KNAPP PSYC 2070 exam 3

IQ stability

2. IQ scores are quite stable across time. There are, however, quite wide fluctuations in an individual's scores, especially among young children. The general rule of thumb is that the older the child, the more stable the IQ score, although even in older children scores may still show fluctuations in response to major stresses, such as parental divorce, changing schools, or the birth of a sibling.

initiative vs guilt stage

3 to 6 according to erikson, the period during which children experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action a. With parents' help, children can learn to be independent and begin to shape the kind of persons they will become by making good decisions. b. Parents who discourage children's efforts to be independent may induce in their children a sense of lifelong guilt.

roger gould

1. suggests that adults pass through a series of 7 stages associated with specific age periods. a. People in their late 30s and early 40s begin to feel a sense of urgency in terms of attaining life's goals—this reality propels them to adulthood. b. Little research supports his descriptions.

theory of mind

1. the ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, and knowledge — to ourselves and others a) Infants see others as compliant agents, beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and respond to the infant's requests.

3 legacies of Binet's Tests

1. binet's pragmatic approach to the construction of intelligence tests. 2. our second inheritance stems from Binet's focus on linking intelligence and school success 3. Binet developed a procedure of assigning each intelligence test score to a mental age

temperament

1. patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual a) Temperament is not fixed and unchangeable. b) Child-rearing practices can modify temperament significantly. Temperament shows stability from infancy through adolescence

romantic relationships

While attachment styles displayed in adulthood are not necessarily the same as those seen in infancy, research indicates that early attachments can have a serious impact on later relationships. For example, those who are securely attached in childhood tend to have good self-esteem, strong romantic relationships and the ability to self-disclose to others. As adults, they tend to have healthy, happy and lasting relationships.

role of psychological needs in determining happiness

Young adults are happiest when their psychological needs—rather than their material needs—are met. a. Uplifts include being chosen for a new job, developing a deep relationship, and moving into their own home. b. They report being least satisfied when basic psychological needs are unfulfilled. c. Culture defines the value of particular needs.

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, second edition (KABC-II)

a children's intelligence test permitting unusual flexibility in its administration. Children tested in using environmental stimuli and step by step thinking. Flexibilty allows person giving test to use different wording to maximize the test-takers score

intellectual disability (mental retardation)

a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

a measure that evaluates an infant's development from 2 to 42 months

language acquisition device (LAD)

a neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit understanding of language structure and provides strategies for learning the particular characteristics of a language

crisis

a period in which an adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives and makes decisions

body transcendence versus body preoccupation

a period in which people must learn to cope with and move beyond changes in physical capabilities as a result of aging (1) If they do not cope well, they become preoccupied with physical deterioration, to the detriment of their personality development.

self concept

a person's identity or set of beliefs about what one is like as an individual 2. Youngsters typically overestimate their skills and knowledge. If you asked a 4 year old how many words they could remember out of 100, they'd probably tell you 100. Their optimism is really kind of cute. That will fade as they start to compare themselves to their peers and realize that they may not be as great as they think they are. 3. They also begin to develop a view of self that reflects the way their particular culture considers the self.

individualistic orientation

a philosophy that emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of the individual

collectivistic orientation

a philosophy that promotes the notion of interdependence

reactive attachment disorder

a psychological problem characterized by extreme difficulty in forming attachments to others

Validity

a quality of tests that actually measure what they are supposed to measure c. Just because a test produces reliable results does not mean those results are valid.

Reliability

a quality of tests that measure consistently what they are trying to measure

dyslexia

a reading disability that can result in misperception of letters during reading and writing, unusual difficulty in sounding out letters, confusion between left and right, and difficulties in spelling

intelligence quotient (IQ)

a score that takes into account a student's mental and chronological age. (Mental age/Chronological age x 100= IQ

major depression

a) full-blown psychological disorder which is sever and lingers for long periods b) Girls have higher incidences of depression than boys but the cause is not clear. (1) Are there more stressors in the female gender role? (2) Is this the result of girls' tendencies to react to stress by turning inward, thus experiencing helplessness and hopelessness? (3) Hormonal differences are not a factor.

robert butler

a. the life review is triggered by the increasing awareness that one will die. b. There are benefits to a life review. (1) a better understanding of one's past (2) resolution of lingering problems (3) a sense of sharing and mutuality with others (4) may improve memory (5) Overall, this process can provide continuity between past and present as well as increasing awareness of the contemporary world. (6) leads to insights into the past c. A life review is not always positive. (1) People may become obsessed with the past. This may cause psychological dysfunction

Phonology

basic sounds of language (phonemes) i.e. vowels

imprinting

behavior that tales place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed Theorists used to believe that infants became attached to their primary caregiver because the primary caregiver fed them. Over time, the infant transfers the good feelings of being fed and cared for to the attachment figure.

children use of language

c. These styles reflect some cultural differences - for example, American mothers encourage labeling, whereas Japanese mothers tend to talk about feelings more.

intelligence

capacity to understand the world, think with rationality, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges

interactional synchrony

caregivers respond to infants appropriately and both caregiver and child match emotional states are more likely to produce secure attachment

gifted and talented

children who give evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capacity, or specific academic fields § Intellectual capabilities represent only one type of exceptionality. § Unusual potential in areas outside the academic realm are also included in the concept. § Most research suggests that highly intelligent people also tend to be outgoing, well adjusted, and popular.

prelinguistic communication

communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means

deviation IQ scores

computed by comparing other children of the same age

culture-fair tests

designed to be independent of the cultural background of test-takers

logical-mathematical intelligence

detecting patterns, reasoning deductively, and thinking logically An individual demonstrates logical-mathematical intelligence when detecting patterns, reasoning deductively, and thinking logically.

anxiety disorders

develop when anxiety occurs without external justification and it impacts normal everyday functioning

specific learning disorder

difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities

bicultural identity

drawing form their own culture while integrating themselves into the dominant culture, suggest that an individual can hold two cultural identities without having to prefer one over the other

linguistic intelligence

involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals More specifically, Gardner explains that it involves sensitivity to the meaning of words, to the order among words, to the sounds, rhythms, inflections, and meters of words, and sensitivity to the different functions of language such as its ability to convince, stimulate, or convey information to accomplish specific goals.

componential aspect

involves the mental components used to solve problems

self awareness

knowledge of oneself

expressive style

language used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and others

referential style

language used primarily to label objects

babbling

making speech like but meaningless sounds\Starting around 2 or 3 months, infants start to babble—that is, they produce strings of consonant-vowel combinations, such as "ba, ba, ba, ba." They will produce all the sounds found in every language - not just sounds they hear in their native language. Even deaf babies who are exposed to sign language babble - they just use their hands instead of sounds. By the time they reach 6 months, most infants narrow their babbling to sounds found in their own language. Even people without linguistic training would be able to tell the difference between infants raised in a Cantonese speaking household, and one raised in a French speaking household.

social identity theory

members of a minority group are likely to accept the negative views held by a majority group only if they perceive that there is little realistic possibility of changing the power and status differences between the groups d. Explain ethgender. - refers to the joint influence of race and gender

familial intellectual disability

no cause is apparent, but there is a history of intellectual disability in the family

agentic professions

occupations that are associate with getting things accomplished

communal professions

occupations that are associated with relationships

development scales

one way we could conceive of infant intelligence is by looking at the age at which infants reach particular developmental milestones. For example, we might think of an infant who starts talking early relative to their peers as more intelligent.

holophrase

one-word utterances that depend on the particular context in which they are used to determine meaning

life review

people examine and evaluate their lives

spatial intelligence

performing transformations and modifications to an individual's initial perceptions of visual experience According to Gardner (1993), this involves performing transformations and modifications to an individual's initial perceptions of a visual experience.

telegraphic speech

speech in which words that are not critical to the message are left out Notice that the two-word utterances omit many parts of speech and are remarkably succinct. In fact, in every language, a child's first combinations of words have this economical quality; they are telegraphic.

private speech

spoken language that is not intended for others. commonly used by children during the preschool years

redefinition of self versus preoccupation with work role

the theory that those in old age must redefine themselves in ways that do not relate to their work roles or occupations (1) There can be a difficult adjustment when people stop working. (2) Values must be adjusted to place less emphasis on achievements related to working or professionalism

realistic period

the third stage of ginzbergs theory which occurs in early adulthood during which people begin to explore specific career options and then narrow their choices and make a commitment

mental age

the typical intelligence level found for people at a given chronological age

Bilingualism

the use of more than one language a) English is a second language for more than 1 in 5 Americans and this number is increasing annually. b) Being bilingual may have cognitive advantages. (1) Greater cognitive flexibility (2) Greater metalinguistic awareness (3) May improve scores on IQ tests

Gestures

the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another. infants will start this from 8-12 months (pointing, waving, nodding)

nativist approach

theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs the development of language. According to Noam Chomsky, people are born with an innate capacity to use language

learning theory approach

theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning (child says da and is embraced by their father. they are more likely to say it again)

goodness of fit

(1) - the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised (2) A key determinant is the way parents react to the infant's behavior. (3) Culture also has a major influence on the consequences of a particular temperament.

slow to warm babies

(1) inactive, calm reactions, generally negative moods, withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly 15% of babies

difficult babies

(1) more negative moods and are slow to adapt, tend to withdrawal from new situations, 10% of babies

linguistic production

(productive language) the use of language to communicate

linguistic comprehension

(receptive language) the understanding of speech

unemployment

- can leave people feeling anxious, depressed, and irritable; their self confidence may plummet; unable to concentrate

age discrimination

- encourage older works to leave their jobs in order to replace them with younger employees whose salaries will be considerable lower, some employers believe that older workers are not up to the demands of the job or are less willing to adapt to a changing workplace b. Are these attitudes/practices supported by research? - no there is little evidence that older workers ability to perform their jobs declines.

mirror and rouge task

- infants nose is secretly colored with a dab of red powder, then the infant is seated Infront of a mirror - if infants touch their noses or attempt to wipe off the rouge we have evidence that they have at least some knowledge of their physical characteristics

how do millennials differ

- much more likely to expect to change jobs multiple times, have high expectations about how successful they will be but don't necessarily feel that they will need to work hard

intellectual

- oriented toward the theoretical and abstract. Although not particularly good with people, they are well suited to careers in math and science

trust vs mistrust stage

1. (birth to 18 months) - Define - according to erikson, the period during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers a. If infants develop trust, they experience a sense of hope that their future needs will be met. b. Mistrust leads infants to see the world as harsh and unfriendly, and can have trouble forming bonds with others later.

g

1. Intelligence tests today share an underlying premise that intelligence is composed of a single, unitary mental ability factor, commonly called "g."

noam chomsky

1. Linguist Noam Chomsky argued that children will never acquire the tools needed for processing an infinite number of sentences if the language acquisition mechanism was dependent on language input alone. 2. Consequently, he proposed the theory of Universal Grammar -all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure, such as a noun category and a verb category that facilitate the entire language development in children and overall language processing in adults. Universal Grammar is considered to contain all the grammatical information needed to combine these categories, e.g. noun and verb, into phrases. The child's task is just to learn the words of her language. 3. Along with universal grammar, Chomsky posits that we are born with a language acquisition device -LAD - Define - a neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit understanding of language structure and provide strategies for learning that particular characteristics of a language The LAD allows us to understand universal grammar, and gives us strategies to learn the particular language we are born into. However, Chomsky has not determined where in the brain the LAD resides.

identity, race, and ethnicity

- Identity formation presents unique challenges for members of racial and ethnic minority groups. Why? - society's contradictory values tell adolescents that society should be color blind that race and ethnic background should not affect opporitunities and achievement and that is they do achieve society will accept them

psychological moratorium

- a period during which they take time off from upcoming responsibilities of adulthood to explore various roles and possibilities - yea I do see why some people decide to do this

socieoeconomic status

- adolescents of higher SES generally have higher self esteem than those of lower SES;

conventional

- prefer highly structured tasks, good clerks, secretaires and bank tellers

enterprising

- risk takers and take charge types - good leaders (managers or politicians)

criticisms of valliant study

- sample was restricted, societal norms have changed since the 1930s, lack of women in the sample and the fact that there have been major changes in the role of work in the womens lives

realistic

- these people are down to earth, practical problem solvers, and physically strong, but social skills are mediocre - they make good farmers, laborers, and truck drivers

social

- traits associated with social personality type are related to verbal skills and interpersonal relations, work with people and consequently make good salespersons, teachers, and counselors

artistic

- use art to express themselves and they often prefer the world of art to interactions with people - best suited to occupations involving art 7. A major problem with Holland's theory is that not everyone fits neatly into a particular personality type.

dynamic assessment

assessment tasks should involve cooperative interaction between the assessed individual and the assessor (Vygotsky)

social comparison

the desire to evaluate one's own behavior, abilities, expertise and opinions by comparing them to those of others

social referencing

1. the intentional search for information about others feelings to help make sense of uncertain circumstances and events a) First occurs in infants at about 8-9 months. b) Infants make particular use of facial expressions in their social referencing. c) Social referencing is most likely to occur in uncertain and ambiguous situations as infants look to others to guide their own behavior. d) For instance, when you present an infant with a new toy, they will often look at their caregiver to see how they feel about it. If the caregiver looks horrified as the infant approaches the toy, they will often avoid it. If mom looks fine, the baby knows it's okay to play with the new toy.

industry vs inferiority stage

1. the period characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges presented by parents, peers, school and the other complexities of the modern world a. This stage involves not only gaining much knowledge and many skills, but also making a niche for themselves in the social world. b. Difficulties in this stage lead to feelings of failure and incapability, and children may withdraw from both academics and interactions with peers.

identity vs identity confusion stage

1. the period during which teenagers seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves a. At this time, adolescents explore roles, narrow choices, and find out who they really are. b. Adolescents who don't resolve this stage find it difficult to form and maintain close relationships.

Timothy Salthouse discrepancy between cognition and competence

1. typical measures of cognitive skills tap a different type of cognition than is required for success in certain occupation 2. the most successful middle-aged adults are not representative of midlife adults in general 3. the degree of cognitive ability required for professional success may simply not be that high 4. perhaps older people are successful because they have developed specific kinds of expertise and particular competencies

autonomy vs shame and doubt stage

18 months to 3 years 1. the period during which according to erikson, toddlers develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected a. Parents who encourage exploration have children who feel safe within their boundaries. b. Children who are overly protected feel unhappiness and shame as well as self-doubt.

early smile

6-9 weeks - usually directed at things they like.

Aisworth Strange Situation

A sequence of stages episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and typically his or her mother

career consolidation

A stage that is entered between the ages of 20 and 40, when young adults become centered on their careers. Late 20s and early 30s started to act with great autonomy. Lost independence and questioning that they had displayed in college

identity formation

According to Erik Erikson, adolescents are in the identity-versus-identity-confusion stage. What is happening during this stage? - suggest that teenagers try to figure out what is unique and distinctive about themselves - a task that they manage with increasing sophistication due to the cognitive gains of adolescence b. What outcomes are associated with success/failure in finding a suitable identity? - those who do not find a suitable identity may go off course in several ways, they may adopt socially unacceptable roles to express what they do not want to be - those who forge an appropriate identity set a foundation for future psychosocial development. They learn their unique capabilities and believe in them, and they develop an accurate sense of self

dimensions of temperament

Activity level - reflects the degree of overall movement Irritability - nature and quality of an infants mood Approach-withdrawal - response to a new person or object, based on whether the child accepts the new situation or withdrawals from it Rhythmicity - regularity of basic functions Distractibility - degree to which environmental stimuli alter behavior Threshold of responsiveness - intensity of a stimulation need to elicit a response

personality in late adulthood

As part of a comprehensive description of change across adulthood, Robert Peck suggests that the first task in old age is a redefinition of self versus preoccupation with work role

bowlys views

Attachment is based primary in infants needs for safety and security - their genetically determined motivation to avoid predators 4. In a later experiment, Harlow demonstrated that young monkeys would also turn to their cloth surrogate mother for comfort and security. Harlow allowed the young monkeys to explore a room either in the presence of their surrogate mother or in her absence. Monkeys in the presence of their mother would use her as a secure base to explore the room. When the surrogate mothers were removed from the room, the effects were dramatic. The young monkeys no longer had their secure base to explore the room and would often freeze up, crouch, rock, scream, and cry.

crying

Babies cry even at birth. Crying can signal distress, but different types of cries that signal different things. This is a type of prelinguistic communication

cooing

Babies first coo at about 1 to 2 months. These are gurgling sounds that are made in the back of the throat and usually express pleasure during interaction with the caregiver.

wire mother experiment

Baby monkeys spent most of their time clinging to the cloth monkey although they made occasional expeditions to the wire monkey to nurse - cloth provided contact comfort

social smile

Becomes directed more toward mothers and other caregivers by the age of 18 months. Here, they are starting to smile at people more often than at objects. They are often using smiling as a way of initiating or maintaining social interactions.

linguistic relativity hypothesis

Benjamin Whorf's theory that language shapes and may determine the way people of a given culture perceive and understand the world. Language shapes and produces thinking

First Words

Between about 8 and 12 months of age, infants often indicate their first understanding of words. The infant's first spoken word is a milestone eagerly anticipated by every parent. This event usually occurs between 10 to 14 months of age and at an average of about 13 months. However, long before babies say their first words, they have been communicating with their parents, often by gesturing and using their own special sounds. The appearance of first words is a continuation of this communication process. A child's first words include those that name important people ( dada ), familiar animals ( kitty ), vehicles ( car ), toys ( ball ), food ( milk ), body parts ( eye ), clothes ( hat ), household items ( clock ), and greeting terms ( bye ). These were the first words of babies 50 years ago. They are the first words of babies today

first sentences

By the time children are 18 to 24 months of age, they usually utter two-word utterances. To convey meaning with just two words, the child relies heavily on gesture, tone, and context. The wealth of meaning children can communicate with a two-word utterance includes the following: identification— "See doggie"; location—"Book there"; repetition—"More milk"; negation— "Not wolf"; possession—"My candy"; attribution—"Big car"; agent-action— "Mama walk"; action-direct object— "Hit you"; action-indirect object—"Give Papa"; and question—"Where ball?" These examples are from children whose first language is English, German, Russian, Finnish, Turkish, or Samoan.

language advances during preschool years

Children rapidly progress from two-word utterances to longer, more sophisticated expressions that reflect their growing vocabularies and emerging grasp of grammar. The development of linguistic abilities is affected by socioeconomic status. The result can be lowered linguistic—and ultimately academic—performance by poorer children. A. Between late 2s and mid-3s, sentence length increases.

langauge to communicate

Comprehension comes first, then production. An 18-month old will be able to understand a complicated order from their parents before they could produce that sentence on their own.

information processing approaches

Contemporary approaches to infant intelligence and information-processing suggest that the speed with which infants process information correlates most strongly with later intelligence as measured by IQ tests administered during adulthood.

group difference

Cultural background and experience have the potential to affect intelligence test scores. 2.Many educators suggest that traditional measures of intelligence are subtly biased in favor of White, upper and middle-class students, and against groups with different cultural experiences.For an example of a test biased against White students, Google the Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity.This was a test developed in the 1970s to prove a point about test bias

self concept

Differentiation of self-concept reflects a complex definition of the self. For example, we talked about adolescents becoming more idealistic - they may start defining themselves by their belief systems, as well. b. Overall, our self-descriptions become more psychological. c.Can cause confusion as behaviors don't always match up with who they want to be, especially because their behavior changes with the different social situations they encounter.As they get older, they will become more comfortable with the idea of a self that changes depending on situational influences.

does intelligence decline in adulthood

Does Intelligence Decline in Adulthood? a. What does cross-sectional research say? Show that older subject were less likely to score well than younger subjects on traditional intelligence test b. How could cohort effects have affected these results? Growing up in a particular historical time that affect persons of a particular age c. What does longitudinal research say? Tends to show stable and even increasing intelligence test scores until their mid-30s and in some cases up to their 50s d. What drawbacks are associated with these types of tests? May perform better because they become familiar and comfortable, may begin to remember some test, practice effects, harder to keep samples in tact

middle childhood

During middle childhood, children begin to view themselves less in terms of external physical attributes and more in terms of psychological traits. Whereas before, they may have described themselves in terms of height and physical abilities, now they are focusing more on psychological differences between themselves and others. This is because they are more capable of abstract thinking than younger children - so their descriptions of the self become more abstract. b. Children realize they are good at some things and not so good at others. Their self-concepts tend to fall into 4 main categories: Academic self-concept; Social self-concept; Emotional self-concept; Physical self-concept. c. Not all of these self-concepts are equally important to the overall view of the self. For example, I know that I am completely hopeless when it comes to athletics. But luckily, I don't care about athletic ability that much - a low self-rating would not affect my overall sense of self that much. But I deeply care about my abilities as a teacher - if I rated myself low on that dimension, it would affect my overall sense of self.

...

E. Reframing the Issue: Focusing on Competence, Not Cognitive Abilities - It is during midlife that people come to hold some of the most important and powerful positions in society, despite gradual declines in certain cognitive abilities. How do we explain such continuing, even growing, competence?

phonologies

Each language uses only a subset of the sounds that humans are capable of producing, and no 2 languages have precisely the same phonologies - which explains why foreign languages may sound strange. Children must learn how to discriminate, produce, and combine the speechlike sounds of their native language in order to make sense of the speech they hear and to be understood when they try to speak. In learning phonology, infants learn to discriminate sounds of their language, such as the difference between "b" and "d" sounds, or which phonemes can be combined to form meaningful phonemes in their language.

race and self esteem

Early research showed that the self-esteem of minority groups was lower than that of majority groups due to prejudice and discrimination. The conclusion of this work was that African-American children had low self-esteem. More recent work debunks this as a general overestimation. b. As adolescents grow to identify more closely with the minority groups to which they belong, they also increase their positive views of group membership.

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Eight intelligences in problem solving: namely linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Possible ninth is existential.

1. Life Review and Reminiscence: The Common Theme of Adult Personality Development

Erikson, Peck, and Levinson all suggest that a major characteristic of personality development in old age is called a life review

childs gender affect the language they hear

More likely to respond with a firm 'no' to a male child bu tot soften the blow to a female child, boys tend to hear firmer clearer language à girls tend to hear more diminutives

keeping the meaning vs rigidity

George Vaillant suggests an important period in development occurs between ages of 45 and 55 when individuals experience a period that he calls keeping the meaning versus rigidity - Explain - takes place between 45 and 55, adults seek to extract the meaning from their lives and to keep the meaning by developing an acceptance of the strengths and weaknesses of others, recognize the world is not perfect

meaning of IQ scores

IQ scores are reasonably good predictors of school performance, but not very well correlated with income and later success in life.

speech

If you went into a preschool, you might initially think that two children sitting next to each other are having a conversation. However, if you paid a little closer attention, you'd realize that a lot of the time, they are talking to themselves or to their toys - not to each other. So why do they do this? a. Vygotsky argues that private speech facilitates children's thinking, helps them control their behavior, solve problems, and reflect. It's like a stream of consciousness type of speech that they will later internalize. b. Piaget suggests that private speech is egocentric. We talked about that last class period - the idea that their egocentrism makes them unaware that their speech could have an effect on other people. I personally like Vygotsky's explanation better - children in this age range do have conversations with their peers and family, so they obviously know that their speech can affect others.

development quetients

In the 1940s and 1950s, developmental quotients were widely used by educators and mental health professionals to assess children's intelligence. While the scales may be good for tracking an infant's development, they are not good at predicting future performance, which is really what you are looking for in a measure of intelligence. The developmental quotient is no longer accepted as a valid measure of intellectual ability.

problems with learning theory

Learning theory doesn't explain how kids acquire the rules of language as easily as they do. As parents, we tend to reinforce any utterance the child makes, whether or not it's right. Your book makes a good point - we are just as likely to reinforce a child who says "Why the dog won't eat" as we are to reinforce a correct utterance like "Why won't the dog eat?" b. Children say things they've never heard anyone else say, like "mans" instead of "men"; they also make up nonsense words, and apply regular rules of grammar to them. Your text gives this example - a child used a nonsense verb "to pilk" in a sentence - "The bear is pilking the horse." When the child was asked what was happening, he made the correct transition to a different form of the verb, saying "The horse is getting pilked by the bear.

lewis terman

Lewis Terman and his associates at Stanford University modified and extended the test for use in the U.S. The Stanford-Binet, as it is now called, initially described a child's performance in terms of a score called an intelligence quotient, later shortened to IQ. This score was computed by comparing the child's chronological age (in years and months) with his mental age, defined as the level of questions he could answer correctly.

bias

Many IQ tests have been criticized for discriminating against different groups. If a question is based on experience, and one group is more likely to have had that experience than another group, the question unfairly penalizes the second group.

children speaking

Meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used. So that "cookie" might mean, "That's a cookie" or "I want a cookie." The infant's spoken vocabulary rapidly increases once the first word is spoken. Whereas the average 18-month-old can speak about 50 words, a 2-year-old can speak about 200 words

problems with nativist approach

Researches argue that certain primates are able to learn at least the basics of language, an ability that calls into question the uniqueness of the human linguistic capacity. Infants use of general cognitive abilities underlies their language learning discounts social interaction

triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory which states that intelligence consists of three aspects of information processing: componential, experimental, and contextual

infant directed speech

Short, simple sentences, pitch becomes higher, range of frequencies increases and intonation is more varied, repetition of words, topics restricted to items that are assumed to be comprehensible to infants such as concrete objects in the baby's environment 3. We also use different versions of this speech register when talking to older people - we call it elderspeak in those situations. And they HATE it. Don't speak to a Korean war vet as if they're an infant. 4. This speech register helps infants gain language. Imagine you don't have any language at all - the sounds coming out of an adult when they speak to another adult would be difficult to parse into individual words - it's just a stream of sound. The careful separation of words, simplified sentences, slower speech, etc., of infant directed speech helps the infant realize where one word ends and the next begins.

emotional self regulation

The capability to adjust ones emotions to a desired state and level of intensity; try to reappraise events, suppress emotions

fathers and attachment

The father's bond, like the mother's, seems to depend more on the development of synchrony than on contact immediately after birth. Aiding the development of such mutuality is the fact that fathers seem to have the same repertoire of attachment behaviors as do mothers. In the early weeks after birth, Dads touch, talk to, and cuddle their babies in the same ways that mothers do. After this initial bonding, a kind of specialization occurs. Dads spend more time playing with the baby, including more roughhousing, whereas moms spend more time in caregiving, talking, and smiling. 3. By six months, infants display distinctive patterns of responding to these mother-father distinctions. Signs of positive emotional states, such as smiling, appear gradually and subtly when they are interacting with their mothers. In contrast, babies laugh and wriggle with delight in short, intense bursts in interactions with their fathers. It is not a matter of babies' preference for one parent or the other. Instead, it means that infants recognize the behavioral differences in mothers and fathers. Research clearly indicates that babies benefit tremendously when both kinds of interaction are available to them.

Binet's Pioneering Efforts

The first modern intelligence test was published in 1905 by twi frenchmen, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon. The test's purpose was to identify children who might have difficulty in school, and ot included measures of vocab, comprehension of facts and relationships, and mathematical and verbal reasoning

IQ formula

The formula used to calculate the IQ was: Mental age/Chronological age X 100 = IQ. This formula results in an IQ of about 100 for children whose mental age is higher than their chronological age and an IQ below 100 for children whose mental age is below their chronological age. d.This system for calculating the IQ is no longer in use.Instead, IQ scores' calculations for the Stanford-Binet and all other intelligence tests are now based on a direct comparison of a child's performance with the average performance of a large group of other children his own age.The scoring is still arranged so that an IQ of 100 is still average

living in povert

The language children hear at home influences their language development. a) Economic level was a significant factor in the amount of parental interactions, types of language children were exposed to, and kinds of language used. Higher SES parents tend to talk to their children more than do lower SES parents. Figure 9-7 in your text on page 234 shows a pretty stark representation of the amount of words differing SES level parents direct at their children. These differences add up. By the age of 4, the average child of a high SES family has heard 13 million more words from their parents than the children of low SES families. SES also affects the types of words parents use with their children. The lower the SES, the more likely parents are to issue orders and use language to stop a child's behavior. Higher SES parents are more likely to engage children in actual conversations. b) Poverty was also related to lower IQ scores by age 5. The longer a child stays in poverty, the worse the effects tend to be. Keep in mind that lower SES parents are often subject to stresses that higher SES parents don't have; those stresses take their toll on lower SES parents, and make them less supportive than higher SES parents.

mastering the mechanics of language

The language development of children in the school years is substantial. · Vocabulary continues to increase during the school years. · School-age children's mastery of grammar improves. · Children's understanding of syntax, the rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences, grows during childhood. · Certain phonemes, units of sound, remain troublesome (j, v, h, z). · School-age children may have difficulty decoding sentences when the meaning depends on intonation, or tone of voice. · Children become more competent in their use of pragmatics. They start to understand that some topics are inappropriate in certain settings. They are also better at turn-taking in a conversation - they keep the same topic going and reply to each other, rather than just waiting for their turn to talk.

outcomes of attachment

The monkeys in Harlow's study showed grave social deficits as adults. They were either terrified of other monkeys, or attacked them without provocation. The females tended to ignore or abuse their offspring, and the males, who did not understand mating signals, attempted rape. b.What happens to children who do not form secure attachments? Research suggests that failure to form secure attachments early in life can have a negative impact on behavior in later childhood and throughout the life. Children diagnosed with oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD) or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) frequently display attachment problems, possibly due to early abuse, neglect or trauma. Severe neglect/trauma can produce reactive attachment disorder

infant sociability

They smile, laugh, vocalize, show more interest in peers than in inanimate objects and pay greater attention to other infants than they do to a mirror image of themselves Socialbility rises with age, present and accept toys, play games

deviation iq

Two-thirds of all people fall within 15 points of the average. As scores rise and fall beyond this range, the percentage of people falls significantly. Children who score above 130 are often called "gifted"; those who score below 70 are normally referred to as "developmentally delayed." Such a label should not be applied unless the child also has problems with "adaptive behavior," such as an inability to dress or eat alone, a problem getting along with others, or a significant problem adapting to the demands of a regular school classroom.

the pluralistic society model

US society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual features.

a. Some abilities gradually decline starting around 25, while others stay steady - no uniform pattern of age related intellectual changes - some cognitive declines are found in all abilities by age 67 - significant individual differences, some show declines in 30 and some in 70s - environmental and cultural factors play a role also

What does Schaie's ongoing sequential research show about aging and intelligence?

burnout

a situation that occurs when workers experience dissatisfaction, disillusionment, frustrations, weariness from their jobs a. Who is most likely to experience burnout? - jobs that involve helping others, strikes those who initially were most idealistic and driven b. What are the consequences of burnout? - growing cynicism about ones work, may feel indifference and lack of concern about how well they do their job, c. What can be done to combat burnout? - jobs can be structured so that workers pay attention to small victories in their daily work, engaging in best practices on the job and knowing that one is doing ones best can decrease burnout, mentally disengaging from work during leisure time is helpful in reducing the consequences of burnout

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a specific learning disorder in which children are attentive and impulsive, with a low tolerance for frustration and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity

midlife crisis

a stage of uncertainty and indecision brought about by the realization that life is finite (1) This is a painful and tumultuous period of questioning. (2) Facing signs of physical aging, men may also discover that even the accomplishments they are proudest of brought them less satisfaction than expected. (3) Looking toward the past, they may seek to define what went wrong and look for ways to correct their past mistakes. (4) Critics points out drawbacks of Levinson's theory. (a) His theory is based on a very small sample of men. (b) He later studied a group of women, but this, too, was a very small sample. (c) He overstates the consistency and generality of his findings.

ambivalent attachment pattern

a style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers

avoidant attachment pattern

a style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother, after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns

disorganized-disoriented attachment pattern

a style of attachment in which children show inconsistent, often contradictory behavior

secure attachment pattern

a style of attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present, when she leave they become upset

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's ability in a particular area or line of work

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)

a test for adults that provides separate measures of verbal and performance (nonverbal) skills, as well as total score

Wechler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth edition (WISC-IV)

a test for children that provides separate measures of verbal and performance (nonverbal) skills, as well as total score

Raven Progressive Matrices

a type of culture-fair test which asks test takers to examine abstract designs that have a missing piece and choose the missing piece from several possibilities

infant-directed speech

a type of speech directed toward infants, that is characterized by short, simple sentences. Pitch becomes higher, range of frequencies increases, and tone of voice is more varied

adolecent suicide

a) Adolescent suicide rates have tripled in the last 30 years—it is the third most common cause of death for teenagers. Why do you think we have seen such a rapid increase? Adolescent stress has increased, increase in depression, easy availability of guns b) The current rate is one teenage suicide every 90 minutes. (1) More girls attempt suicide than boys but more boys succeed. (a) Males tend to use more violent methods. (b) There are estimates of as many as 200 attempts for every successful suicide. (2) One reason for this increase is the increase in teenage stress—but that is not the whole picture. What other factors are involved? Family conflicts, relationship or school difficulties, history of abuse or neglect c) Exposure to the suicide of others: cluster suicide, a situation in which one suicide leads to attempts by others to kill themselves. d) There are some clear warning signs for suicide possibility. · Direct or indirect talk about committing suicide. · Making arrangements as if preparing for a long trip, including giving away of prized possessions. · Writing a will. · Dramatic changes in behavior. · Preoccupation with death included in music, art, and literature.

experiencing emotions

a) Although infants display similar kinds of emotions, the degree of emotional expressivity varies among infants. b) Children in different cultures show reliable differences in emotional expressiveness, even during infancy.

defining infant intelligence

a) Infant intelligence, like adult intelligence, is difficult to define. b) Educators, psychologists, and experts disagree on the exact definition and what to measure (e.g., speed of new tasks, age of crawling and walking.).

two explanations of social referencing

a) Observing someone else's facial expression brings about the emotion the expression represents. (1) An infant who views someone looking sad may come to feel sad herself, and her behavior may be affected. b) Viewing another's facial expression simply provides information. (1) The infant does not experience the particular emotion represented by another's facial expression; she simply uses the display as data to guide her own behavior. It is unclear as to which explanation is the best explanation

false belief task

a) Preschoolers are shown a doll named maxi who places chocolate in a cabinet and then leaves. After maxi is gone, his mother moves the chocolate somewhere else, 3 yo say he will look in new spot, 4yo say he will still look in the cabinet By the end of the preschool years, most children easily solve false belief problems.e

awareness

a) Younger children tend not to ask for clarification of ambiguous instructions, and blame themselves for misunderstanding. b) Kids in middle childhood now know that the miscommunication may not be their fault, but the fault of the person communicating. c) They then become more likely to ask for clarification or further information. d) The growing sophistication of language helps school-age children control their behavior. Kids in this stage are more likely to talk through situations, and that talking helps them control their behavior.

nonverbal decoding

a) interpret facial expressions that carry emotion for feeling (1) Their ability to tell emotions from vocalizations start first - this makes sense, because it takes a few weeks for their eyesight to clear up, whereas their hearing is pretty good from birth. (2) After about 8 weeks, infants can begin to discriminate among facial expressions of emotions and respond to differences in types and intensity of emotions conveyed by facial expressions. They also respond to unusual facial expressions - one study had mothers show a blank facial expression, and not react to their infant's attempts to establish social contact. The infant initially smiles and verbalizes, but quickly becomes distressed by the unusual blank expression. (3) By the age of 4 months, infants may be able to understand the emotions that lie behind facial and vocal expressions of others.

nonverbal encoding

a) nonverbal expression of emotion

stranger anxiety

a) the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person (1) Due to the increased cognitive abilities of infants, allowing them to separate whom they know from whom they don't. They react to people they know pretty positively. Around this age, they are trying to make predictions based on previous experiences - when they interact with someone they don't know, they don't know what to expect, and that can make them fearful. (2) Although common, significant differences exist between children. Kids who are used to dealing with strangers tend to show less anxiety. They are also less afraid of female strangers - probably because they are used to females interacting with them. Also less scared of strange children than adults - the smaller size of children is probably less intimidating.

seperation anxiety

a) the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs (1) Begins about 8 or 9 months (2) Peaks at 14 months and then slowly decreases

Levinson's Final Season: The Winter of Life

a. According to Daniel Levinson, people enter late adulthood after passing through a transition stage that typically occurs at about age 60 to 65. b. During this transition, people begin to view themselves as entering late adulthood. c. People struggle with being "old," and often must face illness and death of friends and loved ones. d. People must struggle with the loss of power, respect, and authority. e. Older people can serve as resources for younger people and be in a position to give advice. f. Old age brings freedom to do things for fun and entertainment.

daniel levinson

a. Studying 40 men (no women), Levinson suggests that adult men pass through a series of stages beginning with early adulthood at age 20 and continuing into middle adulthood. b. The theme of early adulthood is focused on leaving the family and entering the adult world. Between 40 and 45, people move into a period Levinson calls the midlife transition

the midlife crisis: reality or myth

a. There is a general expectancy in the U.S. that the age of 40 represents an important psychological juncture. b. Despite widespread acceptance, the evidence for a midlife crisis does not exist. (1) For the majority of people, the transition is relatively tranquil. (2) They view midlife as rewarding. (3) Many middle-aged people find their careers have blossomed, and are content with their lives. (4) Focus is on the present rather than the future as they seek to maximize their involvement with family, friends, and social groups. (5) Those who feel regret may be motivated to change direction, and those who do change their lives end up better off psychologically. (6) They feel younger than they actually are. (7) The popularity of the negative myth of midlife crisis may be due to the visibility and greater attention paid to the few who exhibit a midlife crisis.

disengagement theory

a. the period in late adulthood that marks a gradual withdrawal from the world on the physical, psychological and social levels (1) Early work suggested that people withdraw from the world and the world compels the elderly to withdraw (e.g., retirement). (2) People can become more reflective about their lives. (3) People can become less constrained by social roles. (4) People become more discerning about relationships, which can help them adjust to increasing frequency of serious illness and death among their peers. (5) Disengagement is not an automatic, universal process for all people in late adulthood.

activity theory

a. the theory suggesting that successful aging occurs when people maintain the interest, activities, and social interactions with which they were involved during middle age (1) Happiness and satisfaction with life are assumed to spring from a high level of involvement with the world. (2) When it is no longer possible to work, successful aging (according to activity theory) suggests that replacement activities be found. (3) Being involved in any activity just to remain active may not always contribute to happiness and satisfaction. Some people are happier when they can slow down and only do those things that bring them the greatest satisfaction

Naturalists Intelligence

ability to identify, classify and manipulate elements of the environment, objects, animals, or plants People like Jane Goodall have good naturalist intelligence.

intimacy vs isolation stage

according to erikson, the period of postadolescnce into the early 30s that focuses on developing close relationships with others a. According to Erikson, intimacy comprises several aspects. (1) a degree of selflessness: sacrificing one's own needs to those of another (2) sexuality: joint pleasure from focusing not just on one's own gratification but also on that of one's partner (3) deep devotion: marked by efforts to fuse one's identity with the identity of the partner (4) Erikson suggests that those who experience difficulties during this stage are often lonely and isolated, and fearful of relationships with others. (5) Their failure may stem from an earlier failure to develop a strong identity. b. Erikson's theory was limited to heterosexuals, and focused more on men's development than women's.

generativity vs stagnation

according to erikson, the stage during middle adulthood in which people consider their contributions to family and society a. Generativity is guiding and encouraging future generations. b. Generativity involves seeking to leave a lasting contribution to the world. c. Generativity means looking beyond oneself to the continuation of one's life through others. (1) Stagnation means people focus on the triviality of their lives and feel they have made only a limited contribution to the world—that their presence has counted for little.

fantasy period

according to ginzberg, the period lasting until about age 11, when career choices are made and discarded without regard to skills, abilities, or available job opportunities

practical intelligence

according to sternberg, intelligence that is learned primarily by observing and modeling their behavior

Chomsky's Theory of Universal Grammar

all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure, such as a noun and verb category that facilitate the entire language

emotional development in adolescence

amygadala: central to experience emotions, provides link between the perception of an emotion producing stimulus and later memory of that stimulus; hippocamus: involved in the storage of memories, emotion of fear is experienced almost instantly

enrichment

an approach whereby gifted students are kept at grade level but are enrolled in special programs and given individual activities to allow greater depth of study

Mainstreaming

an educational approach in which exceptional children are integrated to the extent possible into the traditional educational system and are provided with a broad range of educational alternatives

self esteem

an individual's overall and specific positive and negative self-evaluation

glass ceiling

an invisible barrier within an organization that because of discrimination, prevents individuals from being promoted beyond a certain level

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition (SB5)

an oral test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested. Young people are asked to answer questions about everyday activities, or to copy complex figures. Older people are asked to solve analogies, explain proverbs, and describe similarities between groups of words.

developmental quotient (DQ)

an overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills, language use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social (Arnold Gesell) It compared their performance at different ages to learn what behaviors were common to a certain age. Motor skills Language use Adaptive behavior Personal-social behavior

metalinguistic awareness

an understanding of one's own use of language (middle childhood)

ego-integrity vs despair

eriksons final stage of life, characterized by a process of looking back over ones life, evaluating it and coming to terms with it a. Integrity comes when people feel they have realized and fulfilled the possibilities that have come their way. b. Despair occurs when people feel dissatisfied with their lives and experience gloom, unhappiness, depression, anger, or the feeling that they have failed. 2. Erikson's lifespan approach has been enormously influential. a. It is generally supported by research. But not everyone passes through the stages in the order he posited

upward social comparisons

evaluate their abilities against those of people who appear to be more proficient and successful than they are

motor scale

gross and fine motor skills

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

gross motor skills of running, climbing, lifting things, and fine motor skills such as using one's hands for more precise and skillful actions required when manipulating or using objects Examples include such skills as the gross motor skills of running, climbing, lifting things, and in fine motor skills such as using one's hands or fingers for the more precise and skillful actions required when manipulating or using objects. These examples of gross and fine motor actions are the foundation of bodily intelligence.

reference groups

groups of people with whom one compares oneself

Labeling

identifying the names of objects. Roger Brown called this "the original word game"

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; i.e. -ed prefix for past tense and -s for plural In English, these rules include the rule for forming past tenses of verbs by adding -ed, and the rule for forming plurals by adding -s.

immersion method

in english, teaching in solely that language

reciprocal socialization

infant's behaviors invite further responses from parents and other caregivers.

profound intellectual disability

intellectual disability in which IQ scores fall below 20 or 25 · No speech · Poor motor control · Need 24-hour care

mild intellectual disability

intellectual disability in which IQ scores fall in the range of 50 or 55 to 70. can still function independently · Can reach 3rd to 6th grade level in school. · Can hold jobs and function independently.

severe intellectual disability

intellectual disability in which IQ scores range from 20 or 25 to 35 or 40

moderate intellectual disability

intellectual disability in which IQ scores range from 35 or 40 to 50 or 55. need supervision · Slow to develop language and motor skills. · Generally cannot progress beyond 2nd grade. · Capable of training and social skills but typically need supervision.

fluid intelligence

intelligence that reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory

social speech

speech directed toward another person and meant to be understood by that person Social speech increases during the preschool years. They are starting to want to express more to other people, and can get really frustrated when others don't understand what they are trying to get across.

easy babies

positive disposition, operate regularly, adaptable, moderate emotions - 40% of infants

group administration

problematic because questions are more restricted, children are more motivated when asked questions individually , and outside factors may interfere with a child's performance

selective optimization

process people use in concentrating on particular skill areas to compensate for losses in other areas (Paul and Margaret Baltes)

downward social comparisons

protects childrens self esteem by comparing themselves to those who are less able, they ensure that they will come out on top

Acceleration

provision of special programs that allow gifted students to move ahead at their own pace, even if this means skipping to higher grade levels

commitment

psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology

vocabulary spurt

rapid increase in vocabulary that begins at approximately 18 months

musical intelligence

recognizing and composing musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. We use musical intelligence for recognizing and composing musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. Most individuals appreciate something about the structure of music, such as expectations about what a well-structured phrase or section or piece should be and be able to discern what makes musical sense.

experiential component

refers to the relationship between intelligence, prior experience, and the ability to cope with new situations

social reality

refers to understanding that is derived from how others act, think, feel, and view the world leon festinger

Recasting

rephrasing something the child has said, perhaps turning it into a question or restating the child's immature utterance in order to keep the communication going

expanding

restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said

Morphology

rules governing the formation of meaningful words from sounds

semantics

rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences i.e. Sally hit the car is different from the car hit Sally

the cultural assimilation model

says individual cultural identities should be assimilated into a unified culture in the united states - the melting pot model

mental scale

senses, perception, memory, learning, problem solving, language

emotional intelligence

set of skills that underlies the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions

mama cycle

some adolescent shift among the four categories,

phonemes

sounds

norms

standards

bilingual education

students are initially taught in their native language, while at the same time learning english Children who are taught all subjects in their first language with simultaneous instruction in English appear to experience few deficits and several linguistic and cognitive advantages.

interactionist approach

suggests that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language

contextual component

takes account of the demands of everyday, real-world environments

achievement test

test designed to determine a person's level of knowledge in a given subject area

cross-modal transference

the ability to identify, using another sense, a stimulus that has previously been experienced only through one sense

infinite generativity

the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of rules and words

interpersonal intelligence

the ability to read, empathize, and understand others Political and religious leaders, teachers, and those enrolled in the helping professions, are examples of those with highly developed forms of interpersonal intelligence.

intrapersonal intelligence

the ability to understand oneself. sensitive to inner experiences and feelings These capacities are evident in novelists and in therapists, who are sensitive to inner experiences and feelings.

chronological (physical) age

the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test

pragmatics

the aspect of language relating to communicating effectively and appropriately with others (turn taking, staying on topic, saying thank you) You have to learn the different social cues that allow for turn-taking in conversation. You have to learn the niceties of conversation, like when to say thank you, and what types of information are considered appropriate to share. I've noticed an interesting pattern - both young and older people tend to share a lot about their bodily functions.

syntax

the combining of words and phrases to form sentences (from 2-3 years old. doubles each month) Syntax doubles each month. 2.By age 3, children use plurals and possessive forms of nouns (boys/boy's), employ the past tense (adding -ed), use articles (the/a), and can ask and answer complex questions ("Where did you say my book is?")

social clock

the culturally determined psychological timepiece providing a sense of whether we have reached the major benchmarks of life at the appropriate time in comparison to our peers

full inclusion

the integration of all students, even those with the most severe disabilities, into regular classes and all other aspects of school and community life (1) Research failed to discern any advantages for special-needs children placed in separate, rather than regular, classrooms. (2) The labeling of students relegated to special classrooms often produced negative expectations and self-concepts. (3) Special-needs children must learn to function in a normal environment. (4) Research shows that special-needs children and normal children benefit from mainstream classrooms. (5) Potential benefits have led some professionals to promote a broader model known as full inclusion, which is the integration of all students, even those with the most severe disabilities.

Visual-recognition memory measurement

the memory of and recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen, as well as attention and representational competence, also relate to later IQ

emerging adulthood

the period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-20s

ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation

the period in which elderly people must come to grips with their coming death (1) If they can see the contributions to society that they have made in their own lives, they will experience ego transcendence. (2) If not, they may become preoccupied with asking whether their lives had value and worth to society.

race dissonance

the phenomenon in which minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people

attachment

the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual

fast mapping

the process in which new words are associated with their meaning after only a brief encounter By 6, the average child has a vocabulary of 14,000 words. Preschoolers acquire a new word every 2 hours, 24 hours a day. They manage this feat through a process known as

tentative period

the second stage of ginzbergs theory which spans adolescence, during which people begin to think in pragmatic terms about the requirements of various jobs and how their own abilities might fit with them

gender

the sense of being male or female, is well established by the time children reach the preschool years, and this, too, affects their self-concept. Cultures vary in their particular gender role expectations, but every culture has gender roles they teach their children. 2.Preschoolers' developing self-concepts can also be affected by their culture's attitudes toward various racial and ethnic groups When do we notice differences based on skin color, and start to identify with a particular group? - by the time they are 3 or 4

Least Restrictive Environment

the setting most similar to that of children without special needs 1. In 1975, Public Law 94-142, called the Education for all Handicapped Children Act, was enacted.

identity achievement

the states of adolescents who commits to a particular identity following a period of crisis during which they consider various alternatives - typically have committed to a particular identity, tend to be psychologically healthier higher in achievement motivation and moral reasoning than adolescents of any other status

identity diffusion

the status of adolescents who consider various identity alternatives but never commit to one or never even consider identity options in any conscious way - lack of commitment impairs their ability to form close relationships they are often socially withdrawn

moratorium

the status of adolescents who may have explored various identity alternatives to some degree but have not yet committed themselves - high anxiety and experience psychological conflict, setting on an identity but only after a struggle

identity foreclosure

the status of adolescents who prematurely commit to an identity without adequately exploring alternatives - not necessarily unhappy, but they tend to have something called "rigid strength": happy and self satisfied they have a high need for social approval and tend to be authoritarian

crystallized intelligence

the store of information, skills, and strategies that people have acquired through education and prior experiences and through their previous use of fluid intelligence

personality

the sum total of the enduring characteristic that differentiate one individual from another

grammar

the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed (grammatically correct 90% of the time)

language

the systemic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which provides the basis for communication

continuity theory

the theory suggesting that people need to maintain their desired level of involvement in society in order to maximize their sense of well being and self-esteem a. Which theory best explains successful aging may depend on one's behavior prior to late adulthood. (1) Older adults experience positive emotions as frequently as younger individuals. (2) They also become more skilled in emotion regulation. b. When determining well-being in late adulthood, one must also consider the influence of other factors. (1) Good physical and mental health is important in determining an elderly person's sense of well-being. (2) Financial security and a sense of autonomy and independence also give one a significant advantage in later life.

erik eriksons theory of psychosocial development

the theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others and their own behavior 1. Erikson argues that personality is largely shaped by infants' experiences with other people. 2. Built upon psychodynamic perspective, this theory posits that changes occur throughout one's life in 8 distinct stages, beginning in infancy.

midlife transition

time of questioning around 40 or 45, focus on the finite nature of life and they question some of their everyday fundamental assumptions

intonation

tone of voice

underextension

using words too restrictively, which is common among children just mastering spoken language. i.e. Sarah has a blanket she calls blankie, and refuses to call any other blanket blankie For example, a child might use the word boy to describe a 5-year-old neighbor but not apply the word to a male infant or to a 9-year-old male.

mutual regulation

which states that infants and parents learn to communicate emotional states to one another and to respond accordingly.

overextension

words are used too broadly, overgeneralizing their meaning. i.e. Sarah calling anything with wheels a car For example, children at first may say " dada" not only for "father" but also for other men, strangers, or boys. With time, overextensions decrease and eventually disappear.