • With advancing age, extrinsic factors contribute more to individual variability

Muscular System

•Prenatal growth involves hyperplasia and hypertrophy. •Postnatal growth mainly involves hypertrophy. •Muscle growth follows sigmoid pattern. •Muscles increase in diameter and length by addition of sarcomeres. •Differences between the sexes become marked in adolescence (especially in upper body musculature).

Skeletal System: Early Development

•Prenatally, the embryo has a cartilage model of the skeleton. • •Ossification begins at primary centers in the midportions of long bones.

Cardiac Muscle

•Prenatally, the heart grows by hyperplasia and hypertrophy. •Postnatally, heart follows sigmoid growth pattern. •Heart and blood vessel size is appropriate for body size in childhood and adolescence. •In old age, heart can lose elasticity and valves can become more fibrotic (depending partly on lifestyle).

Proficient Jumping

•Preparatory crouch maximizes takeoff force. •Both feet leave ground at same time. •Arm swing used during jump. •For vertical jump, force is directed downward; body is extended. •For horizontal jump, force is directed down and backward; knees are flexed during flight.

Proficient Kicking

•Preparatory windup is used (trunk rotated back, kicking leg cocked, knee bent). • •Trunk rotates forward. • •Movement is sequential: thigh rotates forward; then lower leg extends. • •Arms move in opposition to legs.

Strength Training

•Prepubescents can increase strength with training. -Improved neuromuscular coordination plays a role. -Youths should be monitored to avoid injuries. •Adolescents and adults can increase strength and muscle mass with appropriate resistance training. -Muscle mass can be increased with training over time. -Those with cardiovascular disease should be monitored.

Prenatal Neural Development

•Process generally includes neuron formation, differentiation into general type, and migration. • •Once in place, neurons develop axons to carry signals to neurons, glands, organs, muscles. • •Teratogens might disturb normal migration and branching.

Environmental Constraints

•Properties of the environment -External •Global, not task specific •Physical -Gravity -Surfaces •Sociocultural -Gender roles -Cultural norms

Development of Flexibility: Summary

•Range of motion probably reflects activity and training more than age. •Flexibility declines over the life span with limited use (exercise). •Flexibility training can restore lost mobility. •Arthritis can affect people of any age, but treatment must be age appropriate.

Development of Postural Controland Balance in Infancy

•Rate limiters for posture and balance appear to involve coupling of sensory information and motor response. • Infants continuously calibrate sensory motor response

Role of Posture

•Reaching improves when infants can maintain postural control. •

Kinesthesis in Infancy

•Receptors probably function prenatally. • •Newborns respond to touch and can locate touches to the face. • •Vestibular apparatus functions by age 2 months, if not earlier.

Reflexes

•Reflexive movements occur quickly after onset of stimuli. • •They involve single muscle or specific group of muscles (not whole body). • •They cannot be extinguished at any one time. • •Persistence may indicate neurological problems.

Correlation

•Regression - prediction. If there is a strong correlation we can predict one variable knowing the other •We are however unable to conclude causation - there may be other variables we haven't considered that create the correlation and actually are the causal factors

Perception of Space

•Requires perception of depth and distance. • •Information can come from -retinal disparity -motion parallax -optic flow -

Kinesthetic Changes With Aging

•Research information is sparse. • •Some older adults experience loss of sensitivity.

Significant Others: Coaches and Teachers

•Research is inconclusive regarding their role in socialization into physical activity. • •Research suggests they act primarily to reinforce existing socialization patterns. • •Teachers and coaches must avoid providing aversive socialization (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1973), which discourages participation.

Long Term Training Effects

•Research is limited (especially longitudinal). • •Women with more physical education during their youth exercised more frequently in adulthood (Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Rajic, & Shephard 1998). - Youth sport participation predicts young adult activity levels •Maximal oxygen uptake was measured in men 50 to 59 and categorized by activity. •Subjects were asked about activity in youth. •Those engaged in lifelong activity had highest maximal oxygen uptake measures. •Sedentary adults who had been active in youth had higher measures than those who had been inactive in youth.

Rate Controllers in Later Running

•Running requires greater generation of force and ability to balance. •Smaller changes in constraints can affect later running. •An individual may have the ability to run, but may not have the opportunity to do so or chooses not to.

Motivation to Participate

•Self-esteem and motivation to participate are related in both children and adults. • •High motivation level is essential for beginning or maintaining participation in sports and physical activities. •Persistence is continued engagement in physical activity and sport. •Dropping out and discontinuing engagement in physical activity and sport can occur by controllable or uncontrollable factors.

Self-Esteem

•Self-evaluation of individual capability -General -Specific (physical ability, appearance, social skills) - •Person's belief in correctness of self-evaluation more important than accuracy of self-evaluation (Weiss, 1993) •Specific domains (social, academic, physical)

Sensation vs. Perception

•Sensation is the neural activity triggered by a stimulus activating a sensory receptor. •Sensory nerve impulses travel sensory nerve pathways to the brain. •Perception is a multistage process in the central nervous system. -It includes selection, processing, organization, and integration of information received from the senses. Identical sensations can yield different perceptions

Sensation, Perception, and Perceptual-Motor Development Summary

•Sensory systems are functional at birth. • •Improvement during infancy is rapid. • •The level of function is sufficient for the learning tasks facing infants and toddlers. •Infants possess basic perceptual ability. • •Subtle discrimination and complex judgment improve in childhood. • •Adults may have difficulty perceiving that the senses are impaired.

Sensory Systems

•Sensory systems function as individual structural constraints. • •Here, focus is on visual, kinesthetic, and auditory senses.

Developmental Changesin Sidearm Striking

•Sequences for foot and trunk in overarm throw can be used. • •Trend is toward use of trunk rotation (none, then blocked, then differentiated). • •Plane of swing progresses from vertical to horizontal. •Grip changes from power grip to "shake-hands" grip. • •Elbows are held away from body and extended before contact.

Gender Typing: Exampleof a Sociocultural Constraint

•Sex refers to male or female biological characteristics (individual constraint). • •Gender refers to socially determined masculine or feminine characteristics (sociocultural constraint). • •Why is it important to differentiate between "sex" and "gender" in the context of physical activity?

Effects of Diseases on Endurance Performance

•Short-term infectious disease reduces working capacity by varying degrees. •Those with long-term diseases should never be placed at risk. •Parents, educational staff, and medical staff should form a team to determine safe levels of activity. Participants should be monitored closely

Significant Others: Siblings

•Siblings constitute a child's first playgroup. • •Girls' sport participation is influenced by brothers (Weiss & Knoppers, 1982) and sisters (Lewko & Ewing, 1980). • •As a person leaves childhood, sibling influence tends to diminish.

Proficient Sidearm Striking

•Sideways preparatory stance and long step •Differentiated trunk rotation •Horizontal swing through large range of motion (arm extended before contact) •Sequential movements

Meth/Crack/stimulants

•Smaller birth weight •Prone to drowsiness and stress •Prone to depression and anxiety •Aggression •ADHD •Meth has stronger effects than crack/cocaine

Adipose System: Early Development

•Some fat is needed for energy storage, insulation, and protection. •Fat increases rapidly until age 6 months; then gradually until age 8 years. •In adolescence, girls increase fat more dramatically than boys do. •Growth is by hyperplasia and hypertrophy (the latter more dramatic in adolescence). •Individual variability is great.

Perception of Motion

•Some neurological mechanisms are dedicated to detecting motion. • •Infants perceive motion. • •Perception of direction and velocity of motion improves during infancy.

Kinesthetic Changes With Aging

•Some sensitivity may be lost. • •Some older adults show impairments in judging passive leg movements. • •Accuracy in judging muscle tension is retained. • •More research is needed.

Abnormal Prenatal Development

•Source of abnormal development can be genetic or extrinsic. • •Congenital defects (present at birth) can derive from genetic or extrinsic source.

Task Constraints

•Specific task requirements or goals -External -NOT related to individual • •Related specifically to tasks or skills -Goal of task -Rules guiding task performance -Equipment

Brain Structures

•Spinal cord and lower brain centers are relatively advanced at birth. •Cerebral cortex gradually becomes more functional after birth. •Myelination of axons allows faster conduction of neural impulses. •Direction of myelination tends to follow direction of conduction.

Early Motor Behavior

•Spontaneous: movements not caused by known external stimuli • •Reflexive: stereotypical responses elicited by specific external stimuli

Early Running

•Stability over mobility: return of "old behaviors" • •Arms in high guard, limited range of motion, short stride length, little rotation

Stability and Balance

•Stability: ability to resist movement • •Balance: ability to maintain equilibrium • Stability-mobility trade-off

Stepping Reflex

•Stimulus: Place soles of feet on flat surface. • •Response: Legs move in walking pattern.

Strength in Middleand Older Adulthood

•Strength generally declines gradually after the 30s. • •Muscle mass declines in the average older adult. • •Loss of strength may be greater than loss of muscle mass (possibly due to changes in fiber types, nervous system, vascular system). •Muscular coordination factors might be involved in declining strength. • •Some older adults do not lose strength. • •Loss of strength is greatly affected by exercise and activity levels.

Developmental Changes in Strength

•Strength increases as children grow. • •Boys and girls are similar in strength levels until age 13 years. • •Peak strength increases follow peak muscle increases. •Among same-size children of different ages, more mature children are stronger. • •Endocrine function probably influences strength. • •Neural factors likely exert influence (including improved motor unit activation with maturation).

Strength

•Strength is the ability to exert force. • •Strength enhances performance of sport and dance skills, as well as daily living activities. •Give examples in which lack of strength acts as a rate-limiting constraint to performance of a skill.

Skeletal Structure in Adulthood

•Structure itself changes little unless one has osteoporosis. • •Osteoporosis leads to rib cage collapse, stooped posture, and reduced height. • •Extent of bone loss is influenced by hormone levels, diet, and exercise.

Perceptual-Motor Development

•Subfield exists within the framework of information processing. • •Early work (1960s) tried to link learning disabilities to delayed perceptual-motor development.

Proficient Hopping

•Swing leg leads hip and moves through full range of motion. •Support leg extends fully at hip. •Oppositional arm movement generates force. •Support leg is flexed on landing.

Teacher-Centered VS Student-Centered Approaches

•Teacher-centered approach -Instructor designs and presents developmentally appropriate activities in class -Instructor chooses when to progress students to the next task •Student-centered approach -Student has optimal control over engagement related decisions -Student effort is recognized as connected to the outcome

Proficient Galloping, Sliding, Skipping

•The arms are no longer needed for balance. •In skipping, the arms swing rhythmically in opposition to the lags and provide momentum. •Child can use the arms for another purpose during galloping and sliding, such as clapping.

Body Compositionand Exercise in Adulthood

•The average middle-aged adult loses fat-free body mass and gains fat. • •Regular exercisers are known to maintain muscle and fat levels. • •Research studies generally find beneficial effects of exercise among groups, but individual results are variable.

Punting

•The ball is dropped from the hands. • •Punting is more difficult than kicking for children.

Cardiorespiratory (CR) Endurance and Children

•The many myths include the following: -System development restricts vigorous activity. -Children automatically get enough exercise. - •Worldwide trend is toward reduced fitness. • High percentage of children in Western societies have risk factors for heart disease

Perception-Action

•Theory is based on the work of Gibson (1960s and 1970s). •Affordance is the function an environmental object provides to an individual. -Characteristics define objects' meanings. -Object functions are based on individuals' intrinsic dimensions (i.e., are body scaled) rather than object's extrinsic, objective dimensions.

Dynamical Systems

•Theory was advocated in early 1980s by Kugler, Kelso, and Turvey (among others). • •Body systems spontaneously self-organize (not driven solely by CNS). • •Body systems, performer's environment, and task demands interact. •Some systems may develop more slowly in the young or degrade faster in the old and thus control rate of development or change. • •Development is characterized by qualitative and discontinuous change. • •Change occurs across the life span.

Social Constraints

•These are pervasive group attitudes, values, and mores that influence behaviors of individuals within the group. • •They create an atmosphere encouraging socially acceptable and discouraging socially unacceptable movement activities.

Thyroid Hormones

•These are secreted by the thyroid gland. • •They influence whole-body growth. • One plays a role in skeletal growth

Patterns

•Three properties give rise to patterns: -Time -Intensity -Frequency • •Temporal patterns are perceived by age 1 year. • •Intensity changes are detected between 5 and 11 months. •Simple frequency patterns are discriminated under 6 months of age. -More complex patterns are detected by age 1 year. -Improvements are made throughout childhood in perceiving longer and more complex patterns.

Proficient OverarmThrowing for Force

•Thrower uses preparatory windup (weight shifts and trunk rotates back; arm swings). •Thrower uses opposite leg, long step, and differentiated trunk rotation. •Upper arm and forearm lag. •Movements are sequential to transfer momentum.

Developmental Changes in Overarm Throwing: Childhood

•Throwers do not achieve same step for each body component at same time. •Some step combinations are observed more frequently than others. •Not everyone reaches highest step in each component. •Differences are observed between the sexes in throwing skill.

Throwing for Accuracy

•Throwers may use lower developmental steps for accuracy throws than for forceful throws. • When required to throw a greater distance, differences between throws are minimal

Force and Time

•To make an object move, increase force application for a given time. •Example: karate chop to bricks • •To make an object stop, increase time over which a given force is applied. •Example: soft landing in gymnastics

Proficient Walking

•Trading stability for mobility •Stride length increases. •Base of support is reduced. •Pelvis is rotated. •Opposition (arms to legs) occurs.

Flexibility Training

•Training can maintain range of motion in those with full range. • •Training can improve range of motion in those with limited range.

Lead

•Transmitted to developing fetus via placenta or to infant during breastfeeding -Lowered Intelligence -Decreased Coordination -Shortened Attention Span -Aggressive Behavior -Reading and Other Disabilities

Developmental Changesin Overarm Striking

•Trunk, upper and lower arm, and leg sequences similar to those for overarm throwing • •Preparatory trunk action 1.No trunk rotation 2.Minimal trunk rotation 3.Total trunk rotation •Elbow action in ball-contact phase 1.Very small or very large angle 2.Intermediate angle (2°-89°) 3.Ideal angle (90°-119°) ● •Spinal and pelvic range of motion 1.Rotation of less than 45° 2.Rotation of 45°to 89° Rotation of 90°or more •Racket action 1. No racket lag 2. Racket lag 3. Delayed racket lag

Perception-Action Perspective

•Two characteristics of person-environment system for catching involve constant patterns of change. -Invariants: stable patterns -Expanding optical array: visual pattern that expands or constricts on the retina •Invariance in moving sideways was investigated through the constant bearing angle strategy.

Sociocultural Constraints

•Type of environmental constraint -group attitudes that affect (motor) behaviors of an individual •Social values, norms and mores, ideals -Mores (pronounced "morays") are highly important socially defined "rules" •Culturally specific concepts about movement behaviors

Individual Constraints

•Unique physical, mental characteristics -Internal -Structural: related to the body's structure •Height •Muscle mass -Functional: related to behavioral function •Attention; Motivation

Sidearm Striking

•Various body parts can be used. • •Implements can be used. • •Mechanical principles are similar for all striking tasks.

Later Infancy

•Voluntary control of movements • •Understanding of environment, objects in environment • •Meaningful interactions with others • •Postural reactions

Walking

•Walking is the first form of upright, bipedal locomotion. • •Walking is defined by -50% phasing between the legs -period of double support (both feet on the ground) followed by period of single support

Assessing Balance

•We can observe responses -on a force plate, -when balance is perturbed, -when perceptual information from one system conflicts with that from another system, and -when one source of information (such as vision) is taken away. •Observation can involve electromyographs.

Spatial-Temporal Intermodal Perception

•We hypothesize that space and time are invariant across modalities. •Integrating two spatial stimuli is easiest; two temporal stimuli, hardest. •Integrating spatial and temporal stimuli is intermediate in difficulty. •Ability to integrate subtle aspects continues to improve during adolescence.

Limb Movement

•We must be able to reproduce a limb movement or relocate a limb position. • •Perception of limb movement improves in late childhood.

Balance During Locomotion

•We use frames of reference. -Supporting surface -Gravity - •The challenge is to control the many degrees of freedom of movement at the various body joints. -Stabilize head on trunk -Stabilize head position in space

Reaching

•What drives infants to transition from random arm movements to purposeful reaches? -Reaching in the dark -Prism demonstration •Does learning to reach involve learning to visually match hand and object or learning to control the arm? -Using stretch reflex system to set muscle tension to what is expected (e.g. empty milk carton)

Distance and Object Perception Interact

•With adequate visual perception, perceived objects retain size even if retinal image size changes due to change in distance from observer to object. • •Newborns demonstrate perception of size constancy with varying distance.

Overarm Striking

•Without an implement (e.g., volleyball serve) • •With an implement (e.g., tennis serve)

Balance Changes With Aging: Younger Adults

•Younger adults on a movable platform use ankle muscles to regain balance after small, slow perturbations. • •They use a hip strategy to regain balance after larger, faster perturbations.

Opiode use

•growth restriction •abruptio placentae •fetal death •preterm labor •intrauterine passage of meconium •These effects may be related to the repeated exposure of the fetus to opioid withdrawal as well as the effects of withdrawal on placental function.

Motor learning

•relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with practice or experience

Zika Virus

•transmitted through the bite of infected Aedes mosquitoes; also transmitted from a pregnant mother to her baby during pregnancy or around the time of birth. We do not know how often Zika is transmitted from mother to baby during pregnancy or around the time of birth. •There are reports in Brazil of microcephaly and other poor pregnancy outcomes in babies of mothers who were infected with Zika virus while pregnant.