LAP midterm 1
2) Provide three reasons why Latin America can be considered a region of contrasts.
- worst income inequality in the world, rich vs poor - stability vs. tumultuous, some countries are known for violence (Mexico, El Salvador) and others have stability (Costa Rica, Uruguay) - resourceful yet poor, LA is abundant in resources but many countries are poor.
1) Provide three reasons why Latin America may matter to Americans.
- Demographically: 19% of Americans are of LA origin, and by 2060 Latinos are expected to be 28% of the population. 80% of Latinos in the US are American citizens, and nearly 66% are American-born. - Economically: The US economic interests are deeply related to LA. The region is one of the largest trading partners, the destiny of much of US investment, and a source of oil, gas, and other critical products and raw materials. Mexico and Brazil are becoming world powers with whom the US needs to deal. Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina are G20. -Politically: Political instability and anti-US movements have posed significant challenges to US foreign policy: immigration, drug trafficking, and leftist threats during the Cold War. In the US, explanations for LA underdevelopment have been plagued by racist epithets (dark-skinned peoples), psychological simplifications (passionate Latin tempers), geographical platitudes (tropical climates), and cultural distortions. The media has helped to reinforce prejudices, centering on illegal immigration, drug trafficking, civil wars, riots, protests, etc.
3) Discuss two obstacles to Latin American development.
- Income inequality/economy (land reforms) - Multitude of governmental changes/lack of stability
34) Briefly describe two American interventions (overt or covert) in Latin American countries. Why did Washington choose the interventionist course of action?
1) The United States' intervention in Guatemala in 1954 was a covert operation that aimed to overthrow the democratically elected government of President Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán. The CIA, with the support of the US government, trained and equipped a rebel army to topple the leftist government, which was seen as a threat to US interests in the region. The intervention was motivated by the fear of the spread of communism and the desire to protect American companies' investments in Guatemala's vast agricultural land. 2) The US intervention in Panama in 1989 was an overt military action that aimed to remove dictator Manuel Noriega from power. The US government accused Noriega of drug trafficking and money laundering, and his regime was seen as a destabilizing force in the region. The intervention was motivated by the desire to protect American citizens living in Panama and to restore democracy in the country. Overall, Washington chose the interventionist course of action in Latin America to protect its economic interests, promote democracy, and contain the spread of communism or other ideologies that were seen as a threat to US security.
14) What economic advantages did the independence processes offer to Latin American Countries?
1. Control over resources: The independence process allowed Latin American countries to gain control over their own resources, which were previously exploited by European powers. This led to better management and utilization of resources, resulting in increased economic growth. 2. Trade opportunities: With independence, Latin American countries were free to establish trade relationships with other countries, leading to greater economic opportunities. This increased trade led to an increase in foreign investment, which further boosted economic growth. 3. Development of industries: The independence process encouraged the development of local industries, as Latin American countries sought to become self-sufficient. This led to the establishment of new industries, such as textiles and manufacturing, which created new job opportunities and contributed to economic growth. 4. Increased agricultural production: With independence, Latin American countries were able to focus on agricultural production, leading to increased productivity and exports. This helped to boost the economy and reduce poverty in rural areas. 5. Infrastructure development: The independence process led to the construction of new infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and ports, which helped to improve transportation and communication. This facilitated trade and investment, leading to greater economic growth.
25) Why is this period characterized by the emergence of populist presidents?
1. Economic instability: The Great Depression hit Latin America hard, causing widespread poverty and unemployment. Populist leaders promised economic stability and social welfare programs to alleviate these issues. 2. Political instability: Many Latin American countries were experiencing political turmoil and instability, with frequent coups and changes in government. Populist leaders promised stability and continuity. 3. Nationalism: Populist leaders often appealed to a sense of nationalism and pride in their country, promising to protect national interests and assert independence from foreign powers. 4. Social inequality: Many Latin American countries had a large gap between the wealthy elite and the poor majority. Populist leaders promised to address social inequality and improve the lives of the working class. Overall, the emergence of populist leaders in post-World War 1 Latin America was a response to the economic, political, and social challenges facing the region, and a desire for change and stability.
35) According to the author, what were the three main strategies the region could follow during the Cold War?
1. Non-alignment: This strategy involved staying neutral and not aligning with either the United States or the Soviet Union. Non-alignment allowed Latin American countries to maintain their independence and sovereignty in the face of outside pressures. 2. Alignment: This strategy involved aligning with either the United States or the Soviet Union. Countries that aligned with the United States received military and economic aid, while those that aligned with the Soviet Union received ideological and political support. 3. Regionalism: This strategy involved the creation of regional organizations that allowed Latin American countries to work together and reduce their dependence on outside powers. Regionalism allowed Latin American countries to address common issues, such as economic development and security, and to have a stronger voice in international affairs.
18) Why did liberals gain so many presidencies in the second half of the nineteenth century?
1850s: Fatigue from Conservatism Latin American conservatives had been in power in most countries since the 1830s. This was in response to the conflict and instability that characterized the newly independent LatAm countries of the 1820s up to that point. But the virtues of security faded, and the benefits of peace seemed to only apply to the ruling elite. Those outside the charmed circle of official patronage began to want change Ripe for a return swing of the pendulum. Appeal of Liberalism The liberal dreams of a transformed society appealed to people of various social classes Landowners wanted to sell their coffee, hides, and tobacco on the intl market Middle class wanted paved streets, libraries, sewers and parks The heavily impoverished, rural working class wanted better working conditions and an improvement in their living conditions Almost all LatAm countries were swept by liberalism More peacefully in some Mainly in ones where the Catholic church had less money and power (such as Chile) More violently in others Such as Mexico, where decades of strong Catholic rule led to a violent shift to liberalism. The one exception: Nicaragua Because their liberals had disgraced themselves by inviting foreign intervention.
36) What was bureaucratic-authoritarianism and how does it relate to authoritarianism?
Bureaucratic authoritarianism in Latin America was a form of government that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. It was characterized by a strong central government that was dominated by military officers and technocrats. This type of government was often supported by the business community and the middle class, who saw it as a way to restore order and stability to their countries. Bureaucratic authoritarianism was marked by a number of features, including the suppression of political opposition, the curtailment of civil liberties, and the use of state violence to suppress dissent. The government was often seen as corrupt and repressive, with a lack of transparency and accountability. This form of government was closely related to other forms of authoritarianism in Latin America, such as military dictatorships and one-party states. All of these forms of government were marked by a concentration of power in the hands of a small group of elites, who used force and coercion to maintain their grip on power. Overall, bureaucratic authoritarianism in Latin America was a response to the social and economic upheavals of the time, as well as to the perceived threat of communism and other left-wing movements. While it was successful in maintaining order and stability in some countries, it ultimately failed to address the underlying social and economic problems that gave rise to political unrest in the first place.
12) Why Creoles had frictions with the Peninsulars and how they built a case for independence based on nativism?
Creoles, the people of Spanish or Portuguese descent born in the Americas, resented the Peninsulars, those born in Europe, who held the highest positions of power in the colonial administration. The Peninsulars often looked down on the Creoles, considered them inferior and not fully Spanish or Portuguese. This created a sense of frustration and anger among the Creoles, who felt that they were not given the same opportunities as the Peninsulars. The Creoles also felt that the colonial government did not represent their interests and that they were being exploited for the benefit of the Peninsulars and the European mother countries. They believed that they were better suited to govern their own territories and that they should have more autonomy in their affairs. Nativism, or the belief that the people born in a particular place are superior to those who come from elsewhere, became an important factor in the Creole movement for independence. Creoles argued that they were the true heirs of the American territories and that they had a natural right to govern themselves. They also emphasized their shared cultural and linguistic heritage with the indigenous people of the region, which they saw as evidence of their nativist credentials. In conclusion, Creoles had friction with the Peninsulars due to the latter's privileged position in the colonial administration, and they built a case for independence based on their sense of frustration and their belief in nativist ideals.
10) What is transculturation and what was its importance in colonial times?
During the colonial era, Latin America underwent a profound process of transculturation as European colonizers and indigenous peoples intermingled and exchanged ideas, customs, and technologies. This process was marked by both conflict and cooperation, as different cultures negotiated their differences and adapted to new circumstances. One of the most important aspects of transculturation in colonial Latin America was the blending of European and indigenous cultural traditions to create new forms of art, music, religion, and language. This hybridization of cultural elements helped to shape the distinctive cultural identity of Latin America, which continues to be shaped by transcultural forces to this day. Overall, the concept of transculturation is important in understanding the complex and dynamic cultural history of Latin America, particularly during the colonial period when different cultures collided and interacted in ways that continue to impact the region to this day.
5) What formative historical experience did the Spanish and the Portuguese share before the Encounter?
For Latin America, conquest and colonization by the Spanish and Portuguese created patterns of social domination that became eternal givens, justified in religious terms, they assumed a right to conquer and colonize. The European logic of conquest and colonization soured the Encounter everywhere from Mexico to Argentina. The basic scenario varied according to the natural environment and the indigenous people's way of life when the European invaders arrived. Spanish and Portuguese outlooks, along with their crusader rhetoric, had been shaped by the history of the Iberian Peninsula. Iberia contained multi-ethnic societies that intermingled by also fought one another. Both activities left their mark.
32) Explain George Kennan's containment policy and its implications for its relation to Latin America.
George Kennan's containment policy was a foreign policy strategy adopted by the United States during the Cold War to contain the spread of communism. It was based on the belief that the Soviet Union was attempting to expand its influence and control over the world and that the United States needed to stop this expansion. The policy had significant implications for Latin America, as the region was seen as a battleground for the ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States viewed Latin America as an area of vulnerability and instability, where communist movements could take hold and threaten American interests. As a result, the United States was heavily involved in Latin American politics, supporting anti-communist governments and regimes, and often intervening militarily to protect American interests. This led to widespread human rights abuses, political repression, and social inequality, as the United States supported authoritarian regimes that were often brutal in their suppression of dissent. Overall, the containment policy had a significant impact on Latin America, shaping the region's political and social development for decades to come. Its legacy can still be seen today in many Latin American countries, where the United States is often viewed with suspicion and mistrust due to its past interventions and support for authoritarian regimes.
13) Discuss the main differences between liberals and conservatives in postcolonial times?
Gradually, all LA divided along liberal versus and conservative lines: the liberals, oriented toward progressive models (US, England, or France). Conservatives, to retain colonial or Spanish models. Church-state conflicts: liberals called for freedom of worship, the separation of church and state, and public schools. Conservatives wanted Catholicism as the official religion and the church to retain its dominant role in education. Many liberals and conservatives saw politics mostly as a path to office and personal enrichment—the traditional colonial approach. There was clientelism.
21) How democratic/authoritarian were the governments that led this period, and what were the consequences of these regimes on different social classes?
How authoritarian were these governments? On the whole, most governments during this were stable authoritarian regimes. Interestingly, this shift came primarily from the liberals that had came to power during the 1860s and 1870 Once in control, they forgot the political freedoms they demanded under conservative caudillos. They valued material progress and export growth over democratization and civil liberties This was justified under positivism, a French ideology which suggested that authoritarian systems were necessary to achieve order and progress What were the consequences of these regimes for different social classes Landowning Class As profits of export boom rose, the elites were better able to maintain order Armies and police received modern weapons and training Railroads and telegraphs speeded deployment of troops to quell rebellions This made civil wars less frequent, Urban Middle Class Also benefited from the above developments, albeit to a lesser extent than the landowning elite Rural Working Class They were often hurt by this "Progress" In the name of progress, lots of formerly public land was bought up by landowning elite and companies to increase productivity now, many country folk, who once grew their own food on public land, had that taken from them This Progress also often meant worsening labor conditions for those who worked the land
19) How the following table reveals an important economic challenge for most Latin American countries?
Landowners and urban middle-class people prospered, but the life of Latin America's rural majority improved little. Progress brought a new brand of imperialism from Great Britain and the US. Some historians call this a neocolonial period. Domestically, social hierarchies did not change. The graph shows the phenomenon of Economic growth based on exports. The value of Mexican trade grew by 900% between 1877 and 1910. By the early 1900s, Brazil was producing 2/3 of the coffee drunk in the world. The quantity of railroad tracks went from 2,000 miles to 59,000 miles between 1870 and 1900. The direct beneficiaries of this export bonanza were the large landowners, and middle-class city dwellers (professionals, merchants, office workers, civil servants) who performed secondary functions in the import/export economy. Middle classes grew rapidly.
17) What were the main differences between liberals and conservatives?
Liberals Represented Change Looked to Britain and France as a model to emulate Sought to undo existing social structure Opposed the dominance of the Catholic Church, slavery, and class stratification Comprised primarily of upwardly mobile family Opposed the Catholic Church Saw it as abusing its power and its wealth Felt it represented the Colonial Past Liberals weren't necessarily anti-religious, however. They were primarily anti-clerical Supported freedom of worship, but opposed an official state religion, saw it as a relic of Spanish colonialism Conservatives Favored existing hierarchies This placed them at the top Was heavily based on race. Conservatives were primarily white, European descendants Comprised primarily of long-established families Viewed the Colonial Past fondly Saw it as a peaceful time, when "Mestizos knew their place" Feared that liberalization of politics would bring violence and disorder Point to the Wars of Independence and the immediate post-independence years as evidence of liberalism's dangers Supported the Catholic Church Viewed it as a necessary part of the Latin American social order
23) Why did nationalism gain traction after the First World War?
Nationalism primarily gained traction from the urban middle class, recent immigrants, and/or those of racially mixed heritage Was born out of dissatisfaction with the export boom and the limitations of liberal Progress The Middle class had less than landowners from the export boom Could rarely travel out of the region, and could rarely enjoy the imports that the landowning elites enjoyed. These groups committed themselves to a larger, more ambitious, and more inclusive vision of change than that advocated by the liberals of the past. End of colonialism: Many Latin American countries gained independence from European colonial powers in the 19th century, but they still had strong economic and political ties with their former colonizers. After World War I, there was a shift towards greater self-sufficiency, and many Latin American countries began to assert their sovereignty and national identity. Influence of Pan-Americanism: The idea of Pan-Americanism, the belief that the countries of the Americas should work together to promote their common interests, gained popularity during this time. Many Latin American leaders saw nationalism as a way to strengthen their countries and promote regional unity.
28) What is populism and how it relates to Latin American presidents?
Populism is a thin-centered ideology that considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic camps, 'the pure people' versus 'the corrupt elite,' and which argues that politics should be an expression of the general will of the people." Core elements: the people, the general will, the elite, and the leader. Many leaders of LA countries used an ideology that is associated with: • a "paranoid style of politics" (led by a "drunken dinner guest"?) • support direct democratic mechanisms, such as referenda and plebiscites. • authoritarian trends. The general will is supposed to be absolute, so illiberal attacks on anyone who (allegedly) threatens the "people" are legitimized.
27) Why did Marxism become appealing to so many Latin Americans?
Post WWII Economic issues LatAm industrialization lost momentum The European market was decimated b/c of WWII This created a shortage of capital goods on the world market This made economic independence was difficult to achieve Enduring Poverty Improved public health sanitation led to rapid population growth But the marginally better standard of living was still not enough to meet the needs of the rapidly growing population Millions lived in shantytowns, eating putrid food and dying of preventable diseases Many Latin Americans came to believe that revolutionary change was needed to reduce poverty and inequality Appeal of Marxism It rejected pre-1929 "neocolonialist" liberal economic system To many Latin Americans, this system largely benefitted the wealthy countries of Europe and North America at the expense of Latin America It offered a radical solution to the poverty and inequality that gripped the region Appealed heavily to working class voters, offered a vision of radical improvement of living conditions Intersected with Latin American nationalism and population Not all LatAm populists were Marxists, but many were Was seen as anti-American, and that was a large part of its appeal LatAmericans saw free market capitalism as "American," and something that would keep them economically subordinate to the US.
24) Why several countries adopted import substitution industrialization as a developmental policy and what is its relation to nationalism?
Several Latin American countries adopted import substitution industrialization as a development policy to reduce their dependence on foreign countries and promote domestic industrialization. The policy aimed to create an environment in which domestic industries could produce goods that were previously imported. This was achieved by imposing high tariffs on imported products, providing subsidies to domestic industries, and limiting the flow of foreign capital into the country. The adoption of import substitution industrialization was closely linked to nationalism. Many Latin American countries had been colonies or had been economically dominated by foreign powers for many years. Nationalism emerged as a response to this domination, and import substitution industrialization was seen as a way to assert their economic independence and promote domestic industries. The policy was also seen as a way to create jobs for the domestic population and reduce inequality. Overall, the adoption of import substitution industrialization was driven by a desire for economic independence and a sense of national pride. However, the policy had mixed results and was criticized for being too inward-looking and protectionist.
6) Why did the Aztec and Inca empires fell so quickly?
Spanish triumph in both cases calls for explanation. Once again, the experience was on the Spanish side. Then, too, the Spanish advantage in military technology must be recalled. Spanish weaponry produced staggering death tolls. Indigenous warriors, meanwhile, focused on taking captives, if possible, unharmed. Not to mention the different diseases that the Spanish brought with them. Lastly, they cooperated with other indigenous groups. Neither the Incas nor the Aztecs could have been defeated without the aid of the Spaniards' indigenous allies.
39) What do "Massacre at the stadium," "Bear Story," "Mothers of Plaza de Mayo," "Killed in El Salvador" can tell us about the level of state violence applied against civilians and the consequences for social cohesion?
State violence was the prevalent part of authoritarian regimes at that time (60s-80s) at many countries of Central and South Americas. All these cases portray different incidents of state violence. But it also shows how people later on came together to withstand the human rights abuses. (You can add in your own thoughts about it later ).
33) What was the Alliance for Progress and why did it fail?
The Alliance for Progress was a program initiated by the United States in 1961 with the aim of promoting economic development and social welfare in Latin American countries. The program was designed to counter the spread of communism in the region and to improve the living standards of the people. 1. Lack of commitment: Many Latin American governments were not committed to the program and did not implement the necessary reforms. 2. Corruption: Corruption was rampant in many Latin American countries, and the aid provided by the Alliance for Progress was often misused or stolen. 3. Economic instability: Many Latin American countries experienced economic instability during the 1960s, which made it difficult for them to implement the reforms necessary for economic development. 4. Political instability: Many Latin American countries were plagued by political instability, which made it difficult to implement reforms and maintain stability.
30) How the Cold War violent struggles between states and insurgents different in Central America as compared to South America?
The Cold War-era violent struggles between states and insurgents in Central America and South America were different in several ways. Central America was more directly impacted by the Cold War, with the United States and the Soviet Union engaging in proxy wars in countries such as Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala. The United States supported right-wing governments and paramilitary forces in these countries, while the Soviet Union supported left-wing guerrilla groups. In South America, the Cold War was less direct and more focused on economic and political influence. The United States supported right-wing governments and military regimes in countries such as Chile, Argentina, and Brazil, while the Soviet Union supported left-wing political parties and labor unions. The nature of the insurgent groups also differed between the regions. In Central America, left-wing guerrilla groups such as the Sandinistas in Nicaragua and the FMLN in El Salvador were fighting for socialist revolution and social justice. In South America, insurgent groups such as the Tupamaros in Uruguay and the MIR in Chile were more focused on urban terrorism and kidnapping. Overall, the violence and struggles of the Cold War era in Central and South America were complex and varied, with different geopolitical and socioeconomic factors at play in each region.
26) Why did US-Latin American relations change after the Second World War?
The Good Neighbor policy eroded, largely as a response to the Cold War. American leadership worried that the economic and social conditions in much of Latin America made it ripe for Marxist insurgencies, and worried that many of these countries risked being drawn out of the American sphere of influence and into the Soviet sphere Saw anything that rejected free-market capitalism in Latin America as "un-American" Conversely, Latin America was becoming increasingly disillusioned with the US Began in 1947, with the announcement of the US Marshall Plan It gave vast sums of money to Europe to help jump post-war prosperity and to reduce the appeal of Marxism/Communism. Many of this money went to countries that were enemies of the US during WWII (Germany, Italy, etc) Meanwhile, former LatAm allies of the US, also struggling for prosperity, only got 2% of US foreign aid between 1956 and 1959.
37) What was the School of the Americas and what was its impact in Latin American countries?
The school of Americas originated in Panama (1946), later moved to the state of Georgia, United States. It was created to train military personnel from Latin American countries, by the US professionals, in subjects such as riot and mob control, insurgency control, jungle warfare and intelligence. The school's graduates are associated and responsible for massacres in Guatemala (1960s) and El Salvador, El Mozote, (1980). Some graduates are also the past despots of Panama (Noriega and Torrijos), Argentina (Galtieri), and Bolivia (Suarez).
16) Explain the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary
The Monroe Doctrine is a foreign policy statement made by U.S. President James Monroe in 1823. It declared that any attempt by a European country to colonize or interfere with any nation in the Americas would be considered a hostile act towards the United States. The doctrine was intended to prevent European powers from extending their influence in the Western Hemisphere. The Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine, introduced by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. It stated that the United States had the right to intervene in the affairs of any Latin American country to maintain stability in the region. The corollary was designed to justify U.S. intervention in Latin America, particularly in cases where European powers were considering taking action. It also asserted that the United States had a responsibility to promote economic growth and political stability in the region.
8) Describe the different patterns of colonization followed by the Spanish and Portuguese Americas.
The Spanish and Portuguese colonization of the Americas followed different patterns due to their distinct goals and approaches toward colonization. The Spanish colonization focused on establishing a strong presence in the areas they conquered. They established permanent settlements and created a hierarchical system of governance that was centered around the Catholic Church. The Spanish also had a strict policy of converting the indigenous people to Christianity and eradicating their traditional beliefs and customs. The Spanish also established a system of encomienda, which allowed them to force indigenous people to work in mines and plantations. The Portuguese colonization, on the other hand, was based on trade and commerce. They established trading posts along the coasts of Brazil and Africa, which later grew into permanent settlements. The Portuguese did not try to eliminate the indigenous culture, instead, they assimilated it into their own culture. They also brought in slaves from Africa to work in their plantations, mines, and as domestic servants. Overall, the Spanish and Portuguese colonization of the Americas had different goals and approaches. The Spanish focused on establishing a powerful and centralized colony with religious and cultural homogeneity, while the Portuguese focused on trade and commerce, assimilation, and the use of African slave labor.
9) How the concept of hegemony helps us understand the colonial control of Latin America?
The Spanish colonizers established a hegemonic order in which their values and beliefs became dominant and were accepted as the norm. This allowed them to maintain their power and control over the indigenous peoples, who were forced to assimilate and adopt the Spanish way of life. The colonizers used religion as a tool of domination, as they converted the indigenous people to Catholicism, which helped to legitimize their rule and justify their actions. Furthermore, the Spanish colonizers used their control over the means of production, such as land and resources, to maintain their power and influence. They established the encomienda system, in which indigenous people were forced to work for Spanish colonizers in exchange for protection and religious instruction. This allowed the Spanish colonizers to exchange for protection and religious instruction. This allowed the Spanish to extract resources and exploit the labor of the indigenous people, further reinforcing their hegemonic control. Overall, the concept of hegemony helps to understand the colonial control of Latin America by showing how dominant groups maintain their power through cultural and ideological means, in addition to the military and economic force. The Spanish colonizers used their control over religion, language, and resources to establish a hegemonic order that allowed them to maintain their power and control over the indigenous peoples.
20) Why does the author refer to the last years of the nineteenth century and the first of the twentieth as the neocolonial era?
The Uneven Distribution of Progress The benefits of progress were most felt in urban areas. Major urban centers from Buenos Aires to Mexico City became modern metropolises, with paved streets, railroads, and telephone lines, These cities also became major economic centers that exported tons of sugar, coffee, copper, grain, etc. In rural areas of Latin America however, where the majority of LatAms lived, life improved little, if at all. On the contrary, agrarian capitalism destroyed traditional lifeways, which impoverished the rural people both spiritually and materially. Foreign Investment and Influence "Progress" brought a new brand of materialism from the UK and the US These countries were seen as models for progress by LatAm, but they also helped install it there In practice, this meant pervasive foreign influence and many businesses in LatAm being owned by British and American groups Because foreign influence was so pervasive, the period of 1880-1830 is referred to as the neocolonial period many mining companies and oil wells and sugar refineries were foreign owned, due to high capital requirements In short, the basic social hierarchy of class and race created by colonization had not changed. What had changed, is that now the wealth of Latin America was tied to the UK and the US, rather than Spain and Portugal, as it was in the past
7) Why Africans became an important part of the colonization of America?
The first slaves to arrive in America were Africans. Early exploration of the African coast led to about a century of Portuguese dominance in the slave trade. Portuguese slavers supplied human cargo to Spanish American, as well as Brazilian buyers. This laid the ethnic and demographic foundations for a black-and-white Brazil. As a result, in several parts of Latin America, Africans totally replaced indigenous laborers in the 1600s.
22) What does the "import duties" column tell us about the taxation structure in most Latin American countries, and how it relates to a developmental strategy?
The import duties were high and significant, reflecting a protectionist approach to trade. This taxation structure aimed to shield domestic industries from foreign competition and promote local economic development. However, this strategy had limited success as it led to a lack of competition and innovation in the domestic market, resulting in low productivity and inefficiencies. It also discouraged foreign investment, which could have contributed to economic growth and development. Furthermore, the high import duties led to an over-reliance on domestic production, limiting the market size and potential for exports. This dependence on the domestic market also made it challenging to access new technologies and ideas from other countries, hindering development. In conclusion, the import duties circa 1929 in most Latin American countries reflect a protectionist taxation structure that aimed to promote local economic development. However, this strategy had limited success and ultimately hindered long-term economic growth and development.
4) The indigenous people of the Americas adapted to the land in different ways but can be grouped in three main groups. Explain them.
The indigenous peoples of the Americas had adapted themselves to the land in many ways. Some were non-sedentary, an adaptation to food-scarce environments. Non-sedentary people led a mobile existence as hunters and gatherers, and movement kept their groups small and their social organization simple. Often they roamed open plains. Other indigenous Americans were Forest dwellers. Hunting was important to them, too, but the abundant rainfall characterizing most forest environments allowed them to depend on agriculture in a way that the non-sedentary people could not, and so forest peoples were often semi-sedentary. Their agricultural practices were adapted to thin tropical soils. Semisedentary people built villages but moved them frequently, allowing old garden plots to be reabsorbed into the forest and opening new ones elsewhere. Semi-sedentary societies, organized themselves by tribes and by gender roles, but not by social class. Nor did they build empires. Finally, some indigenous people were fully sedentary. The permanent settlement, usually on high plateaus rather than in forests, made their societies more complex, and some constructed great empires. What all had in common were stationary, permanently sustainable forms of agriculture.
38) What were the main challenges that Julio César Strassera and his team had to face to bring military dictators to justice?
The main challenge that is seen in the movie is the fact that both the legal team of the prosecutor and him included and the victims of the regime were threatened constantly by different military divisions and their (military ) followers. Generally, this case was dangerous as the country has just changed from authoritarian regime to unstable democracy and there was a possibility of the military juntas uprising and overtaking the government.
29) What was the National Security Doctrine and how it relates to military dictatorships?
The national security doctrine was a Cold War-era ideology that emerged in Latin America. It was based on the belief that Latin American countries faced external and internal threats, including communist subversion and social unrest, and required a strong, authoritarian government to maintain order and stability. The doctrine became the basis for military dictatorships in Latin America, which seized power in several countries during this period, including Brazil, Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay. These regimes relied on the military as the primary institution for maintaining national security, often using brutal repression to suppress dissent and opposition. The national security doctrine also supported the United States Cold War policies in the region, as the US provided military and economic aid to support these regimes in their fight against communism. However, the doctrine also led to human rights abuses, disappearances, and torture of political opponents and citizens who were seen as threats to national security. In summary, the national security doctrine was a Cold War-era ideology that justified military dictatorships in Latin America and provided the framework for authoritarian rule and human rights abuses in the region.
31) Looking at the following table and figure, what is the relationship between ISI policies and inflation?
There is a historical correlation between Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) policies and inflation in Latin America. ISI policies were implemented in many Latin American countries from the mid-20th century to promote domestic industrialization and reduce reliance on imported goods. These policies often involved protectionist trade barriers, subsidies for domestic industries, and government intervention in the economy. While ISI policies initially led to economic growth and development in some countries, they also contributed to inflation. ISI policies often resulted in increased government spending, which led to higher demand for goods and services. At the same time, protectionist trade barriers and subsidies led to higher prices for domestic goods, and limited competition resulted in less efficient production processes. As a result, inflation rates increased in many Latin American countries during the ISI period. In some cases, inflation became so severe that it led to economic crises and hyperinflation. However, it is important to note that inflation is a complex phenomenon that can be influenced by many factors beyond just economic policies.
11) Napoleon overthrew Spanish King Ferdinand VII. How this event relates to the independence of Spanish America?
This move triggered a wave of resistance in Spain and its colonies, and the Spanish American colonies used the opportunity to seek independence from Spain. The overthrow of Ferdinand VII weakened the legitimacy of the Spanish monarchy, and the colonies saw this as an opportunity to break away from Spain's control. The Spanish American colonies began to organize themselves and fight for independence, which eventually led to the liberation of most of South America from Spanish rule. Therefore, the overthrow of Ferdinand VII was a significant event that sparked the movement towards independence in Spanish America.
15) Why did most countries adopt an outward-looking economic strategy after independence?
Why Adopt this Strategy? Because it offered Latin American countries the ability to expand their market and increase agricultural exports Many goods abundant in the region, like coffee and chocolate, had high demand in Europe The protectionist policies that characterized the colonial era and the years immediately after independence limited economic growth Results of Implementing this Strategy Export growth after independence wasn't necessarily spectacular, but it was at least positive for most countries. It was accompanied by improvement in net barter terms of trade (NBTT). This gave LatAm countries greeted capacity to import goods Tariff disputes did not disappear, but most govts shifted toward a less protectionist stance.