Lecture 8: Interpersonal Relationships, Work, & Home

Women tend to __ during conflicts than men do (d = −0.16), and men tend to stonewall during conflicts more than women do (d = 0.16; Woodin, 2011).

display more hostility

Members of the LGBT community often place special importance on their social networks and friendships to meet their belonging needs. And often befriend each others in response to

social challenges.

A 2010 analysis of the annual salaries of full-time professors employed at the Vancouver campus (excluding Faculty of Medicine) found a gender differential of ____ in average pay. Half was accounted for by the underrepresentation of women at the Full Professor level. Another quarter was accounted for gender differences in the allocation of faculty members across Departmental units. After accounting for some additional variance (experience, etc.), there remained an unexplained female pay disadvantage of about ___

$14332.20, $3000

Although women now outnumber men in mid-level management positions (Williams, 2010), relatively few rise to the top of the corporate ladder. Women around the world hold only __ of CEO positions and __% of top business executive positions (Noland et al., 2016)

4.5%, 14

A study found that __ reported at least one FWB in the past year (Owen & Fincham, 2011)

54% of men and 43% of college women

A 2018 Maclean's article examined data on the wage gap...: If you add up the earnings of all working women, that sum is about __% of all the combined earnings of all working men. For women of colour: ___%; for Indigenous women: __%.

69, 62.5, 46

Sexual orientation also relates to the size of the wage gap: lesbian women earn on average __% more than straight women; gay men earn about __% less than straight men (Klawitter, 2014).

9 ,11

The tightrope:

A backlash against agentic women for violating gender roles; either avoid agentic roles or be less likeable.

Maternal instinct:

A biological drive to bear and care for children

Gender role ideology hypothesis:

A couple's beliefs about gender roles influence the division of housework.

Mother's intuition:

Ability to intuit offspring's needs without language.

___ refers to relationship arrangements in which all partners agree that it is acceptable to pursue sexual and/or romantic relationships with more than one other partner.

Consensual nonmonogamy (CNM)

Time availability theory:

Couples decide how much time to spend on housework based on available time.

Relative income hypothesis:

Couples trade off income for housework such that whoever makes more money does less housework.

__ are stereotyped, cognitive representations of the sequences of events and behaviours that occur during dates. Men and women expect men to plan first dates, pay for date, etc. Same-sex couples expect similar events, but gender irrelevant.

Dating scripts

--- involve two friends who have occasional, casual sexual interactions without the expectation of a romantic relationship.

Friends with benefits relationships (FWBs)

__ do not differ much by sex or sexual orientation

Mate preferences

Prove it again bias

FILL IN

Parental investment theory →

Female members of many species are especially picky when choosing mates because they invest more than males do in each offspring. Because mating with a low-quality partner carries more risk for women than it does for men, women display a stronger preference for partners who can offer resources and protection. Men should show preference for attractive partners because attractiveness suggests genetic health.

men and women tend to be rated as more effective leaders in different settings...

Men in male-dominated settings (e.g., military). Women in female-dominated settings (e.g., education).

The homosocial perspective:

Men often organize their relational life by forming comradeships - characterized by shared goals, joint activities and teamwork, and adherence to group norms.

__ fairness may be more important than ACTUAL equality

PERCEIVED

__ is lower for same-sex couples - possibly due to smaller pool of potential partners, more diverse settings.

Partner homogamy

__ involving romantic elements (intense longing for proximity, affection, touch) can be more likely to occur in samesex individuals (esp. sexual minority women; Diamond, 2002).

Passionate friendships

__ refers to the expectation that men should be both protective and polite toward women in romantic contexts, treating dates like "ladies" and offering to pay for them.

Paternalistic chivalry

Marriages have tended to afford men more authority and power than women

Patriarchal arrangements:

__, a specific type of CNM, refers to relationships in which adults have more than one other adult intimate relationship partner, with the knowledge and consent of all parties

Polyamory

__ refers to marriage between a husband and multiple wives, while

Polygyny

__ in relationships are common. Couples may not always agree about the balance of decision-making power in their relationship.

Power imbalances

The maternal wall:

Reflects the challenges of employed mothers (motherhood penalty); perceived as less competent.

Sex differences in network size tend to...

disappear by adolescence;

Men and women also value similar qualities in friends: (Hall, 2011; Sanderson et al., 2005; Sprecher & Regan, 2002)

Warmth and kindness • Expressiveness and openness • Sense of humour • Closeness and intimacy (in same-sex friendships)

Women make up 40% of the world's workforce, but hold only

a small percentage of upper-management positions.

Studies of bias based on sexual orientation and gender identity find consistently high levels of __

discrimination.

Maternal gatekeeping:

Women are reluctant to give up household and childcare work to men (e.g., due to identity)

Tug of war:

Women feel like they have to compete against other women, leading women to dissociate themselves from each other (referred to as the queen bee syndrome).

The gender wage gap refers to the difference in earnings between men and women; expressed as

a ratio of women's earnings to men's earnings.

When tracked over time, both wives' and husbands' feelings of love for their spouses positively correlated with

affectionate behaviours.

Similar traits - people tend to bond and partner with people similar on

age, ethnicity, religion, SES, personality, intelligence, education, interests, attitudes, attractiveness, and mental health (referred to as partner homogamy). Similar partners are familiar; validate worldviews; reduce conflict.

Possible Explanations for the Gap Education? The pay gap exists at ______ (AAUW, 2017); men are no longer better educated in North America.

all levels of education

Women and men generally think of and experience love in similar ways:

as an affectionate feeling of deep attachment to another (Fehr, 2006).

Essentialist beliefs are

assumptions that observed sex differences reflect inherent, natural, biological differences between the sexes.

Surveys indicate that BOTH sexes express more interest in dating people they perceive as more

attractive and (to a lesser degree) people they believe to have high earning potential.

But women and men differ in the importance that they place on physical attractiveness, domestic competence, and earning potential. Men tend to place more importance on...

attractiveness (good looks) and domestic competence (good cook, housekeeper), while women place more importance on work and earning potential (good financial prospects, ambition, industriousness)

The --- occurs when others assume that two friends are romantically involved.

audience problem

Arranged (third parties select pairings) vs. ___ (sometimes called love marriages, in which individuals select their own partners based on attraction, love, or other personal factors.

autonomous

People have a powerful need to feel connected to other people. Meeting the need to belong aids survival and well-being. People meet this need by __

developing social networks and friendships.

Same-sex couples more often share responsibilities equally, including routine childcare responsibilities (Matos, 2015). In part, this is due to...

basing allocations on personal preferences or abilities rather than on traditional gender roles

The Gender Wage Gap No single cause has been identified, and the wage gap likely results from many different factors. The choices that people make— about occupations, negotiations, and parenting—contribute to the gap, but remember: what might seem like personal choices may, in fact,

be constrained by gender norms and expectations.

A 2018 Maclean's article examined data on the wage gap... "It's often referred to as the unexplained component of the wage gap, though scholars of the topic suggest that ______—is to blame for the stubborn gap. Numerous studies support this claim."

bias—implicit and otherwise

The sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation of a parent make little difference for the outcomes of

children.

Cross-sex friendships between women and men become common by

college/university age in Western cultures.

Some gender issues in divorce: • Women more often blame declines in quality of ___; men more often blame declines in ___. • Inequities in housework and childcare. • Infidelity commonly leads to relationship dissolution.

communication, joint activities

A 2018 Maclean's article examined data on the wage gap... 92%: After ___________, an 8% wage gap persists.

controlling for sex differences in industry, occupation, education, age, job tenure, province of residence, marital status, and union status

Women are more likely than men to report initiating

cross-sex friendships for purposes of physical protection.

When asked, straight men are more likely to mention acts that involve ____, while straight women are more likely to list acts that assure ____

displaying resources(e.g., buying gifts), commitment and sexual exclusivity (e.g., displaying affection).

Work teams that are more ___ are more productive, innovative, financially successful, make smarter decisions, etc.

diverse in gender and ethnicity

Both sex and agreeableness have been negatively associated with earnings, meaning that women and more agreeable people tend to

earn less than men and more disagreeable people (even when controlling for job responsibility and occupational status).

No sex difference has been found in overall leadership

effectiveness (Eagly et al.. 1995; Paustian-Underdahl et al., 2014),

Lesbian couples report the most __ followed by gay and heterosexual cohabiting couples, childless married heterosexual couples, and, finally, married heterosexual parents (Kurdek, 2006).

egalitarian divisions of labour,

in contrast, women tend to experience more jealousy in response to __

emotional rather than sexual infidelity.

Women do more domestic labour than men, a pattern that holds true across

ethnicity, culture, and time and persists regardless of whether both members of the couple are employed.

In heterosexual marriages, husbands' contributions to housework tend to decline over time. Most women continue to do the majority of housework. Combined with women's increased levels of employment, this trend suggests that women experience

ever-increasing pressures on their time.

Women earn less than men in ___ Holds across race and ethnicity as well (women make less than men in ____.

every country around the world, the same ethnic/racial group)

Historically, marriage has served the primary purposes of

expanding family networks, sharing resources, and increasing the family labour source; most have been arranged.

Same-sex couples tend to ___ emotions than straight couples when first initiating conflict discussions (Gottman et al., 2003).

express more positive and fewer negative

Wage gap at UBC "The unexplained female pay disadvantage of about $3000 can be considered discriminatory under the assumptions that male and female faculty members are equally productive." Analysis of Merit awards in 2008/2009 showed no

female disadvantage in productivity

Women do report a stronger desire than men for partners to show love by

focusing on the relationship and being emotionally supportive (Perrin et al., 2011).

Chosen families refer to

friend circles that stand in for biological families but that consist largely of individuals who understand the unique challenges of being LGBT.

The __ refers to invisible barriers that keep women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements.

glass ceiling

The __ effect refers to women more often being selected under risky and unfavourable conditions (e.g., when a company needs to be saved from failure or from a high-profile scandal., women get called upon more often than men).

glass cliff

In both Finland and Germany, men considered __ a less desirable mate attribute than women did.

good housekeeping skills

For wives only, those who report __ also show less negativity (e.g., complaining).

greater love

Psychologically, however, men may fare worse. Men show a larger dip in __ following divorce than women (Lucas, 2005), and

happiness, mortality rates are higher for men than women following divorce (Shor et al., 2012).

A study found that 63% of gay men and 34% of lesbians reported ever..

having had sex with a casual friend (Nardi & Sherrod, 1994)

When members of racial and ethnic groups hold jobs that do not seem to match the gender stereotypes about their groups, they may encounter

heightened levels of harassment and microaggressions.

A large global study (91 countries) found that companies with more female executives and board members have __ (Noland et al., 2016). But the links between women's representation in leadership roles and financial performance are not straightforward and depend on other factors (e.g., firm performance and broader cultural values).

higher profits

Gender stereotypes create unfair barriers that affect ___ people.

hiring decisions for marginalized

Several studies fail to find sex differences in

how frequently or easily people fall in love (Galperin & Haselton, 2010; Riela et al., 2010).

People do much less housework overall now than

in the past (except childcare).

Over the past few decades, work and family roles of men and women have become

increasingly similar.

For husbands only, those who report greater love also ...

initiate more sex, engage in more couple-centred activities, and help more with domestic responsibilities.

In Finland, men considered __ to be a more important mate choice criterion than did women.

intelligence/education

Those who show more ____ during conflict discussions are more satisfied.

intimacy (humour and self-disclosure) and problem-solving (offering solutions and requesting clarification)

The sexes do not differ in the frequency or intensity of _

jealousy

Male leaders more often use a __ leadership style and wait until problems become severe before addressing them

laissez-faire (or "hands-off")

An analysis of over 112,000 Facebook profile pictures from accounts around the world found that men were more likely to appear in photos of

large all-male groups while women were more likely to appear in photos of two women (David-Barrett et al., 2015)

Sex differences in network size emerge in childhood. Boys tend to form __ while girls tend to form...

larger social networks, smaller peer groups; mostly same-sex peers.

Men's intimacy tends to stem from ________; women tend to achieve intimacy in dyadic relationships involving self-disclosure with a few close friends.

larger, hierarchically organized groups containing opposing emotions

Men and women differ little in traits associated with __

leadership.

Gay and straight men both prioritize looks more than

lesbian and straight women (Lawson et al., 2014);

lesbians prioritize earning potential ..

less than straight women—and emphasize personality traits more (Smith et al., 2011).

Possible Explanations for the Gap Motherhood penalty? Working mothers pay a significant wage penalty for having children; greater with more children; also evidence that women are __

less willing to relocate.

Adolescents and young adults desire partners who..

love them, who have favourable traits (dependability, emotional stability, intelligence, sociability), and who are similar to them and want the same things (Boxer et al., 2015)

For both straight and same-sex couples, those who show higher levels of hostility (anger, demanding, and dominating) during conflict discussions are ____

lower in satisfaction.

Parents report __ than nonparents do. Children can strain relationship quality. But women generally suffer a larger decline in happiness than fathers, especially when children are infants.

lower levels of relationship satisfaction

North Americans today are marrying at

lower rates; although most still marry, they marry later in life.

Distress and withdrawal during conflict discussions also predict

lower relationship satisfaction, although these associations are relatively weaker (Woodin, 2011).

in western cultures Unequal decision making predicts

lower satisfaction for both partners, and in extreme cases, female partners face greater risk of domestic violence and higher mortality rates.

Possible Explanations for the Gap Occupational segregation? Jobs are still highly sex-segregated (see Table 11.1), and those that are __ are paid more; occupational preferences may develop early.

male-dominated

Fairness of household and childcare labour divisions plays a large role in

marital satisfaction.

examples of essentialist beliets

maternal instinct, mother;s intuition

Possible Explanations for the Gap Overwork? It's on the rise, especially among __

men

"Hookup" scripts afford ____ over the initiation of physical contact; men view them as opportunities to gain status while women more often feel like they lose status, experience guilt and regret.

men more power than women

Men who violate gender role norms are more likely to be victims of sex-based harassment (harassment that is based on a person's sex and need not be sexual). Their gender nonconformity threatens the legitimacy of

men's greater workplace power, and sex-based harassment punishes them.

data may not account for women's greater

mental load (i.e., "mental housework").

Women's same-sex friendships involve higher levels of

shared emotions, personal disclosure, and social support.

Could women make less because they demand less? There is evidence that women negotiate less (Babcock et al., 2006). But there is also evidence that people evaluate women who negotiate (compared to men who negotiate) ...

more negatively (Bowles et al., 2007). And women are penalized when they are assertive (tightrope bias).

Straight couples show a decrease in nonverbal expressions of positive emotions and an increase in expressions of ____ discussions of tense topics.

negative emotions during

But research shows that mothers and fathers are equally competent in meeting the needs of __. Differences in social roles can lead to differences in care over time (e.g., intuition about children).

new infants

When newlywed husbands maintain moderate levels of _____ during tense conflict discussions, the couple is more likely to stay together.

nonverbal joy, affection, and humour

When women and men share household labour, they tend to divide it in gender-typical ways. Women tend to perform tasks that are ____ (e.g., cooking, laundry, cleaning, childcare). Despite a narrowing gender gap, women still do the majority of childcare in heterosexual relationships. Men tend to perform tasks that can be performed...

ongoing, essential, time consuming, and indoors occasionally rather than every day (e.g., home repairs, taking out the garbage), are more dangerous (e.g., electrical repairs), and outdoors (e.g., lawn maintenance).

The Stalled Gender Revolution Women's increased commitment to paid employment has not been matched by a

parallel commitment among men to divide housework and childcare equally in the home (England, 2010).

Possible Explanations for the Gap Occupational feminization? When women enter previously maledominated fields in large numbers..

pay for these jobs declines. Also some evidence of occupational masculinization

Mate/partner preferences refer to the qualities that

people claim to desire in romantic/sexual partners.

__ refers to marriage between a wife and multiple husbands.

polyandry

In ___ marriages, one individual is married to more than one other spouse at a time.

polygamous

Moreover, same-sex couples (lesbians in particular) continue to display ____

positive emotions throughout conflict discussions.

Four pervasive biases against women in the workplace...

prove it again bias the maternal wall the tightrope tug of war

In unstable marriages (e.g., those that end in divorce), husbands show a more ___ during the first few minutes of conflict discussions.

rapid escalation of negative emotion and a more rapid decline of positive emotion

Sex differences in mate preferences are consistently weaker—and sometimes reversed—among men and women who

reject traditional gender role ideologies (Eastwick et al., 2006) and in nations with higher gender equality scores (Zentner & Eagly, 2015).

Across cultures, women are more likely to report

relationship problems and initiate divorce than men (Dhillon et al., 2015).

Average sex differences in mate preferences

replicate across cultures (Li et al., 2011; Shackelford et al., 2005)

Women also tend to offer more __ support to network members than men do (Monin & Clark, 2011).

responsive and attentive

women's networks tend to be __ by adulthood.

richer

Marrying for __ is a more recent phenomenon.

romantic love

Studies of __ parents find no differences in the quality of relationship that parents have with children, children's attachment to parents, children's behavioural problems at school, or children's relationships with peers

same-sex

Western cultures tend to value egalitarian relationships. This is especially true among __

same-sex (and particularly lesbian) couples

The male gender role may discourage

same-sex closeness (via emotional restraint and homophobia (Bank & Hansford, 2000).

Cross-sex friends more frequently encounter the audience problem than

same-sex friends do.

Female leaders more frequently reward workers for

satisfactory performance.

Experimental evidence shows that negotiators offer less money to women than to men because they expect women to be

satisfied with smaller salary offers (Solnick, 2001)

Across cultures, common sources of conflict include _____ (Dillon et al., 2015). But according to psychologist and relationship expert John Gottman (2002), "Couples fight about [absolutely] nothing."

sex and physical intimacy, money, labour divisions, and parenting

Men who violate gender role norms are more likely to be victims of

sex-based harassment (harassment that is based on a person's sex and need not be sexual).

On average, men tend to react with more jealousy to a partner's

sexual infidelity (having sex with someone else) than they do to a partner's emotional infidelity (falling in love with someone else).

Couples who __ more equally report the highest relationship satisfaction, and this holds for both heterosexual and same-sex couples.

share domestic labour

Men's same-sex friendships tend to involve higher levels of

shared activities and conversations about relatively non-personal topics, such as sports or work.

Sociocultural perspective → Sex differences in mate preferences result from

social roles and labour divisions. When women primarily perform unpaid domestic labour and have access to fewer economic resources than men, they benefit from selecting partners who can offer financial support. In contrast, when men primarily occupy wage-earning roles outside the home, they benefit from selecting female partners who can perform domestic duties.

Women tend to __ with their networks, view their networks as more __ available, and get more ___ from their networks (Pines & Zaidman, 2003).

spend more time , emotionally, emotional support

The __ refers to barriers that keep low-wage workers (e.g., women) from ascending from the bottom.

sticky floor

A pattern in which one couple member makes a demanding or critical remark, and the other partner responds by withdrawing from the interaction, either emotionally or physically.

stonewalling

Cross-sex friendships between --- reduce the likelihood of the audience problem

straight women and gay men

Financially, women tend to __ than men from divorce (Tach & Eads, 2015).

suffer more

Fights often arise due to ____ that spiral out of control.

temporary annoyances, knee-jerk reactions, or misunderstandings

Straight men are more likely than women to report initiating crosssex friendships in the hopes that

the relationship will become sexual.

A pattern in which one couple member makes a demanding or critical remark, and the other partner responds by withdrawing from the interaction, either emotionally or physically. Predicts divorce primarily when

the wife demands and the husband withdraws (Gottman & Levenson, 2000); but may not be that clear

The glass ceiling refers to invisible barriers that keep women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements. May reflect the ...

think manager-think male effect, which contributes to dismissal of women's accomplishments, exclusion of women from decision-making circles, and sex-based harassment

Women and men may lead somewhat differently... Women tend to use a ..

transformational leadership style, which involves mentoring actively, inspiring trust, and encouraging others to develop their full potential.

Women and men both want..

trustworthy and dependable friends who are similar to them, can share in activities.

But what does the relationship between agreeableness and earnings look like by gender? The effect of agreeableness on income is strong and significant for men, but

weak and NON-SIGNIFICANT for women (Judge et al., 2012).

The gender gap in housework is shrinking → Compared to 1965,...

women do less and men do more, but women continue to do the majority of housework.

A 2018 Maclean's article examined data on the wage gap... 74%: This is the ratio of all ______. For women of colour: 70%.

women working full-time to all men working full-time in Canada

A 2018 Maclean's article examined data on the wage gap...87%: This ratio reflects....

women's earnings on an hourly basis in comparison to men's (in other words, when men and women put in the same number of hours at work).