Kingdom Fungi & Animalia

--> Most triploblastic animals have a body cavity (also called a coelom), a fluid or air-filled space located between the digestive tract and the outer body wall. Coelomates: 1) A true coelom forms from tissue derived from the mesoderm. 2) The inner and outer layers of tissue that surround the coelom connect and form structures that suspend the internal organs. 3) Triploblastic animals that have a true coelom, a body cavity completely lined by tissue derived from the mesoderm, are called coelomates. 4) Coelomates have a complete digestive tract. Pseudocoelomates: 1) Triploblastic animals that have a coelom lined by tissue derived from both mesoderm and endoderm are called pseudocoelomates. 2) Despite its name, a pseudocoelom is still a fully functioning body cavity. 3) Pseudocoelomates have a complete digestive tract. Acoelomates: 1) Triploblastic animals that lack a body cavity are called acoelomates. 2) Acoelomates have an incomplete digestive tract.

Describe animal body plans: body cavities.

--> Animals can be described as having one of two developmental modes: protostome development or deuterostome development. --> These modes can be distinguished by the fate of the blastopore. Fate of the blastopore: 1) In protostome development, the mouth forms from the blastopore. 2) In deuterostome development anus forms from the blastopore.

Describe animal body plans: protostome and deuterostome developemet.

--> A basic feature of animal bodies is their type of symmetry (or absence of symmetry). Many sponges, for example, lack symmetry altogether. Radial symmetry: 1) Oral (top) and aboral (bottom) 2) No distinct right or left side, front or back. 3) Ex: a flowering pot or sea anemone (phylum Cnidaria) Bilateral symmetry: 1) A dorsal (top) side and a ventral (bottom) side. 2) A right and left side. 3) Anterior (head) and posterior (tail) ends. 4) Cephalization: the development of a head. 5) Ex: a shovel or a lobster (phylum Arthropoda) The symmetry of an animal generally fits its lifestyle: 1) Many radial animals are sessile (living attached to a substrate) or planktonic (drifting or weakly swimming, such as jellyfish). --> Their symmetry equips them to meet the environment equally well from all sides. 2) Many bilateral animals move actively from place to place. --> Most bilateral animals have a central nervous system that enables them to coordinate the complex movements involved in crawling, burrowing, flying, or swimming.

Describe animal body plans: symmetry.

--> In animals, true tissues are collections of specialized cells isolated from other tissues by membraneous layers. Sponges lack true tissues. 1) In most animals, the embryo layer becomes layered through the process of gastrulation. --> As development progresses, these layers, called germ layers, form the various tissues and organs of the body. 2) Ectoderm, the germ layer covering the surface of the embryo, gives rise to the outer coverings of the animal. 2) Endoderm, the innermost germ layer, lines the pouch that forms during gastrulation (the archenteron) and gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract. Diploblastic: 1) Cnidarians and a few other animal groups that only have two germ layers are diploblastic. --> Ectoderm and endoderm --> Radial symmetrical animals are diploblastic Triploblastic: 1) Animals that have three germ layers are triploblastic. --> Ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm --> The third germ layer, called the mesoderm, fills much of the space between the ectoderm and the endoderm. --> The mesoderm forms the muscles and most other organs between the digestive tract and the outer covering of the animal. --> Bilateral symmetrical animals are triploblastic

Describe animal body plans: tissues.

—> The common ancestor of living animals may have been a stationary suspension feeder, similar to present-day choanoflagellates. —> Choanoflagellates are among the closest living relatives of plants.

Describe animal phylogeny. (Figure. 32.3)

--> Fungi reproduce by releasing spores that are produced either sexually or asexually.

Describe fungal reproduction.

—> Fungi act as decomposers, or saprotrophs, by acquiring nutrition from non-living organic material; mutualists, where the fungus and another organism benefit from a symbiosis; and pathogens, where fungal growth harms an organism it is feeding on. Fungi As Decomposers (Saprotrophs): 1) Can decompose organic matter, including the cellulose and lignin of plant cell walls, and recycle vital nutrients. 2) The use of fungi in bioremediation being developed. Fungi As Mutualists: --> Fungi form mutualistic relationships with plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and animals. Fungal-Plant Mutualisms: 1) Mycorrhizae is a mutualistic association of plant roots and fungi 2) Fungal associations within roots of almost all herbaceous plants and tropical trees. 3) Mycorrhizal fungi have specialized hyphae called haustoria, which the fungi use to extract nutrients from, or exchange nutrients with, their plant hosts. --> Haustoria remain separated from a plant cell's cytoplasm by the plasma membrane of the plant. 4) Benefit to fungi: --> carbohydrates provided by plant photosynthesis. 5) Benefit to plants: --> Increase competitiveness --> They increase mineral uptake --> Aid in water uptake --> Provide protection from disease and pests. 6) There are two main types of mycorrhizal fungi: ectomycorrhizal fungi and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. —> Ectomycorrhizal fungi form sheaths of hyphae over the surface of a root and typically grow into the extracellular spaces of the the root cortex. —> Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi extend branching hyphae through the root cell wall and into tubes formed by pushing inward of the root cell plasma membrane. Fungal-Plant Mutualisms: 1) Endophytes are symbiotic that live entirely within the tissue (leaves, stems, flowers, etc) of plants, often living in the space between the cells, without causing harm. 2) Fungal endophytes differ from mycorrhizal fungi because their association is not limited to the roots, and they exit entirely within the plant tissue, emerging only during reproduction, usually when the plant is dead or dying. 3) While mycorrhizal fungi have a defined function in nutrient transfer in the soil, the interaction between endophytes and the plant host is diverse. --> Endophytes benefit some non-woody plants by making toxins that deter herbivores or by increasing host plant tolerance of heat, drought, or heavy metals. Fungus-Animal Mutualisms: 1) Some fungi share their digestive services with animals, helping break down plant material in the guts of cattle and other grazing animals. 2) Many species of ants take advantage of the digestive power of fungi by raising them in "farms." --> Leaf-cutter ants, for example, carry leaves that they cannot digest back to their nests and feed to the fungi. --> As the fungi grow, their hyphae develop specialized swollen tips that are rich in proteins and carbohydrates. --> The ants feed primarily on these nutrient-rich tips. --> The fungi break down plant leaves into substances the insects can digest, and they also detoxify plant defensive compounds that would otherwise kill or harm the ants. Fungal-Algal Mutualisms: Lichens: 1) A lichen is symbiotic association between a photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus in which millions of photosynthetic cells are held in a mass of fungal hyphae. 2) Lichens grow on the surfaces of rocks, trees, rotting logs, etc. 3) The algal component are unicellular or filamentous green algae or cyanobacteria. The fungal component most often an ascomycete. 5) The merger of fungus and algae is so complete that they are actually given genus and species names, as though they were single organisms. 6) Asexual reproduction as a symbiotic unit is common. --> This can occur either by fragmentation of the parental lichen or by the formation of soredia, small clusters of hyphae with embedded algae. 7) Benefit to fungi: --> The algae contribute carbohydrates --> Cyanobacteria provide nitrogen 8) Benefit to alga: --> Fungus contributes minerals, water and protection - ensures environment for growth. 9) Importance of Lichens: --> Can inhabit the barest of landscapes, and tolerate extremes of temperature. --> Food for animals in Tundra - grow under the snow. --> Animal use in nests. --> They are an important pioneers on cleared rock and soil surfaces, such as volcanic flows and durned forests. They break down the surface by physically penetrating and chemically attacking it. Nitrogen-fixing lichens also add organic nitrogen to some ecosystems. These processes help plants grow. Lichens may have aided the colonization of land by plants. --> Very sensitive to air pollution, so they're used for monitoring air pollution. Fungi as Pathogens: 1) About 30% of fungal species are parasites or pathogens, mostly of plants --> Fungi cause 80% of plant diseases --> Some fungi that attack food crops are toxic to humans. 2) Extensive damage to lodgepole pine forests in BC has been caused by by Grosmannia clavigera (blue stain fungus) that's transmitted by mountain pine beetles. 2) The general term for a fungal infection in animals is mycosis. 3) Animals are much less susceptible to parasitic fungi than are plants. --> The chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis might be the cause of the recent decline in amphibians worldwide. --> White-nose syndrome caused by an ascomycete fungus has devastated bat populations.

Describe fungal roles in the ecosystem.

1) Protostomes 2) Coelomates 3) Bodies composed of a series of fused rings (segmented) 4) The earthworms and their relatives Earthworms: 1) Require moist environments 2) Important decomposers 3) Complete digestive tract 4) Closed circulatory system 5) Simple brain & ventral nerve cord 6) Sexual reproduction - hermaphrodites

Describe phyla Annelids.

1) Protostomes & Coelomates 2) Found in nearly all habitats of the biosphere 3) Most successful animal phylum: --> Diversity, distribution and numbers 4) Body of arthropod is completely covered by an exoskeleton (cuticle made of protein and chitin) 5) Have eyes, olfactory (smell) receptors, and antennae that function in touch and smell. 6) Organs specialized for gas exchange. Success due to: 1. Segmented bodies: --> Segments fuse to make specialized body regions - decrease in segments and increase in specialization. --> Well developed anterior sense organs. 2. Two or more pairs of jointed appendages: --> One pair of legs per segment --> Modified for variety of functions - e.g. walking, feeding, defence, reproduction. 3. Rigid exoskeleton made of chitin: --> Protects --> Provides attachment for the muscles --> Relative impermeability to water (desiccation) --> Shed through molting 1) Insects (subphylum Hexapoda) most successful of Arthropod groups --> Flight is one key to the great success of insects. --> The internal anatomy: several complex organ systems.

Describe phyla Arthropoda.

1) Protostomes 2) Pseudocoelomates 3) Organ systems present --> No circulatory system 4) Tough outer cuticle (a type of exoskeleton) --> Prevents dehydration 5) Found in most aquatic habitats, in the soil, in moist tissues of plants, and in body fluids and tissues of animals

Describe phyla Nematodes (Roundworms).

1) True tissue 2) Radial body symmetry 3) Diploblastic 4) A cnidarian is a sac with a central digestive compartment called the gastrovascular cavity. --> A single opening to this cavity functions as both mouth and anus. 5) There are two variations on this body plan: the sessile polyp and the motile medusa. --> Polyps are cylindrical forms that adhere to the substrate by the aboral end of their body (the end opposite the mouth/anus) and extend their tentacles, waiting for prey. Ex: hydras and sea anemones. --> A medusa resembles a flattened, mouth/anus-down version of the polyp. It moves freely in the water by a combination of passive drifting and contractions of it's bell-shaped body. --> Some cnidarians exist only as polyp or only as medusae; others have both stages in their life cycle. 6) Cnidarians are carnivores that use tentacles arranged in a ring around their mouth/anus to capture prey and push the food into their gastrovascular cavity, where digestion begins. --> Undigested remains are expelled through the mouth/anus. 7) The tentacles are armed with batteries of cnidocytes, cells unique to cnidarians that function in defence and prey capture. 8) Cnidocytes contain cnidae, which are organelles that are capable of exploding outward. --> Specialized cnidae called nematocysts contain a stinging thread that can penetrate the body wall of the cnidarian's prey. 9) Contractile tissues and nerves occur in their simplest forms in cnidarians. --> Cells of the epidermis (outer layer) and gastrodermis (inner layer) have bundles of contractile fibres. --> Movements are coordinated by a nerve net. Cnidarians have no brain, and the non-centralized nerve net is associated with sensory structures that are distributed around the body. Thus, the animal can detect and respond to stimuli from all directions.

Describe phylum Cnidaria.

1) Coelomates 2) Endoskeleton: thin epidermis covers hard calcareous plates 3) Unique water vascular system - a network of hydraulic canals branching into tube feet that function in locomotion and feeding. 4) Adults with radial symmetry, larvae bilaterally symmetrical. 5) Slow-moving or sessile marine animals. 6) Sexual reproduction usually involves separate male and female individuals that release their gametes into the water. 7) Sea star, sea urchin, sea cucumber

Describe phylum Echinodermata.

1) Protostomes 2) Coelomates 3) Inhabit marine, freshwater, and moist terrestrial habitats 4) Most molluscs have separate sexes, but many snails are hermaphrodites. 5) The life cycle of many molluscs includes a ciliated larval stage called a trochophore. 6) All molluscs are soft-bodied and most have a hard protective shell made of calcium carbonate. 7) Their bodies have three main parts: --> a muscular foot, usually used for movement. --> a visceral mass containing most of the internal organs --> a mantle, a fold of tissue that drapes over the visceral mass and secretes a shell (if one is present). 8) In many molluscs, the mantle extends beyond the visceral mass, producing a water-filled chamber, the mantle cavity, which houses the gills, anus, and excretory pores. 9) Many molluscs feed by using a strap-like organ called a radula to scrape up food. 10) Snails, slugs, oysters, clams, octopuses

Describe phylum Mollusca.

1) Protostomes 2) Acoelomates --> Incomplete digestive tract. --> Most flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity with only one opening. 3) Their flattened shape maximizes surface area for gas exchange and the elimination of waste by diffusion. 4) Inhabit marine, freshwater, and moist terrestrial habitats --> Planaria, flukes, tapeworms Planarians 1) Carnivores 2) No rigid skeleton 3) Use true muscle tissue and cilia to swim 4) Nervous system is more complex than cnidarians --> Have light-sensitive eyespot at the head --> Have a centralized nerve net 5) Some reproduce sexually (hermaphrodites), and come reproduce asexually

Describe phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

1) No true tissue (parazoa) 2) Simple structure - aggregation of cells with very little differentiation/ specialization 3) Lack symmetry 4) Marine and fresh water 5) Sexual and asexual reproduction --> Most are hemaphrodites. 6) Sponges are suspension feeders: They capture food particles suspended in the water that passes through their body. --> Water is drawn through the pores into a central cavity, the spongocoel, and then flows out of the sponge through a larger opening called the osculum. 7) Flagellated choanocytes, or collar cells, line the interior of the spongocoel. --> These cells engulf food particles by phagocytosis. 8) The sponge body consists of two layers of cells separated by a gelatinous region called the mesophyl. 9) Amoebocytes are cells that: --> Digest food and carry it to other cells. --> Manufacture tough skeletal fibres within the mesohyl. In some sponges, these fibres are sharp spicules made from calcium carbonate or silica. --> They can differentiate into other types of sponge cells. This gives the sponge flexibility.

Describe phylum Porifera (Sponges)

1) Protostomes 2) Pseudocoelomates --> Complete digestive tract --> In contrast to cnidarians and flatworms, which have a gastrovascular cavity, rotifers have an alimentary canal, a digestive tube with two openings, a mouth and an anus. 3) Fluid in the pseudocoelom serves as a hydrostatic skeleton. 4) Very small, but multicellular with specialized organ systems 5) Inhabits marine, freshwater, and moist terrestrial habitats. 6) Can reproduce sexual or asexually (parthenogenesis). --> Some species exist only of females that produce more females from unfertilized eggs, a type of reproduction called parthenogenesis.

Describe phylum Rotifera.

1) Bilateral symmetry 2) Triploblastic - 3 germ layers 3) Most have a coelom and a digestive tract with two openings. 4) Includes three clades: lophotrochozoa, ecdysozoa, and deuterostomia. 5) Lophotrochozoa includes platyhelminthes (flatworms), rotifers, molluscs, and annelids. 6) The clade Lophotrochozoa contain animals that develop a lophophore, a crown of ciliated tentacles that function in feeding, while others go through a distinctive stage called the trochophore larva. Few have neither feature.

Describe the bilateria clade.

1) Belongs to the clade Bilateria, which includes the clades: Deuterostomia, Lophotrochozoa, and Ecdysozoa. 2) Deuterostomes share developmental characteristics --> Formation of the anus from the blastopore.

Describe the clade Deuterostomia.

1) Belongs to the clade Bilateria, which includes the clades: Deuterostomia, Lophotrochozoa, and Ecdysozoa 2) Ecdysozoans are covered by a tough coat called a cuticle --> The cuticle is shed or molted through a process called ecdysis 3) The two largest phyla are nematodes and arthropods

Describe the clade Ecdysozoa.

1) Fungi and Animals - Sister Kingdoms 2) Fungi are more closely related to animals than either is to plant or other eukaryotic group. 3) Evolved from a common flagellated unicellular ancestor. 4) Collectively, animals and fungi are in the same clade called opisthokonts, a name that refers to the posterior location of the flagellum in these organisms. —> While most fungi lack flagella, the earliest diverging ancestors had them, suggesting they were lost during evolution. 5) Multicellularity arose separately in the two groups.

Describe the fungal phylogeny,

1) All animals share a common ancestor. --> Animals are monophyletic, forming a clade called Metazoa. --> All extant and extinct animal lineages have descended from a common ancestor. 2) Sponges (phylum Porifera) are basal animals. 3) Eumetazoa is a clade of animals with true tissues. --> All phyla except for Porifera belong to a clade of eumetazoans. --> Basal eumentazoans, which include phyla Ctenophora and Cnidaria, are diploblastic and have radial symmetry. 4) Most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria. --> Have bilateral symmetry and three germ layers. 5) There are three major clades of bilateral animals. --> Deuterostomia, Lophotrochozoa, and Ecdysozoa. --> With one exception (Chordata), the phyla in these clades consist entirely invertebrates, animals that lack a backbone.

Describe the phylogeny of living animals. (Figure. 32.11)

—> Animals are multicellular, ingestive heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers. Nutritional Mode: 1) Plants are autotrophic eukaryotes capable of generating organic molecules through photosynthesis. 2) Fungi are heterotrophs that grow on or near their food and that feed by absorption (often after they have released enzymes that digest the food outside of their bodies.) 3) Unlike plants, animals cannot construct all of their own organic molecules and so, in most cases, they ingest them — either by eating other living organisms or by eating non-living organic material. 4) Unlike fungi, most animals do not feed by absorption; instead, animals ingest their food and then use enzymes to digest it within their bodies. Cell Structure and Specialization: 1) Like plants and fungi, animals are multicellular eukaryotes. 2) In contrast to plants and fungi, animals lack the structural support of cell walls. --> Instead, a variety of proteins external to the cell membrane provide structural support to animal cells and connect them to one another. --> The most abundant of these proteins is collagen, which is not found in plants and fungi. 3) The cells of most animals are organized into tissues, groups of similar cells that act as a functional unit. —> For example, muscle tissue and nervous tissue are responsible for moving the body and conducting nerve impulses, respectively. --> Plants and fungi do not have nervous or muscle tissue. Reproduction and Development: 1) Most animals reproduce sexually, and the diploid stage usually dominates the life cycle. 2) In the haploid stage, sperm and egg cells are produced directly by meiotic division, unlike what occurs in plants and fungi. 3) In most animals, a small, flagellated sperm fertilizes a larger non-motile egg, forming a diploid zygote. 4) The zygote then undergoes cleavage, a succession of mitotic cell divisions without cell growths between the divisions. 5) During the development of most animals, cleavage leads to the formation of a multicellular stage called a blastula, which takes the form of a hollow ball. 6) Following the blastula stage is the process of gastrulation, during which the layers of embryonic tissues that will develop into adult body parts are produced. The resulting developmental stage is called a gastrula. 7) Although some animals, including humans, develop directly into adults, the life cycles of most animals include at least one larval stage. 8) A larva is a sexually immature form of an animal that is morphologically distinct from the adult, usually eats different food, and may have a different habitat than the adult. 9) Animals larvae eventually undergo metamorphosis, a developmental transformation that turns the animal into a juvenile that resembles an adult but is not yet sexually mature. Early embryonic development in animals (Figure 32.2): 1) The zygote undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions called cleavage. 2) An eight-cell embryo is formed by three rounds of cell division. 3) In most animals, cleavage produces a multicellular stage called the blastula. The blastula is a hollow ball of cells that surrounds a cavity called the blastocoel. 4) Most animals also undergo gastrulation, a process in which one end of the embryo folds inward, expands, and eventually fills the blastocoel, producing layers of embryonic tissues: the ectoderm (outer layer) and the endoderm (inner layer). 5) The pouch formed by gastrulation, called the archenteron, opens to the outside via the blastopore. 6) The endoderm of the archenteron develops into the tissue lining the animal's digestive tract.

Explain how the members of the Kingdom Animalia can be distinguished from other Kingdoms based on their: nutritional mode, cellular organization, and development.

1) Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by the absorption of nutrients from the environment outside of its body. 2) Many fungi accomplish this task by secreting powerful hydrolytic enzymes into their surrounding. These enzymes break down complex molecules to smaller organic compounds that the fungi can absorb into their bodies and use. —> Other fungi use enzymes to penetrate the walls of cells. enabling the fungi to absorb nutrients from the cells. —> The enzymes can digest compounds from a wide range of sources, living or dead, including the most abundant biomolecules on the plants — cellulose and lignin.

How do fungi obtain their nutrients?

—> This diversity of food sources corresponds to the varied roles of fungi in ecological communities, with different species living as decomposers, parasites, or mutualists. 1) Decomposer fungi break down and absorb nutrients from non-living organic materials, such as fallen logs, animal corpses, and the wastes of living organisms. --> They are an essential component of global carbon recycling. 2) Parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from the cells of living hosts. --> Some parasitic fungi are pathogenic, including many species that cause disease in plants. 3) Mutualistic fungi also absorb nutrients from a host, but they reciprocate with actions that benefit the host. For example, the mutualistic fungi that live inside certain termite species use their enzymes to break down wood.

How is this nutritional mode directly related to ecological roles fungi play in the biosphere?

1) Animal diversity can be categorized into a number of major body plans: a set of morphological and developmental traits that have evolved over time 2) Some body plans have been conserved, while other have changed multiple times over the course of evolution: --> symmetry --> tissues --> body cavities --> protostome / deuterostome development

What are animal body plans?

1) Decomposers recycle organic matter. 2) Farming would be less productive without mycorrhizae. 3) Bioremediation: the use of either naturally occurring or deliberately introduced microorganisms or other forms of life to consume and break down environmental pollutants, in order to clean up a polluted site. 4) Yeasts are used to produce alcoholic beverages and bread. 5) Medicine and research

What are the ways in which humans benefit from fungi?

1) Yeasts = single celled fungal body structures. 2) The most common fungal body structures are multicellular filaments and single cells (yeasts). 3) Many species can grow as both filaments and yeasts, but even more grow only as filaments; relatively few species grow only as yeasts. 4) Yeasts often inhabit moist environments, including plant sap and animal tissues, where there is a ready supply of soluble nutrients, such as sugars and amino acids.

What is meant by the term yeast?

1) The structure of multicellular fungi enhances their ability to grow into and absorb nutrients from their surroundings. Two Forms of Hyphae- Septate Hyphae and Coenocytic Hyphae: 2) The bodies of these fungi typically form a network of tiny filaments called hyphae (singular, hypha). —> Hyphae consist of tubular cell walls surrounding the plasma membrane and cytoplasm of the cells. —> Unlike plant cell walls, which contain cellulose, fungal cell walls are strengthen by chitin. This strong but flexible nitrogen-nitrogen-containing polysaccharide is also found in the external skeleton of arthropods. 3) In most fungi, the hyphae are divided into cells by cross-walls, or septa (singular, septum). —> Septa generally have pores large enough to allow ribosomes, mitochondria, and even nuclei to flow from cell to cell. 4) Some fungi lack septa. Know as coenocytic fungi, these organisms consist of a continuous cytoplasmic mass having hundreds or even thousands of nuclei. 5) Fungal hyphae form an interwoven mass called a mycelium (plural, mycelium) that infiltrates the material on which the fungus feeds. —> A mycelium's structure maximizes its surface-to-volume ratio, making absorption of nutrients very efficient. —> A fungal mycelium grow rapidly, as proteins and other materials synthesized by the fungus are channeled through cytoplasmic streaming to the tips of the extending hyphae. —> These hyphae biomass can grow to cover an enormous area. Fungi are not motile in the typical sense, however, as they grow, fungi can move into territory, swiftly extending the tips of their hyphae.

What is the basic body structure of a multicellular fungus?