LING 115 - Unit 7
What are the two theories that describe the origin of AAVE called?
(a) The English Origins Hypothesis (b) The Creolist Hypothesis
Which areas spoke which languages during early European settlement in North America?
- Spanish: Florida and the Southwest - English: East coast and northern Canada - French: from Canada to Louisiana along the Mississippi
What are the goals of the USE movement?
1. Have English recognized as the OL of the USA. 2. Stop all bilingual education programs 3. Stop all government services in LOTEs
What is a bill that USE was successful at passing in California? By what margin was it favored? What did it do?
1986 Prop 63: English should be the OL of the state of California. 73% of voters in CA voted in favor of Prop 63, so English was recognized as the OL of CA.
What was Prop 227 in CA?
1998: Bilingual education programs should no longer be supported by the state of California, and LEP students should have at most 1 school year of instructional support to transition to English. US English won, with 61% of the vote. The result: a very heavy reduction, but not full elimination, of BE programs in CA (from 29% down to 6%). Parents were still allowed to request BE for their children in schools with heavy concentrations of speakers of a particular LOTE, like Spanish.
When did the first defence of English start?
19th century
How many states have recognized English as their OL?
30
What formed following Prop 63 in CA?
A civil rights group was founded in Florida to resist the initiatives of USE called The Spanish American League Against Discrimination (SALAD) issues an important statement: "English Plus": "We won't accept English only for our children. We want English Plus. English plus math, science, equal educational opportunities, and competence in the home language." A new nationwide coalition is formed: the English Plus Information Clearinghouse (EPIC).
What is consonant cluster simplification?
A group of 2 consonants at the end of a word is reduced to 1 consonant: _st → _s (best → bes'), _ft → _f (left → lef'), and _nd → _n (spend → spen'). CCS occurs in all varieties of English, if a word ends in 2 consonants and the next word begins with a consonant: "last night" → "las' night"; "old man" → "ol' man"
Describe Yniguez vs. Mofford
A legal case in Arizona in 1998. Arizona had established in English as the OL of the state in 1998. Two individuals concerned about the legality of their continued use of Spanish in their jobs. Jaime Gutierrez: senator. Maria Kelly Yniguez: state insurance officer. Legal suit claim: not being able to use Spanish (at work) violated their constitutional right to freedom of speech. The judge ruled in favor of the plaintiffs: "The English Only law is unconstitutional as a restriction on individuals' behavior. Official English regulations only constrain official acts of the state government as an organization, not the daily activities of its employees." Yniguez, Gutierrez and others could continue to use Spanish in their work interactions.
What was the worry of the black community with regards to the ebonics resolution?
AA students would be taught in AAVE and not acquire SAE
What is the omission of verb "be" in AAVE?
AAVE often omits the verb "be" in the present tense: "She _ real skinny."; "You _ the boss." When SAE allows "be" contraction, AAVE allows "be" omission. AAVE "be" omission is (a) clearly rule-governed, and (b) like "be" contraction in SAE. Contraction in SAE becomes omission in AAVE. "He is happy" → "He's happy" → "He happy."
What is the the English Origins Hypothesis?
African slaves acquired English from British slave traders/owners. Features of British dialects transferred to early black English in North America were later influenced by southern US English, adding special southern features.
What were the social consequences of the Ebonics resolution?
Among the AA community, outrage and strong criticism of the Ebonics initiative. Jesse Jackson and other AA leaders: AAVE is not a separate language. AAVE should not be used to teach in the classroom.
What state had a similar proposition to Prop 227 in CA?
Arizona (Prop 203)
What is the new positive approach with regards to AAVE in education?
Bi-dialectalism: treat SAE and AAVE as two equally legitimate dialects, appropriate for use in different domains of life. SAE: for reading, writing, communication with non-AAVE speakers. AAVE: for family and friends. Both dialects presented as having value.
Give an example of a pronunciation issue that may occur in a classroom with regards to AAVE
Both "pin" and "pen" are pronounced as "pin" in AAVE. SAE: "I want to buy a pen." → AAVE: "I want to buy a pin."
How does consonant cluster simplification occur in AAVE?
CCS also occurs when a word ends in 2 consonants and the next begins with a vowel: "They found a lost elephant." → "They foun' a los' elephant." "Mary left already. She's gonna send a letter." → "Mary lef' already. She gonna sen' a letter." CCS is not random in AAVE, but uses a rule just like SAE, but in more "environments."
Why did linguistic tolerance change in 19th century USA?
Changing patterns of immigration cause a rise in paranoia among the Anglos. Previously, immigrants were heavily North European, Protestant, and English-speaking. 19th century new immigrants were increasingly from south and southeast Europe, Irish Catholic, Orthodox Christian, Jewish, and Asian (Japanese, Chinese).
How are AAVE speakers nowadays taught better SAE? Is it effective? What are the results?
Code-switching. Young speakers of AAVE are taught to code-switch between AAVE and SAE, when appropriate. Contrastive analysis: teachers compare and contrast differences between AAVE and SAE in grammar and pronunciation, and students taught to identify differences and how to translate between SAE/AAVE. The promotion of bi-dialectalism, code-switching and the use of contrastive analysis are proving highly effective. Results: positive psychological effects toward the home language AAVE, and improved acquisition of SAE skills in reading/writing.
What are the major issues with regards to AAVE?
Combatting negative attitudes towards AAVE and other regional dialects of English as sub-standard forms of English with no rules. Language-related challenges in the classroom for L1 speakers of AAVE (and other regional dialects of English, like Appalachian English).
How does research allow teachers to help students who speak AAVE acquire skills in SAE?
Continuing, careful research into AAVE can help identify the problems that young speakers have in learning SAE. Teachers can use this knowledge in the classroom to help students acquire skills in SAE, reading and writing.
What are the differences between AAVE and SAE?
Differences in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. 1. AAVE also applies consonant cluster simplifcation at the end of a sentence and when a words ends in 2 consonants and the next begins with a vowel. 2. Omission of verb "be" 3. "Invariant be": "Lou usually be here around 9."; "Sometime he be sleeping all day." 4. Different types of "Aspect"
Which is correct: the English Origins Hypothesis, or the Creolist Hypothesis?
Difficult to know, due to lack of good historical evidence on how early slaves spoke in the US.
Which speakers were the majority group amongst European settlers?
English
What attitudes seem to be held towards English among the majority of Hispanics?
English is seen as necessary for upward social and economic mobility in American society.
What were EPIC's claims/position on English, LOTEs, and immigrants in the US?
English is very important for all Americans for national unity and personal success, and all Americans should learn English. Immigrants all over the USA want to learn English - they are not reluctant leaners. There are actually long waitlists of people everywhere trying to get into English classes. (At the time of Prop 63, there were 40,000 people in Los Angeles on waitlists for English classes.) Being American does not require people to be monolingual or monocultural. There are many successful, patriotic, bilingual, bicultural Americans who are proud to be Mexican-Americans, Japanese-Americans, Italian-Americans, Korean-Americans Greek-Americans, etc. There is no need to push policies that will inhibit the transmission of heritage languages to rising generations. Bilingual education/BE can help the children of new immigrants learn English more efficiently. The goal of most BE programs is actually not the learning and maintenance of heritage languages, but rather helping children make a successful transition from their home language to proficiency in English. BE programs are also not as expensive as suggested by USE.
What languages did the early European settlers speak?
English, Spanish, and French
USE was successful in making English the OL of the USA
False
After Meyer vs. Nebraska, the teaching of LOTEs was permitted in all schools
False Despite the outcome of Meyer vs. Nebraska, the teaching of LOTEs was banned from elementary schools, and only permitted in high schools, until the 1960s.
Spanish is a growing threat to English in the USA.
False Hispanics hold positive attitudes to English: English provides access to better employment, and broader participation in US society. Positive attitudes to Spanish as well: a symbolic marker of heritage ethnicity.
After two years of the Ann Arbor Decision, teachers kept learning more about AAVE to help their students.
False Teachers instructed to learn more about AAVE, but little useful help was given. The initiative was abandoned after two years.
33% of children in CA are classed as having Limited English Proficiency (L.E.P.)
False The percentage is 25%.
1 out of every 5 residents of CA were born outside the USA (and are L1 speakers of LOTEs)
False The ratio is 1 out of every 4 CA residents.
The early English settlers in North America did not tolerate other languages
False There was linguistic tolerance
The French areas during early European settlement were heavily populated
False Very large area, but thinly populated
AAVE has a similar grammar to SAE
False, AAVE has a complex, different grammar.
What financial consequences did the Ebonics resolution have? What was the reaction from the national government?
Financial - if Ebonics/ALS is a separate language, schools with AA students would qualify for government support of bilingual education. Immediate government reaction: Richard Riley (Secretary of State): "Ebonics is not a different language. It is a dialect of English - black English. No bilingual education support is justified."
Describe Meyer vs. Nebraska
First major legal case in the US involving the use of language. Robert Meyer, a teacher in Zion Parochial School, was charged with violating Nebraska state law by teaching German to a student. Meyer was convicted and appealed. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Meyer, stating that attempts to forbid the teaching of LOTEs in schools violated the 14th Amendment. Judge James McReynolds: "mere knowledge of the German language cannot reasonably be regarded as harmful."
What consequences did the abandonment of and the controversy around the Ebonics initiative have on educators?
For some time after, educators hesitated to attempt further innovations in the classroom.
What sorts of discrimination did Asians experience in the 19th century?
From 1870 on, no US citizenship was granted to Asian immigrants. A ban on immigration 1882-1943: The Chinese Exclusion Act
How do groups/generations 1, 2, and 3 use Spanish in different ways/amounts when they interact with their parents, grandparents, and brothers and sisters?
G1: Native fluency, prefer to speak in Spanish over English when possible to relatives, peers, and children. G2: Bilingual, talks to parents, grandparents, in Spanish, may talk to siblings in Spanish or English G3: Mostly English, can understand Spanish but do not speak Spanish to parents, grandparents, brothers, etc.
Which states encoruage/recognize/defend multilingualism in the USA?
Hawaii: English and Hawaiian as co-OLs. New Mexico: the state government can use Spanish in any way deemed useful for the state. Alaska: 20 Native American languages are recognized as co-official languages with English. Louisiana: the use of French is encouraged in education, commerce and tourism.
Which of the three hypotheses about AAVE and past tense are true? Hypothesis 1: The young speaker has no mental concept of past tense. Hypothesis 2: The child does have the concept of past tense, but doesn't see -ed as signaling past tense. Hypothesis 3: "-ed" is understood as past tense, but the "-ed" sound is deleted due to consonant cluster simplification.
Hypothesis 1 is not right. AAVE speakers use past tense forms with other "irregular" verbs: "kept"; "went"; "swam"; "gave." Thus, young AAVE speakers clearly do have the concept of past tense. Hypothesis 2 or 3? Ask young AAVE speakers to read an extended version of the same sentence: "When I passed by the notice-board, I read the posters." Key word here is "read" (this word can be pronounced either as /red/ or as /reed/, where /red/ = past tense form /reed/ = present tense form). In the test sentence, do AAVE children pronounce "read" as /red/ or as /reed/? If Hypothesis 2 is correct, we expect to hear both /red/ and /reed/ since "-ed" does not signal past tense for the AAVE children, so "read" can be interpreted as either present or past tense. If Hypothesis 3 is right, we expect to hear only /red/. The children know "passed" is past tense. They just pronounce it as "pass" due sound simplification. And the winner is... Hypothesis 2. Very frequently, AAVE children pronounce "read" as /reed/ They just don't connect up "-ed" with past tense. A reading problem. Sometimes we ignore or overlook words which are present. Like the "Romeo-effect" "Romeo, Romeo, wherefore are thou Romeo?"
"I passed by the school yesterday." AAVE children may read this aloud and pronounce "passed" as "pass." What are the three hypotheses as to what is causing this?
Hypothesis 1: The young speaker has no mental concept of past tense. Hypothesis 2: The child does have the concept of past tense, but doesn't see -ed as signaling past tense. Hypothesis 3: "-ed" is understood as past tense, but the "-ed" sound is deleted due to consonant cluster simplification: The sounds in "passed" = p a s d = CVCC Simplified to CVC = p a s.
What is the Native American Languages Act?
In 1990, there was a major change in government policy toward Native American languages. After decades of trying to repress NA languages, the official position is reversed. The Act states, "the policy of the United States is to preserve, protect, and promote the rights and freedom of Native Americans to use, practice and develop Native American languages." A very positive step, but maybe too late to help save many of the endangered NA languages in the US.
What was the Ann Arbor decision?
In Martin Luther King School (Ann Arbor, Michigan), African-American students were not making good progress in school, often classed as having learning deficiencies. Parents filed a legal suit against the school, claiming that the school was failing to address the cultural, social, economic and linguistic factors which were preventing AA students from progressing normally. The judge ruled that cultural, social, and economic factors were not legally relevant. But the linguistic factors might be. Linguists with expertise in African American English were invited to give testimony in court. They described many significant differences between Standard American English/SAE and African American Vernacular English/AAVE. (SAE was the language of instruction.) Experts suggested that special action was needed to help young speakers of AAVE who had difficulties with learning through SAE. The court ruled that teachers in the Martin Luther King School learn more about AAVE. Teachers were instructed not to treat AAVE negatively as sub-standard speech, and were not told to teach AAVE or teach with AAVE, but to get a better understanding of the different properties of AAVE and how these might cause difficulties when SAE was used in the classroom. An important legal case, ruling that linguistic barriers to advancement in education might come from dialects of English, not just foreign languages.
What are attitudes towards dual language immersion programs?
Increasingly popular among middle and upper class parents. Major change of perspective: From "language as a problem" to "language as a resource." They are not "transitional"—they are bilingual L2 skills seen as an asset, giving children an extra resource: help in competing in the global economy, and aiding international relations. A new mentality that bilingualism is academically enriching and should be nurtured, not suppressed.
What is the National Defense Act of 1958? Why was it enacted?
It promotes the study of non-western languages and cultures, to compete better with Russia (which had gotten attention after the Sputnik satellite). 1961: establishment of the Peace Corps (volunteers sent to 140 countries to help local people as teachers and technical advisors).
What was Prop 58 (2016) in CA?
It reversed Prop 227, repealing the English-only restriction in schools. Result: Prop 58 won with 74% of the vote.
How did the 1959 revolution in Cuba affect the language situation in the US?
Large numbers of immigrants from Cuba arrived in Florida. They needed to learn English for purposes of daily life. It was expected that Cuban families would return to Cuba after the revolution was over. The decision made was to educate young Cuban children in both English and Spanish. Very successful new bilingual education programs.
What happened in the 'first defense' of English?
New calls for restrictions on the use and teaching of languages other than English/LOTEs. Initiatives to close down schools offering other languages as mediums of education. Successful - by early 20th century, LOTEs only taught as subjects, not used as languages of instruction. World War I (1914-1918): attempts to prohibit ALL use of German in schools. German was associated with the enemy, although most German-speakers in the US did not support Germany.
What were the main claims of the US English movement?
New immigrants are reluctant to learn English, especially Hispanic immigrants. New immigrants are not integrating as Americans. National unity requires the speaking of one (and only one) language by the population. Linguistic diversity causes divisions in society. Bilingual education is divisive, expensive, and unsuccessful, and impedes children's cognitive development. Government services in LOTEs are very expensive. If the speaking of Spanish is supported any further, it might lead to demands for official bilingualism in the USA, as in Canada with French. (In Canada, only ¼ of the population speaks French, but it managed to get French recognized as second OL of Canada.)
What is the Creolist Hypothesis?
Pidgins and Creoles developed among African slaves in the Caribbean. These languages were brought to the US and used by later generations of slaves. In the 20th century, de-creolization changed the Creole and made it more like SAE, but some early Creole features remained.
According to Silva-Corvalán, what kinds of attitude do most Hispanics have towards Spanish and its maintenance? Does this attitude strongly affect the learning and use of Spanish?
Positive attitude, but this does not affect the maintenance and learning of Spanish. There is an uncommitted behavior to passing it on to their descendants.
What is the 1968 Bilingual Education Act?
Proposed by the governor of Texas to deal with very high drop-out rate of Mexican-American students from schools in Texas (89%). Inspiration: the bilingual education programs in Florida.
Who are the Anglos?
Speakers of English during European settlement
What are aspect markers and what are the types?
Tense markers like "will" and "-ed" indicate when an event occurs - in the past, present, or future. Aspect markers emphasize the way that an event occurs in different ways: (a) "habitual aspect" - for repeated actions (b) "progressive aspect" - ongoing actions (c) "completive aspect" - emphasizes the completion of an event (d) "remote aspect" - emphasizes that an event took place quite some time ago
What are 3 policies that encouraged the use of LOTEs?
The National Defense Act, the Bilingual Education Act, and the Native American Languages Act
What was the ebonics resolution?
The Oakland School Board, inspired by the Ann Arbor Decision, decided to classify AAVE under "Ebonics"/"African Language Systems" (ALS), deriving from African (Niger-Congo) languages. This meant it was not recognized as a variety of English, but a variety of a different language. Therefore, bilingual education would be needed for young speakers of ALS/Ebonics (or AAVE under the resolution).
What movement led the second defense of English?
The US English/USE movement
Describe Garcia vs. the San Francisco Spun Steak Company, 1990
The company management made an English-only rule in the workplace, and two Spanish-speaking workers sued. The first court ruled in favor of the two Spanish-speaking workers. But the company management appealed the case and won. Companies are allowed to require that employees use only English while at work. Language disputes testing English as OL laws and the right to freedom of speech are not all decided in the same way.
Why did Californians change their mind with Prop 58 (2016)?
The difference between 1998 and 2016: 1998 - BE programs were not working very well in urban areas, and many Hispanic voters disappointed at the results supported Prop 227. Since 1998, there has been much improvement in BE programs - now very successful. Results in more and more waivers being requested by parents, and big waiting lists. BE re-termed "dual language immersion" programs.
What happened in the 19th century/early 20th century with regards to Native American languages?
The government attempted to stop the transmission of NA languages. NA children were sent to boarding schools, off-reservation, where no use of NA languages was allowed. They were punished for speaking their tribal languages, and pressured to assimilate completely to Anglo customs and language.
What was the progression of the Ebonics initiative?
The intentions of the Ebonics Initiative were often misrepresented in the media. Confusion due to the wording of the 1996 Ebonics Statement. 1997, January, the new Ebonics declaration was less provocative, intended to calm the public down, and clarify its position. [1996] "AA students will be instructed in their primary language and English." (implies their primary language is not a form of English) [1997] The goal is "to move students from the language patterns they bring to school to English proficiency." The 1997 statement stresses the learning of English, and no longer says students will be taught with AAVE. However, the damage had been done: despite the new wording, the public had decided to strongly oppose the Ebonics Initiative in any form. The Oakland proposal for increased recognition of the role of AAVE in schools was abandoned.
Why did attitudes change in 1960s towards LOTEs?
The new tolerance for ethnic diversity and LOTEs was caused by political events and situations in education. 1958: the Soviet Union succeeds in launching the first satellite in space - the Sputnik. New attention was drawn to the USSR. Foreign languages and cultures were studied by Russians as part of attempts to extend Soviet influence in Asia/Africa.
Which of the following is suggested to be the most important factor for the maintenance of Spanish in the Southwest: (a) the availability of Spanish-language TV, radio and newspapers in major cities in the Southwest, (b) the availability of easy travel to Mexico and Central America, (c) regular in-migration of new native speakers of Spanish?
The regular in-migration of new native speakers of Spanish is the most important factor.
What is the invariant "be" in AAVE?
The use of "be" with "I", "you", "he", etc. "Lou usually be here around 9."; "She be happy." Like S.W. British "be," AAVE "invariant be" is only used for: (1) actions which are habits = repeated: "He usually be here around 9." (2) long-lasting situations/states: "He be married since 1974." (NOT used for short-lasting states: "She is busy right now." will be "She _ busy right now.")
What is meant by the term "an emblematic use of Spanish"?
The use of Spanish words or phrases to display that one is of Spanish background. It does not mean the speaker is fluent in Spanish, but merely has knowledge about it. The use of fixed Spanish expressions within English conversation. Typically used by those with lower Spanish proficiency
What is AAVE (African-American Vernacular English)?
The variety of English used in informal speech by young, urban African-Americans from lower socio-economic backgrounds. (African-Americans from educated middle class backgrounds use SAE.) AAVE patterns are spreading into other ethnic groups as a unifying symbol of youth identity associated with hip hop and rap.
Why is the victory of the USE in making English an OL in states only symbolic?
There are still government materials in LOTEs. Language use is in the workplace is being explored in legal cases around the country.
Why do critics of Prop 227 think that it managed to be passed?
They thought that there was a lack of knowledge of how bilingual education programs worked, as well as a spread of misinformation in favor of Prop 227.
60% of the Hispanic population lives in the southwest: California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Texas.
True
AAVE does not result from random simplification of SAE.
True
At the time of the arrival of the first Europeans there were 2 million native Americans in North America, speaking 300 different languages.
True
CA has 1/3 of the total foreign-born population of the US
True
CA has many young people whose L1 is not English, and who are struggling to learn English well in school.
True
Los Angeles: 37% Hispanic, over half born outside the USA with Spanish as L1.
True
New immigrants and their children are learning English well, but are losing their abilities in Spanish, especially in reading and writing.
True
The USE movement claims that the status of English in the US is being threatened by increase in the learning and use of LOTEs, especially Spanish.
True
The first settlers in the Americas came from Asia via a land bridge which connected Siberia to Alaska. They were the idigenous population of North, Cental, and South America.
True
The first targets of the USE movement were states with large immigrant populations, for example California
True
The rules of grammar and pronunciation in AAVE are just like rules found in other languages.
True
Following victory in CA, USE campaigned in other states.
True Now 30 states have recognized English as their OL.
How is aspect used in AAVE?
[1] Invariant "be" = habitual aspect [2] "done" = completive aspect: "They done sol' all the good ones." [3] "been" = remote aspect: "He been talk' with us about that." [4] "steady" = continuative aspect "She steady complainin' about somethin'."