Latin American Studies Exam #2
Multilateralism:
-Opposite of Unilateralism -Government that works with others and consults with them Style of policy that reflects corporation *consultation with other governments*
What are the relevant interventions of "Big Stick" AFTER Roosevelt proclaimed the U.S. as the policeman of the Western Hemisphere?
1. Dominican Republic (1905; 1916-1924) 2. Nicaragua (1912-1925; 1926-1933) 3. Haiti (1915-1934) The United States believed that they were intervening because they wanted to preserve the peace and stability. However, it served more to protect the U.S. interests in these countries
What did the U.S. government attempt to do during the period of "Manifest Destiny?"
1823-1898 Various efforts were made by the US to acquire land from Mexico, Nicaragua and Cuba. - At the beginning, the U.S. did not have the means to enforce the 1823 Monroe Doctrine, which asserted strategic denial and dominance over Latin America.** By 1845, the US was ready to expand beyond its borders by seized Texas (1845) and half of Mexico's territory (Arizona, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Texas) (1846-1848 War).
Sphere of influence:
A region in which a great power controls economically, politically, and militarily
Describe a case of U.S. *indirect intervention* in Latin America during the Cold War (1953-1992):
During the Reagan administration in 1981, the right-wing death squads (trained by the U.S. govt) became a condition for US assistance. - Determined to win in Nicaragua, the Reagan administration avoided negotiations and supplementary peaceful solutions. In 1984, US mined Nicaraguan harbors and, in result, a decision made by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) that declared that the US was in violation of international law. - However, the US felt that the ICJ did not have jurisdiction in the matter and simply just ignored the decision that was decided. In order to do away with Sandinistas, Reagan administration lied to Congress and initiated what became known as the Iran-Contra-gate. - This was basically an operation that originated with efforts to avert to the *Contra's* (a label given to the various U.S.-backed and funded right-wing rebel groups) "profits" made by overcharging for arms the US illegally sold to Iran. - The operation eventually involved secret donations from a whole series of governments including shady individuals, and all in direct violation of "congressional directives" In the concluding of the Cold War, the US lost its way and forgot values on which the country had been founded. The indirect intervention methods used by the US did not benefit LA and simply added to the already existent issues. - The conflict eventually ended in Central America with no assistant of the US.
European scientific view of the three races:
European scientific view of the three races: absolute division of the three races into Caucasoid (white), Negroid (black) and Mongoloid (yellow) categories
Data on Mexico and its eventual universal healthcare:
Heterogeneous, middle income country (not rich/industrial/highly developed but not undeveloped) Wide wealth disparities - 100 million people - 50 million lacked health insurance Since 1943, social insurance program limited to salaried employees in - Private firms - Public sector institutions - People left out—unemployed/self employed, street vendors, sell food on the street, agricultural farmers, craftspeople Infections, malnutrition and maternal health problems - Emerging problems of chronic disease, mental disorders, injury and violence - Complicated by rising rates of smoking and obesity
The Cold War:
Idealogical rivalry between US and Soviet Union because of 2 different types of systems (communism VS democracy) AND (socialism and capitalism) 1953-1989- COLD WAR- a policy shift back to intervention. The Monroe Doctrine was back!!!!
Sovereignty:
Possession of a territory where the US flag flies through permanent occupying forces(VERY EXPENSIVE) - The decision not to incorporate CUBA was based on RACISMMMM and HEAVY EXPEDENTURES!!!
Social classes: elites and masses in LA
The concept of class is based in economic relations, that is, the relation to the means of production as either an owner of those means or as one who is forced to sell their labor. But class also has cultural criteria such as education, family ties, wealth, status, language, credentials, and, of course, race and ethnicity.
How did the integration of Latin America into the global economy all begin?
The crisis of national capitalism (ISI) and the rise of global capitalism (neoliberalism)
Significance of the Spanish American War of 1898:
The turning point for the United States' global power influence
How to fix ethnicity, class and nationalism: independent LA
While influenced by "scientific" racism, Latin American elites selected parts of it to fit the realities of their societies, that is, while accepting ideas of white superiority, the elites denied the absoluteness of race and ignored that hybrids were considered degenerate; they also ignored that only Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic races were considered the superior white races. Whitening of the population was the solution found to solve the race problem: whitening both racially (biological miscegenation) and culturally (European immigration
Describe how countries such as Argentina attempted to solve the race problem even though they were influenced by "scientific" racism (post-Latin American independence)
With Argentina, elites only encouraged European immigration but NOT miscegenation. - Scientific racism held up with the fact that hybrids were degenerate but elites chose not to make a distinction among those they considered white, believing that A&T races weren't superior white races because differences were social & historical rather than biological. - Once the country was white, they had to make it Argentinean by promoting nationalism. - Nationalism: glorification of native Argentine (the criollos- spaniards born in new world) & definition of Argentine culture as characterized by Spanish language & Hispanic culture (Catholicism). - Therefore, Jews did not belong in Argentina, which launched anti-Semitism, & physical attacks on them.
Did the U.S. achieve its objective in "Manifest Destiny?"
*Yes!* The US becoming a global power and gaining coast-coast territory were two huge achievements that came out of the historical period of Manifest Destiny. Concrete example: - Since 1850, the US expended tons of efforts to acquire Cuba. - A hemispheric grouping of nations was developed, and in 1889 the first Pan-American Conference was held in Washington. - The vast majority of the Latin American countries stood strongly on the fact that they would not be dictated by the US. - In 1898 the US was about to enter Cuba's war of independence against Spain in Cuba's defense; however, the U.S. decided to back out. - Under the Teller Amendment the US promised they would not acquire Cuba. But the U.S. was able to gain the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico through Cuba's war with Spain: which made the US a global power. - Cuba was given its independence, but was not completely free;instead of annexing Cuba, the U.S. militarily occupied it as a US protectorate until 1902 (you get the Platt Amendment in the Cuban Constitution) ******** - The decision not to incorporate CUBA was based on RACISMMMM and HEAVY EXPEDENTURES
Globalization and Maquiladoras
*globalization- the integration of economies and societies into the global market. Neoliberism prepares the countries for the integration with free trade, free market and free flows of capital * maquiladoras= assembly plants= sweatshops= supply chains to TNC's ( transnational corporations b/c they transcend the nation state, divorced from the nation state... they go around the globe looking for the cheapest labor.. Ex. Car)
Why is racial democracy is a MYTH?
- Brazil's income distribution is still one of the most unequal in the world with a Gini Coefficient of 0.547 in 2012 (UNDP, 2014) - Illiteracy among blacks was at 14.4% and among those of mixed race 13%, nearly triple that of whites at 5.9%. - "Whites have a higher proportion of elderly people which is probably linked to differences in living conditions and access to healthcare, and unequal distribution of income." -Whites were also living longer than blacks & those of mixed race. -1976 IBGE study results yielded 134 different terms used by people in Brazil to describe their skin color, all to deny their black identity because of 'black abuse'. - Despite the fact that a majority of Brazilians have some African ancestry, People of color are poorly represented in politics - The military and navy remains almost exclusively white - Indigenous populations are poorly treated and Afro-Brazilians continue to be treated as second class citizens
Brazil General Facts:
-Blessed with a beautiful and vast land, Brazil was destined to be a great power and to occupy in South America the same preponderant place that the United States occupies in North America. -One of the most ethnically diverse countries in the world with a mix of indigenous, Africans (second only to Nigeria) and Europeans. -A continental nation, the largest in Latin America, fourth largest in the world in area, fourth largest democracy, and the largest Catholic country, with the Amazon as the world's largest rainforest 5th most populated country
Cold War Interventions: (B/C US economic interest were at risks)
-Guatemala and the overthrow of President Arbenz (1954 with Eisenhower). INDIRECT INTERVENTION - Cuba and the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961 with Kennedy). - Military intervention in the Dominican Republic (1965 with Johnson). - Chile and the CIA overthrow of President Allende (1973 with Nixon)(one of worst dictatorships) INDIRECT INTERVENTION - Counterinsurgency in Nicaragua and El Salvador (throughout the 1980s with Reagan). - Military interventions in Grenada (1983 with Reagan) and Panama (1989 with George H.W. Bush). DIRECT INTERVENTION
Contemporary Brazil:
-The neoliberal experiment of the 1990s and the integration into the global economy; financial crisis and the collapse of the currency. -The election and reelection of LULA, the first working class and New Left president during the first decade of the 21st century (2003-2010) and the achievements of his double presidency: 1) - Macroeconomic stability: control of inflation, payment of foreign debt (including to the IMF), and economic growth based on the export of commodities to China. 2) Social inclusion and reduction of poverty with minimum wage increases and "Bolsa Familia," a welfare program which reached 12.9 million families (some 51 million people) with average benefits of R$95 per month. IMPORTANT: this program, a moderate social policy, was highly recommended by the World Bank to reduce poverty and prevent social and political instability and is known as Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs).
What are the two types of exports in the form of export-led growth?
1. Nontraditional agricultural exports 2. Manufactured exports. The nontraditional agricultural exports: - *Exotic* products that have not been seen produced before such as snow peas and tomatoes in Mexico; cut flowers in Colombia and Ecuador; products previously produced for domestic consumption and now exported such as mangos in Central America, and grapes, peaches, kiwi, and salmon in Chile Manufactured exports: - Low-tech products such as shoes and garments in assembly plants, maquiladoras, in the US-Mexican border, in the Caribbean and in Central America, where duty free imported parts are assembled by cheap labor - The maquiladoras are the epitome of the global sweatshop, located in Export Processing Zones free from duties, taxes, and generally from national regulations.
What is the major difference between national capitalism and global capitalism?
A difference in the direct impact on Latin American *workers*
Explain the Good Neighbor Policy from 1929 to 1953 (part 1):
A phrase coined by President Hoover in 1929, marked a *shift from intervention to cooperation with Latin American countries* During Hoover's presidency (1929-1933), U.S. Marines were pulled out of every country in Latin America (LA) except Haiti, and Hoover ordered a review of the historical rationale for interventionism—the Monroe Doctrine. - Hoover's administration found that nothing in the Monroe Doctrine had ever given the US the right to intervene in the internal affairs of its neighbors and was never cited again as the basis for US policy.
What does "Manifest Destiny" mean?
A term for the time period of US expansionism, which stood for an attitude that America was destined to expand its territories. This period involved various acquisitions for land and imperialism - Belief that God said that the West had to be a CONTINENTAL POWER but Mexico was in the way of the US expanding!! ***
Describe a case of U.S. *direct intervention* in Latin America during the period known as the Cold War (1953-1992):
A very important case of the direction intervention during the Cold War is with US military intervention in the island of Grenada during 1983 with President Reagan in power. - During this time, relations with Grenada and US had deteriorated after the New Jewel movement took power there in 1979 that was led by Maurice Bishop, who was a friend of Fidel Castro. - Carter and Reagan administration took advantage of their friendship and considered them too far to the left. However, even though Grenada was a small island that did not pose a threat, in October 1983, Reagan took advantage of the political friction and sent in US troops to remove the New Jewel movement from power in Grenada. - The pretexts that US gave for the invasion was to ensure the safety of US students at a medical school on the island and to prevent the completion of an airfield that Reagan warned was intended to be used by the Soviet Union. - With investigation however, it was clear that these pretexts were phony because the students were in no danger because in an event, they could have been peacefully evacuated if it weren't for the invasion. - Further investigation also found that the United Nations Development Program was the one that recommend the construction of the airfield to expand tourism for Grenada. - Once the invasion was over, US taxpayers paid over $19 million dollars to help the new Grenadian government to complete the same airfield. Even with all the phoniness, the US still stuck to its fig leaf by saying it cared about diplomatic and legal niceties.
"God is a Brazilian"
A widespread and popular belief among the the Brazilian elite - Pride in the natural majesty of the country - While dreams of Brazilian greatness later foundered on hard times, the Brazilian elite continues to maintain that *Brazil is a great power of the future*, a sleeping giant, a nation destined for fulfillment
Post-Cold War issues: War on Terror (unilateralism)
After the September 11 attacks on the United States almost all the countries of the Western Hemisphere, including Cuba, condemned the acts themselves and terrorism in general, indicating at the same time their solidarity and willingness to cooperate with the United States. Other countries were willing to cooperate in the struggle against terrorism, but the "with us or against us" attitude the Bush administration had caused problems. - Most of the countries in the OAS (Organization of American States) opposed the war. - The US was in virtual defiance of the UN Security Council with this war and thus weakened the United Nations. - This shows us that the US was only acting with their own interests in mind as opposed to taking an approach taking into account the repercussions their actions can have on others. After the terrorist attacks on the US, Cuba offered to cooperate with the United Nations and with all governments, including the US, in the fight against terrorism. - The US State Department almost insultingly rejected Cuba's offer to sign an agreement with the US in the fight against international terrorism and the State Department even continued to include Cuba on the list of "terrorist nations". - This was on the basis that Cuba harbored a Chilean terrorist wanted for murder in Chile to which the Chilean government concluded that Cuba had not harbored or assisted the Chileans at all, to which the US pointedly neglected to report these findings. - Again, here the US wants to force others to follow them in their decisions as opposed to working things out in a multilateral manner.
The contradictions of Brazil:
Another contradiction includes Brazil's actions when they hosted the World Cup - Massive protests broke out when Brazil spent immense amounts of money on the soccer stadium instead of public services like education, healthcare, and transportation. - It angered many that although Brazil had among the highest tax rates in Latin America, they still had one of the lowest rates in public investment - In preparation of the World Cup and the upcoming 2016 Olympics, the government has been engaged in a process of eviction of slum dwellers in Rio de Janeiro and other cities (Rio has more than 1,000 favelas) to make way for projects (roads, renovated stadiums) to prepare the country for the world's two biggest sporting events
What is "scientific" racism?
Belief in absoluteness of race and, therefore, hybrids (mixed race) are considered degenerate (a lower type, degraded or depraved) (hybrids have no value) The white race is considered mentally and physically superior, but NOT all whites, only the Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic (German and Scandinavian) races! Social Darwinism explained the relative economic and political development of countries through deterministic racial theories - The northern European countries and the United Sates were relatively prosperous because of the inherent physical and mental superiority of the Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic races.
How did "Big Stick" Ted Roosevelt turn the U.S. into the policeman of the Western Hemisphere, effectively asserting Latin America as a U.S. sphere of influence?
Between 1898 and 1929: "Gunboat Diplomacy," in practice, *turning Latin America into a U.S. sphere of influence* Here we are dealing with the enforcement of the monroe doctrine strategic denial *** The "Big Stick:" Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)--> military occupations (the U.S. would be the policeman of the Western Hemisphere—justified invasions and occupations) - This led to taking over and controlling the economy and politics in the countries that formed part of Latin America. - They were also able to supervise the other countries in Latin America that they had started dominating since they believed that everything south to the United States will be its sphere of influence - U.S. banks, enterprises and other companies soon took over their economy preventing people from Latin America from having any type of power in their own country. Example: Panama (1903) BEFORE THE ROOSEVELT COROLLARY - Roosevelt fueled an internal revolt recognized the rebels as the legitimate government of Panama. He made Panama into a sovereign state when it was initially under Colombian control. He got the canal, which the Colombians initially denied to him before the revolution
Post-Cold War issues: Economic development and the U.S. pushing neoliberal reforms and free trade agreements (unilateralism) (remember that this issue is related to illegal immigrants)
Between the decade of the end of the Cold war and the September 11 attacks, there was no change of attitude on the part of US with no willingness to consider economic development programs to get other nations on the road to prosperity. - This cold shoulder that the US had was fueled by one of Washington's major conflict of the arrival of illegal immigrants into their country from the south. - Instead of providing developmental programs to incentivize the people to stay in their countries, which would involve a small-scale transfer of public resources, US urged southern countries to privatize and rely on private investment, both local and foreign. - The neoliberal policies actually introduced more negative consequences than positive, even though they assisted LA in starting to integrate their economies and societies into the global market. - These neoliberal reforms caused the poor to get poorer, higher unemployment rates, lower living standards in most of the population, and caused an even more significant gap between the rich and poor. - The reduction for social welfare programs forced the poor try and improve through their own resources. This made it more difficult for the poor and only caused them to only become poorer. Mexico is a prime example of negative consequences these neoliberal policies actually introduced. - After becoming part of NAFTA, Mexico went through a dramatic economic crisis with its economy basically collapsing in December 1994. - It was bailed out by US Treasury that kept Mexico from going under. This was a direct result of mistakes in adjusting to the agreement, which focused on reducing tariffs and nontariff barriers along the borders to trade between Mexico, Canada, and US. With the Argentine economy collapse on its watch, the Bush administration did nothing to help them. Smith's view that illegal immigration was caused from insufficient development in LA countries. W/ Nafta, Smith writes about the economic disruption in Mexico with 15 billionaires while 1/2 of population is in poverty..therefore increasing the flow of illegals to the US!!!!
The contradictions of Brazil
Brazil ranks 7th among the world's most violent nations and violence in favelas (slums) is endemic, perpetrated by criminals and the police itself
The contradictions of Brazil 1 :
Brazil stands behind Mexico, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Uruguay, Argentina, Cuba, and Chile in the 2015 Human Development Index of the UN Development program - Includes healthcare, education, and per capita income The income distribution in Brazil remains extremely unequal when compared to other countries - In 2013, the richest 10% of the population received 41.2% of the country's total income while the 40% poorest received only 13.3% The 2010 Census, the richest 5% of the population received 40% of the country's total income and the richest 1% received 19% The 2010 Census revealed that 16 million people lived in extreme poverty, with half the population living off less than minimum wage 40% of the population lived without basic sanitation
Racial democracy
Brazilian intellectuals proclaimed the creation of a Luso-Tropical Civilization is characterized by a racial democracy where miscegenation (mixture of races) is celebrated - A term used by some to describe race relations in Brazil - According to this notion, there is *racial harmony* in Brazil where the races intermingle freely, unlike the harsh racism of the U.S
Indirect intervention:
CIA plots to overthrow governments utilizing exile forces and The School of Americas (SOA) training right-wing Latin American forces in counterinsurgency warfare, including methods of torture and assassination.
European "scientific" view of the three races:
Caucasiod (white) negroid (black), mongoloid (yellow)
What are the consequences on *Colombian and Ecuadorian workers* (cut flowers)?
Colombian and Ecuadorian flower industry workers also faced consequences of nontraditional agricultural exports. - These countries outsourced labor, through tercerizacion (third party arrangements) which transferred the responsibility of employment from the industry to smaller organizations where labor violations were less risky. - These organizations would only hire workers under short-term contracts, and these contracts gave workers no rights to social benefits. - They worked nearly around the clock during the busy season of January to February with no overtime compensation, and many contracted illnesses from the weather and terrible working conditions. Nearly 60% of workers faced work related health issues to to the dangerous chemicals and toxins in the flowers. The agricultural business was feminized throughout this time, because many men out-migrated to off farm pursuits and women needed employment to survive. Women also had much fewer options for work than men, with supervisory and professional positions always reserved for men. Due to society's historical patriarchal structure, women were appealing workers because they provided capital and employers had more leverage over them. - Many female workers in the flower industry faced sexual harassment and some even sexual assault.
Nationalism and race:
Definition: ideology or belief system of a nation. - Latin American and Caribbean nationalism has been influenced by European nationalism: identification of a homogenous national type, a race that constitutes the nation (those that don't constitute the nation should be discriminated against) - One's class and status are determined, at least in part, by one's 'race' and ethnicity (and vice versa) The most powerful groups have strongly influenced the creation and enforcement of these cultural determinations.
Describe how countries such as Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina attempted to solve the race problem even though they were influenced by "scientific" racism.
Elites found a solution to solve racial problem by whitening the population both racially (biological miscegenation) & culturally (European immigration).
Why North Americans are often surprised when they encounter the racial and ethnic arrangements in Latin America?
Examples: "Racial" terms found in the Dominican Republic (DR) have parallels elsewhere: the term *indio* (native person) may be a black person with wavy, rather than kinky, hair while an indio claro (light-colored native person) may refer to light-skinned mulattos. Whereas the term *indio oscuro* (dark native person) refers to very dark skin people, and list of racial distinction goes on. Moreover, in DR, *mulattos* (a mixture of African and European ancestry) think of themselves as white, are the elite, and identify with Spanish origins and culture and deny their African heritage. In the DR, if one is considered black, one is a Haitian; however, when Dominicans migrate to the US, they are categorized as black. In the Anglo-Caribbean, people who are categorized as mulattos and "colored" are thought of, and think of themselves, as "racially" distinct from both whites and black.
What is the major feature of the models that have a direct impact on Latin American workers. Then, explain this feature and the impact (consequences) on workers both during ISI and neoliberalism
Feature: labor market deregulation and flexibility to integrate Latin America into global capitalism. A direct impact on Latin America *workers*: national capitalism is regulated labor market with protection of labor legislation (benefits) and a stable, formal workforce - Under global capitalism, production processes are globally dispersed, decentralized, and flexible, that is, different phases of production take place in different countries. This is known as *global commodity chains* led by Transnational Corporations (TNCs). New global capital-labor relations and the economic/political exclusion of the working class: new flexible labor regime and the decimation of organized labor, that is, casualization, informalization, feminization, precarious working conditions, part-time, temporary, seasonal - The Wal-Martization of labor ***********
What are FTAs?
Free Trade agreements
Post-Cold War issues: Environment (unilateralism)
In June 1992, the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development offered a perfect opportunity to provide leadership, but the administration of President George H.W. Bush raised objections to the two major treaties to be signed at the conference. - The administration refused to sign the treaty to preserve the world's plants, animals, and natural resources. - Instead, the administration signed another treaty dealing with the problem of global warming, but only one the condition that the strict timetable for curbing harmful emissions be deleted. - Rather than leading and encouraging cooperation, the Bush administration played an obstructionist, unilateral role and was almost completely isolated in its position. The intentions of the Clinton administration were an improvement, however, because in 1993, Clinton called for a "new covenant for environmental progress." - His administration then negotiated a multilateral agreement aimed at halting the depletion of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. - In 1996, it began massive negotiations for a worldwide effort to address the critical problem of global climate change. - However, Congress shut down the multilateral efforts and refused to come up with the money to fund reducing both CFCs worldwide and the depletion of the ozone layer. Also, in the Western Hemisphere, there is the need to halt the destruction of the Amazon rain forest, but with the inauguration of George W. Bush in 2001, any pretense that the U.S. was interested in the Amazon or even took seriously the protection of the environment as a whole went out the window. - From undercutting the Clean Air Act to proposals promoting the wholesale clear-cutting of our national forest in the guise of "fire protection," the administration moved almost across the board to weaken measures to protect the environment in a unilateral fashion.
What is the NAFTA paradox?
Leaders had promised that NAFTA would help Mexico "export goods, not people" but Mexico now "exports" more people than ever and more of them reside permanently in the U.S. without documents.
What is an example of the global commodity chains led by Transnational Corporations (TNCs)?
Levis Jeans in the garment industry: - The phase of fiber production (technologically advanced synthetics) is carried out in the U.S. headquarters while *the sewing phase takes place in low wage areas through foreign suppliers* = *SUBCONTRACTING* - Thus, Levis Jeans use subcontracting for its sewing phase of production, that is, it contracts out foreign suppliers known as *supply chain*
What are the consequences of maquiladoras on *Central American workers*?
Long work hours and cheap wages. Their work shifts lasted 12 to 15 hours with ages only two to four dollars a day. Most factories are old, have poor ventilation, and have dangerous fire hazards. Workers were locked in prison-like conditions and as a result many workers commonly suffer from illnesses such as tuberculosis, depression, asthma, allergic reactions, and intoxication from chemicals and noxious fumes. Workers also receive physical punishment from supervisors, such being hit, beaten, or pushed. Employment is unstable and has a high turnover. Workers are generally not hired permanently but are hired temporarily, so therefore these workers have no job security. The female works suffered extreme gender discrimination and were routinely harassed sexually and dismissed for pregnancy. Child labor was also very rampant.
Maquiladoras:
Low-wage assembly factories which are located in Export Processing Zones free from duties, taxes, and generally from national regulations. - In the U.S.-Mexican border, in the Caribbean and in Central America, where duty free imported parts are assembled by cheap labor These factories are the epitome of the global sweatshop. These new export activities are a part of global commodity chains through subcontracting: - TNCs rely on foreign contracting (supply chains), thus transferring production to Latin America where they can get the best deal such as cheap labor, non-unionized workers, and lax environmental, health and safety rules
Direct intervention:
Military invasion and occupation by the Marines
Explain the impact of NAFTA on the Mexican peasants, the producers of maize, thus establishing a direct connection between NAFTA's uprooting (displacement) of Mexican peasants and illegal migration to the U.S. ( US AGRICULTURAL SUBSIDIE IS VERY IMPORTANT HERE)
NAFTA is different from other free trade agreements in Latin America: it was first ever FTA between 2 first world countries (Canada & US) & also a third world country (Mexico). - The real beneficiaries of NAFTA are the TNC's. How? ex) at the heart of NAFTA lies the growing incompatibility between national states and the working of international companies. NAFTA binds Mexico into strict new patent rules of pharmaceuticals and computer software and prevents Mexico from trying to delay or obstruct the repatriation of profits by transnational companies - NAFTA had significant impacts on Mexican peasants. In the case of maize & uprooting of peasant farmers, maize cultivation is main livelihood for nearly 3 million farmers in Mexico which accounts for about 40% of agriculture sector. US Maize is grown on large farms at an average of 40% of expense of production in Mexico with standard yields per hectare between 4&5 times higher and heavier *subsidies* from US government - NAFTA allowed a 15 year phase in period for free trade in maize. However, Mexican gov waived this right & maize trade was efficiently freed within 30 months of beginning of NAFTA. - Consequently, an immense overflow of US maize proceeded, leading to a severe reduction in price of Mexican producers. Mexican producers argue that pressure to import came from gov institutions & various companies & processors in Mexico (variety of having headquarters in US). - Although prices have fallen, farmers have also sadly faced other adjustment measures including elimination of state purchasing & supply agency, & drastic cuts in *state subsidies*. However despite all these negative results, they did not lead to mass emigration or regression in maize production in Mexico. Consequences: - Their survival strategies include sending their children to the maquiladoras or to the United States as illegal immigrants. - Here, children would be doing labor in construction, vending craftwork, & producing food for family utilization. These survival strategies were undeniably a struggle for Mexican peasants & their families, & could further possibility of leading to increased emigration. - Thus, uprooting of Mexican peasants was a rise in informality & illegal migration to US. Job losses led to rise in informal employment in Mexico.
National capitalism (ISI) and global capitalism (neoliberalism)
National capitalism= ISI=regulated capitalism. Global capitalism=neoliberalism=unregulated capitalism. Major difference between national capitalism and global capitalism that has a direct impact on Latin American workers: 1. National capitalism: regulated labor market with protection of labor legislation (benefits) and a stable, formal workforce. Domestic market 2. Global capitalism: unregulated labor market with a flexible, unprotected, unstable and informal workforce.No labor laws apply, short contracts, part time
The path of LA integration into global capitalism: specialization, comparative advantage and export led growth:
Neoliberalism and the revival of the 19th century theory of specialization and comparative advantage as the logical bases for free trade: countries should specialize in the exports of goods they produce more efficiently(less costly) in order to ave comparative advantage in global trade( more export earnings)
What is NAFTA?
North American Free Trade Agreement
For Latin America, what does the prescription of specialization, comparative advantage and export-led growth mean?
Not only the increase of exports but also their diversification through novel agricultural and low-tech manufactured products utilizing super-flexible and super-exploitable labor. - In fact, the *provision to the global economy of an abundant supply of cheap, flexible, and disciplined labor is now the comparative advantage of Latin America! *
Why North Americans are often surprised when they encounter the racial and ethnic arrangements in Latin America?
Race & ethnicity are cultural/social constructs (definitions & meanings that are enforced, enacted & become taken for granted with *no scientific value*). Popular notions of "race" and ethnicity are considered stereotyping derived from a distinctly European perspective that sought to hold Colonial people as fundamentally different and inferior. Thus, the construction of race in Latin America (LA) can be contrasted with concepts of race and ethnicity in the US
The contradictions of Brazil 2:
Racial divisons also exist - Although 50.7% of the Brazilian population was black, the average income of the whites was nearly double that of blacks and those of mixed rate - There was also a much higher rate of illiteracy among blacks and mixed race than that of whites - It was also found that white people in Brazil had a higher longevity than blacks, which most likely correlated to the disparities in living conditions, healthcare, and income inequality.
Ethnicity:
Refers to cultural differences (customs, behaviors, values, meanings, dress, speech, appearance) and geographical origin is important ("where are you from"? is a truly ethnic question).
Race:
Refers to phenotypical differences (skin color, shape of the nose, and type of hair) and ancestral (biological) origin is important.
Social class and race:
Refers to the elites and masses in Latin America - The concept of class is based in economic relations, that is, the relation to the means of production as either an owner of those means or as one who is forced to sell their labor. - However, class also has cultural criteria such as education, family ties, wealth, status, language, credentials, and, of course, race and ethnicity. *Skin color changes when you're wealthy*
National capitalism (ISI)
Regulated labor market with protection of labor legislation (benefits) and a stable, formal workforce (powerful unions, job security, full time, permanent positions, etc) Regulated capitalism Started in the early 1930s to the 1980s. Some major features consist of state-led development model meaning the state as a regulator and producer. In addition, ISI and production for the domestic market is inward looking. Economic/political inclusion of the working class: - Formal employment, social benefits, strong labor unions; representation in the policy-making process.
Explain the Good Neighbor Policy from 1929 to 1953 (part 3):
Roosevelt's successor, President Truman continued Roosevelt's non-interventionist policy and in 1947 also helped bring into being the Rio Pact, a collective security treaty that made defense of the Western Hemisphere the responsibility of all member states. - This was followed in 1948 by the creation of the Organization of the American States (OAS), which provided for the adjudication of disputes among members and for collective peacekeeping measures. Unfortunately, as the OAS was being formed, the Cold War between US and Soviet Union (USSR) was heating up but had little immediate effect on US-LA relations. - LA was perceived as being far removed from the USSR and safely within US sphere of influence, and the Truman administration continued its non-interventionist policies. - However, the Good Neighbor Policy *ended in 1953 as the Cold War came to LA in full force*
Post-Cold War issues: War on Drugs (unilateralism)
Smith argues that as long as there is demand in the United States, drugs will be supplied in from Latin America (principle of supply and demand). - The United States will not be able to prevent the flow of drug trade by sending marines to locations surrounding the country. - The United States has to make a great effort to decrease the amount of drug consumption in their country in order to slow down drug trade. Less demand will equal to less drug supply. - Smith also believes that neither the Latin American nor U.S. governments will be able to solve the "War on Drugs" through police force and law. - Law will not play a factor to any of the poor people in these Latin Americans countries, as they rely on the creation of drugs to bring in money in order to support themselves. The system of certification was imposed by the United States in 1987 and many Latin American governments viewed it as a shifting the blame of the "War on Drugs" on Latin America. - Efforts of Latin American governments to prohibit drugs were judged by the United States to be insufficient. - If the Latin American government's efforts were viewed as inadequate, then they would no longer be eligible for certain economic benefits, even though Latin American governments might view US efforts to be minimal. This was not a cooperative effort among equal partners.
Difference between subcontracting and outsourcing:
Subcontracting= look for UNSKILLED cheap labor Outsourcing= look for SKILLED cheap labor ex) some US emptiness use outsourcing economic arrangements, relocating such jobs as telephone operators, graph designer and computer programmers to low wage areas
Explain the meaning of the concept Cold War:
The *ideological rivalry between US and Soviet Union* because of the 2 types of systems of communism (Soviet Union) VS democracy (US), as well as socialism (Soviet Union) VS capitalism (US). Meaning of the Cold War is also that the Soviet Union broke US's monopoly of nuclear weapons, making both countries superpowers. These super power countries had the power of retaliation with the concept of "2nd strike capability causing mutual destruction in both countries.
What are some of the *main features of the Mexican healthcare reform* stated by Julio Frenk, a Mexican Health Minister?
The Mexican healthcare reform started as an experiment which used experiences from other countries as a guideline and shared their own experiences so they could all achieve the common health goals - The health care reform focused on helping many of the people who *did not have a salary large enough to cover all the costs* once they had fallen ill. The Popular Health Insurance aimed to enroll millions of families per year and decrease the number of people who have no health insurance. - There is also a budgetary obligation for public funding in place to ensure that the reform is funded. - Proper distribution is also very important in the reform because many of the poor families live in very marginalized areas and have limited access to health care
What is the comparative advantage of Latin America in international trade during the globalization era and how does the "race to the bottom" concept apply?
The comparative advantage of Latin America in international trade during the globalization era is the abundant supply of cheap, flexible, and disciplined labor. - The "race to the bottom" concept applies in that Latin America's cheap labor has to compete with even cheaper labor from Asia. (China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, etc) - Ex) shoe industry in Brazil - described as"decline in wages is likely to continue as globalization pits working classes from different countries in COMPETITION with each other" *** - In 2004, China overtook Mexico as the largest exporter of apparel to the US market. - Wages decline all over as the government of developing countries desperately compete with each other to offer the lowest possible wages to attract TNCs.
Unilateralism:
The government that does acts on its own short term interests without consulting other leaders and disregards others
Who are the majority of workers in these sweatshops?
The majority of workers (over half are women) in these sweatshops are young women and non-unionized workers that will work for cheap.
What are some of the *main features of the Mexican healthcare reform* stated by Julio Frenk, a Mexican Health Minister?
The reform aimed to strengthen the delivery capacity by building new facilities, having enough drug supply & assessing their technology. - The reform does not stop there because they also aimed to train all the service delivery people by providing them with managerial training, performance betterment practices & provider certification. - Interventions play a major role in health care because it helps prevent not only many diseases, but also unintended injuries or conditions. - Basic sanitation, reproductive health, nutritional and growth surveillance can prevent communicable diseases, high blood pressure, and many other conditions that might deteriorate the health of the person.
What are some of the *main features of the Mexican healthcare reform* stated by Julio Frenk, a Mexican Health Minister?
The reform focuses on helping society from before birth by helping reduce maternal mortality and increasing the number of kids who go to school to be educated rather than go to job sites that might be dangerous for them. - Prevention is not the only action that is important, campaigns against discrimination and universal access to comprehensive treatment are also very important in the reform. The Seguro Popular makes sure that every uninsured person is eligible if they are in need of treatment, i.e., if they have AIDS, cancer, or any other disease whose treatment would require an uninsured person's fortune. - This reform has helped many poor families who could not afford the costs that a disease or injury brought along with it.
What is the role of transnational corporations (TNCs) and supply chains in nontraditional agricultural exports and manufactured exports?
The roles of these two exports of transnational corporations (TNCs) and supply chains (foreign contracting) were that TNCs relied on these supply chains, as a result, it transferred production to Latin America to take advantage of the cheap labor, non-unionized workers, and lax environmental, health and safety rules. - Some examples of TNC brand names are Levis Jeans, Tommy Hilfiger, and Nike which are manufacturers without factories.
Explain the Good Neighbor Policy from 1929 to 1953 (part 2):
The trend away from interventionism was given new impetus under the presidency of Franklin Roosevelt. - Roosevelt stressed strong economic ties with LA, not political domination, and favored collective security over unilateral actions by the US. - While unilateral actions refer to a government doing something for its short-term interests without consulting other leaders, Roosevelt took on a multilateral policy that reflects cooperative consultation with other governments. - Roosevelt abrogated the Platt Amendment to the Cuban Constitution, thus removing the protectorate infringement of Cuban sovereignty. - At the 1933 Pan-American Conference, the US pledged itself to the principle of nonintervention, and in the following year, Roosevelt pulled the last Marines out of Haiti and did not send them into any Latin American country during his presidency (1933-1945). - Good relations were further spurred by World War II, with the exception of Argentina, all LA states were allies of the U. and made no small contribution to the war effort, assuring natural resources and other needed commodities, providing air and naval bases, and in the case of Mexico and Brazil, even sending troops. - As the war ended, US-LA relations were more harmonious than they had ever been.
What are some basic strategic calculations that shaped U.S. policy in Latin America over the past 200 years?
The two basic strategic calculations are 1. *concept of strategic denial* - The concept of strategic denial: while Latin American countries were not powerful enough to threaten the security of the U.S., their very weakness rendered them vulnerable to the control of extra-hemispheric (outside) powers. - U.S. denies outside powers strategic advantage (influence) in Latin America. (E.g., France, Italy, Great Britain, etc) The U.S. keeping other powers out of Latin America has been the most enduring objective of the U.S. since the 19th century, duly enshrined in the 1823 Monroe Doctrine . Thus strategic denial= US denies outside power strategic advantage(influence) in latin america *** - However, the U.S. could only enforce strategic denial in Latin America after it became a global power.
What are some basic strategic calculations that shaped U.S. policy in Latin America over the past 200 years?
The two basic strategic calculations are 2. *assertion of U.S. hegemony over Latin America* Hegemony refers to dominance through informal means without a permanent occupying force. (DOMINANCE) : economic dominant or in politics, in the installation of client (puppet) regime= PROTECTORATES Due to the assertion of U.S. hegemony over Latin America, the region turned into a U.S. sphere of influence to exclude any foreign political and economic influence from the Western Hemisphere. - The Monroe Doctrine was an assertion of a U.S. sphere of influence. - Therefore, in order to maintain their control and influence over Latin America, the U.S. practiced assertion of its hegemony.
What are the consequences of nontraditional agricultural exports on *Chilean workers* (fruits)?
There were nearly 400,000 temporeros (temporary workers), most of which women; and their working conditions were slave-like. Work was only available during the harvest and packing seasons: barely seven months a year! There was a much higher rate of temporary workers. Cold poverty was a reality for these fruit pickers who on average only made about a dollar an hour. The farms were typically owned by the wealthy who had access to the capital and technology required for these plantations. These rich owners were behind this exploitation of cheap labor and large number of seasonal female workers. However the permanent workers, who were typically men, also faced flexible and casual working conditions. - They were likely forced to relocate to packing houses and processing plants despite the stability of their jobs. Pesticides were also found in these fruit farms which led to severe birth defects in the babies of working women.
What are the consequences of the maquiladoras on *Mexican workers*?
These workers receive very low wages and have minimal job security. Due from overwork, worker have ailments and poor health. Also, there are poor safety standards in these maquiladoras and frequent industrial injuries occur. An example is Mallory workers having to handle a wide range of toxic chemicals in the plant that led to severe birth defects.
Why North Americans are often surprised when they encounter the racial and ethnic arrangements in Latin America?
Traditionally, at least, North Americans regard the offspring of a black and a white as black. In LA, a number of racial terms are deduced from an individual's color, ideas about ancestry, and social status in a system typified by ambiguity and negotiation in assigning individuals to "racial" categories. Yet, higher status is always accorded to those who approach the European ideal. Hence, contrast in "racial" reckoning is apparent when individuals with these identities migrate to North America, which indicates that race is a culturally constructed entity rather than something rooted in biological facts.
Vertical vs. Horizontal programs
Vertical health programs: - Focus on a specific disease Horizontal programs: - Focus on strengthening overall health system Need to combine both approaches - Focus on the "diagonal" (e.g., focus on specific problem through improving reach of community health services)
Describe how countries such as Brazil attempted to solve the race problem even though they were influenced by "scientific" racism (post-Latin American independence)
With Brazil, this solution focused on Gilberto Freye's cultural nationalism that was a celebration of miscegenation & proclamation. - In 1930s, "luso-tropical" civilization was created, described by a democracia racial (racial democracy) that promoted races to intermix freely with intention & effect of precluding mobilization of disempowered groups based on ethnic identity. - This solution failed because with miscegenation, pure black race was expected to disappear.). However, the contradiction was blatant: with miscegenation the pure black race was expected to disappear!!! Brazilian elites still maintain the official ideology of democracia racial.
Describe how countries such as Venezuela attempted to solve the race problem even though they were influenced by "scientific" racism (post-Latin American independence)
With Venezuela, elites followed same solution as Brazil except that they prohibited blacks from entering country. (encouraged miscegenation and european immigration) - Elites who thought of themselves as "café con leche" argued that their country was a "racially " mixed country, where 70% of population were pardos (nonwhites) & that racism has been eliminated - However, same ideological position stands as in Brazil with reduction of pure black minority population.. Again the contradiction of the ideological position: reduction of the pure black population was the objective!
Racism in Brazil:
based on color of skin and NOT on racial origin of people, as in the US
Nationalism in LA:
ideology or belief system of a nation. Latin American and Caribbean nationalism has been influenced by European nationalism: identification of a homogenous national type, a race that constitutes the nation. In the postcolonial era, local elites guaranteed the ascendancy of Western and European ethnic identity and cultural forms which were seen to be embodied in the elite.
Global capitalism (neoliberalism)
market-led Under global capitalism, production processes are globally dispersed, decentralized, and flexible...so different phases of reduction take place in different countries = known as GLOBAL COMMODITY CHAINS led by TNC's Unregulated capitalism--production for the global market: outward looking During the debt crisis in 1982, national capitalism came to a termination had occurred and the imposition of neoliberalism as the policy "grease" of globalization was established. Global capitalism consists of free-market reforms consisting of trade and financial liberalization, privatization and austerity and labor REGULATION and flexibility to integrate LA into global capitalism ( The wold bank imposed this to make countries more competitive) - making it easier to dismiss labor - authorizing part time labor -eliminate health and other benefits -extend work day length DECIMATION OF WORKING CLASS/ AND LABOR
