Linguistics 2.2

Deixis-spatial

Spatial deixis (place deixis) concerns itself with the spatial locations relevant to an utterance. Similarly to personal deixis, the locations may be either those of the speaker and addressee or those of persons or objects being referred to.

Any

In negative sentences and in questions

Context

A Linguistic Context is a context defined purely in terms of what follows or what precedes a particular segment that is undergoing a sound change. In other words, a linguistic context will not take into account the social, situational aspects, or the psychological aspects.

Finite clause

A clause where the verb is marked for tense and agree with the subject. When the door opens, you can go in

Complex sentence

A complex sentence is a sentence that contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, but a dependent clause even though it has a subject and a verb cannot stand alone. A Complex Sentence. A complex sentence has an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. For example: The human brain never stops working until you stand up to speak in public.

Compound sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence that has at least two independent clauses joined by a comma, semicolon or conjunction. An independent clause is a clause that has a subject and verb and forms a complete thought. An example of a compound sentence is, 'This house is too expensive, and that house is too small.

Non-finite verb forms

A nonfinite verb is a verb that is not finite. Nonfinite verbs cannot perform action as the root of an independent clause. Most nonfinite verbs found in English are infinitives, participles and gerunds. (They are sometimes called "verbals", but that term has traditionally applied only to participles and gerunds.)Some forms of a verb are referred to as non-finite. The present and past participles and the to infinitive are the most common of these....A verb is finite if it is found in a clause in combination with a subject and a tense. I walked home. We saw a deer. They appreciate a little praise now and then.

Noun phrase

A noun phrase is either a pronoun or any group of words that can be replaced by a pronoun. For example, 'they', 'cars', and 'the cars' are noun phrases, but 'car' is just a noun, as you can see in these sentences (in which the noun phrases are all in bold) Q: Do you like cars?

Prepositional phrase

A preposition draws a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in a sentence. ... Common prepositional phrase examples include about, after, at, before, behind, by, during, for, from, in, of, over, past, to, under, up, and with.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a subject, a verb, and a completed thought. Examples of simple sentences include the following: Joe waited for the train. The train was late.

Gerund

A verbal is formed using a verb, but it functions as a different part of speech in the sentence. Gerunds function as nouns in the sentence. Typically, a gerund is used as a "thing" or an "idea," and gerunds always end in "-ing". ... Examples of gerunds or gerund phrases used as the subject: Singing is one of my hobbies.

Adverb phrase

An adverbial phrase is a group of words that refines the meaning of a verb, adjective, or adverb. Similar to adverbs, adverbial phrases modify other words by explaining why, how, where, or when an action occurred.

Auxiliary verb

An auxiliary verb helps the main (full) verb and is also called a "helping verb." With auxiliary verbs, you can write sentences in different tenses, moods, or voices. Auxiliary verbs are: be, do, have, will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought, etc. I think I should study harder to master English.

Independent clause.

An independent clause is a group of words that can stand on its own as a sentence: it has a subject, a verb, and is a complete thought....Examples: Because I woke up late this morning... (what happened?) When we arrived in class... (what occurred?) If my neighbor does not pay his rent on time... (what will happen?)

To-infinitive

An infinitive usually begins with the word "to" and is followed by the base form of a verb (the simple form of the verb that you would find in the dictionary). Examples of infinitives include to read, to run, to jump, to play, to sing, to laugh, to cry, to eat, and to go.

Direct speech act

An utterance is seen as a direct speech act when there is a direct relationship between the structure and the communicative function of the utterance. The following examples show that the form correspondences with the function: (6) A declarative is used to make a statement: "You wear a seat belt."

For compound nouns, the stress is on the first part

BLACKbird, GREENhouse

Assimilation

Basically assimilation is changing a sound, due to the influence of neighbouring sounds and elision is omitting a sound, for the same reason. And quite often assimilation and elision occur together. In the famous example of hand bag you can see the dropping (elision) of the /d/ so you get, in ordinary spelling hanbag.

non-finite clause

Clause which has a participle or infnitive as its verb; To open the door use the key

modal auxiliary

Don't change form e.g. can, could, may, might, must, should, shall, will, would, ought to.

Adjective phrase

Easy Examples of Adjective Phrases Theadjective"blue" heads theadjective phrase.) She wore very expensive shoes. (Thisadjective phrasedescribes (or "modifies" as grammarians say) the noun "shoes." Theadjective"expensive" heads theadjective phrase.) Sarah was hostile towards me.

Dependent clause

Examples of What is a Dependent Clause. ... The clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand on its own as a sentence.) Damian won't be able to play in the game because he injured his foot. (Because he injured his foot is a dependent clause. It contains the subject he and the verb injured.

Fall rise intonation

Fall-rise Intonation falls and then rises. Peaking or Rise-fall Intonation rises and then falls. yes,no questions| Open questions in conversation| Lists that are not complete| Statements.

Falling intonation

Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or a group of words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions. ... We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be very clear about something: I think we are completely l↘ost. Statements (I'm tired, this is John)| WH questions| open questions| lists that are complete| Opinions.

Past participle

For regular verbs, adding -ed to the base form creates the past participle. For example, the past participle of cook is cooked. Past participles formed from irregular verbs may have endings like -en, -t, -d, and -n. Examples include swollen, burnt, hoped, and broken.

Weak form

If a word is unstressed, the weak form of vowels may be used, e.g. I can (/ kWn /) speak Italian, French, English and Spanish. The sound / W / is called schwa. See strong form.

Vowel omission

In linguistics, an elision or deletion is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a consonant, or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase. ... Elision of a vowel before a word starting in a vowel is frequent in poetry, where the metre sometimes requires it.

Verbs of causation

In English grammar, a causative verb is a verb used to indicate that some person or thing makes—or helps to make—something happen. Examples of causative verbs include (make, cause, allow, help, have, enable, keep, hold, let, force, and require), which can also be referred to as causal verbs or simply causatives. In English, there are three true causative verbs, and they are: Let. Have. Make. We use causative verbs to show that someone or something caused something to happen. Causative verbs are: get, have, make, let and help

Finite verb forms

In English grammar, a finite verb is a form of a verb that (a) shows agreement with a subject and (b) is marked for tense. Nonfinite verbs are not marked for tense and do not show agreement with a subject. If there is just one verb in a sentence, that verb is finite. Finite verbs change their forms when there is a change in the number or person of the subject. ... Non-finite verbs do not change their form when the number or person of the subject changes. There are mainly three types of non-finite verbs: infinitives, gerunds and participles.

Postmodifier

In English grammar, a postmodifier is a modifier that follows the word or phrase it limits or qualifies. Modification by a postmodifier is called postmodification. As discussed below, there are many different types of postmodifiers, but the most common are prepositional phrases and relative clauses. Modifiers which are placed after determiners but before the head of a noun or noun phrase are called premodifiers. Modifiers that come after the noun head are called postmodifiers.

Premodifier

In English grammar, a premodifier is a modifier that precedes the head of a noun phrase or word that determines the meaning of a phrase. Premodifiers are most often adjectives, participles, and nouns. When used as an adjective to characterize a person or thing, this part of speech is also referred to as an epithet. A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—another word in the same sentence. For example, in the following sentence, the word "burger" is modified by the word "vegetarian": Example: I'm going to the Saturn Café for a vegetarian burger.

Verbs of perception

In English grammar, a verb of perception is a verb (such as see, watch, look, hear, listen, feel, and taste) that conveys the experience of one of the physical senses. Also called perception verb or perceptual verb. Distinctions can be drawn between subject-oriented and object-oriented verbs of perception.

Some

In affirmative sentences and in questions which expect or encourage the answer 'yes'.

preperatory subjects

In grammar, a preparatory subject or anticipatory subject is a subject which represents a verb clause later in the sentence.

Omission

In phonetics and phonology, elision is the omission of a sound (a phoneme) in speech. Elision is common in casual conversation. More specifically, elision may refer to the omission of an unstressed vowel, consonant, or syllable. This omission is often indicated in print by an apostrophe.

Interference

In research on second language acquisition and language contact, the term interference refers to the influence of one language (or variety) on another in the speech of bilinguals who use both languages.

Inflection(s)

Inflection refers to a process of word formation in which items are added to the base form of a word to express grammatical meanings. The word "inflection" comes from the Latin inflectere, meaning "to bend." ... For example, the inflection -s at the end of dogs shows that the noun is plural.

Lexical relations

Lexical items contain information about category (lexical and syntactic), form and meaning. The semantics related to these categories then relate to each lexical item in the lexicon. ... Some relations between lexical items include hyponymy, hypernymy, synonymy, and antonymy, as well as homonymy. The lexical field studies the morphology of words, or their shape, form, and construction. ... Therefore, the lexical field is not only a study but also a theory in itself. Hence, they are not the same. Semantics is the study of the meaning of words whereas morphology is the study of the construction of words.

African Amercian Vernacular English

No 3rd person 's' or double negative

Relative clauses (non-estrictrive-non-defining-non-identifying)

Non-defining relative clauses are composed of a relative pronoun, a verb, and optional other elements such as the subject or object of the verb. Commas or parentheses are always used to separate non-defining relative clauses from the rest of the sentence.

Deixis- person

Person deixis refers to to personal pronouns such as I, you, he, and they. When a speaker produces the word I that pronoun refers to that specific speaker.

Prepositional complement

Prepositional complements are defined as the word, phrase, or clause that directly follows the preposition and completes the meaning of the prepositional phrase. Prepositional complements are also called objects of prepositions and complements of prepositions. ... Noun clauses. Verb phrases.

Direct speech- Interrogative

Question

Relative clauses

Relative clauses are clauses starting with the relative pronouns who*, that, which, whose, where, when. They are most often used to define or identify the noun that precedes them. Here are some examples: Do you know the girl who started in grade 7 last week?

Relative clauses (Restrictrive-defining-identifying)

Restrictive relative clauses give information that defines the noun—information that's necessary for complete identification of the noun. Use "that" or "which" for non-human nouns; use "that" or "who" for human nouns. Do not use commas.

Rising intonation

Rising Intonation means the pitch of the voice rises over time. Falling Intonation means that the pitch falls with time. Dipping or Fall-rise Intonation falls and then rises.A rising intonation pattern would simply be a rise in the human voice; it would be a change in pitch; a glide in the pitch of our voice upwards. yes,no questions| Open questions in conversation| Lists that are not complete| Statements.

Semantic features

Semantic features represent the basic conceptual components of meaning for any lexical item. An individual semantic feature constitutes one component of a word's intension, which is the inherent sense or concept evoked. ... Correspondingly, the contrast in meanings of words is explained by diverging semantic features. Examples of Semantics: A toy block could be called a block, a cube, a toy. A child could be called a child, kid, boy, girl, son, daughter. The word "run" has many meanings-physically running, depart or go (I have to run, spent (it has run its course), or even a snag in a pair of hose (a run in my hose).

Semantics

Semantics is the study and analysis of how language is used figuratively and literally to produce meaning. Semantics seeks to describe how words are used-not to prescribe how they should be used. Examples of Semantics: A toy block could be called a block, a cube, a toy.

Direct speech- Declarative

Statement

Deixis-temporal

Temporal deixis (time deixis) concerns itself with the various times involved in and referred to in an utterance. This includes time adverbs like "now", "then", "soon", and so forth, and also different tenses. A good example is the word tomorrow, which denotes the consecutive next day after every day.

BARE infinitive

The infinitive "to play" without the word "to" is called a bare infinitive. The bare infinitive and the base form are pretty much the same thing. As was mentioned before, the base form is seen in dictionaries. ... The word "play" can be a verb or a noun.

Head

The most important word in the sentence

Elision

The omission of a sound or syllable when speaking (as in I'm, let's ). "the shortening of words by elision"

Pragmatics

The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used, including such matters as deixis, the taking of turns in conversation, text organization, presupposition, and implicature. Pragmatics is the study of how words are used, or the study of signs and symbols. An example of pragmatics is how the same word can have different meanings in different settings. An example of pragmatics is the study of how people react to different symbols.

Intonation

The rise and fall of the voice in speaking. Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of intonation in English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation

Word stress

To communicate clearly when you are speaking in English, it's important to stress the correct syllables in each word. This is called word stress, which means pronouncing one syllable of a multisyllabic word with greater emphasis (stress) than the other syllables in the word.

Irish English

Use of past simple where BE uses past perfect

First conditional

Used for future, real factual situations: If I drink coffee tonight, I won't sleep well.

Third conditional

Used for past unreal imagenary situations: If I had drunk coffee last night, I wouldn't have slept well.

Second conditional

Used for present or future unreal imagenary situations: If I drank coffee tonight, I wouldn't sleep well.

Zero conditional

Used for present, real factual situations: If I drink coffee at night, I don't sleep well.

Many

With plurals

Much

With singular uncountable nouns

Modifier(s)

Words that give (addition) informtion about the quality of the head, just as adjectives do.

Determiner(s)

Words that introduce the head. They don't give a quality or a characteristic, as adjectives do, but serve to identify the noun. (all, both, double, half, twice,)

cleft sentence

a sentence in which special emphasis is given to one part (e.g. the subject or the object) by using a structure with it or what. Examples: It was you that cause the accident; What I need is a drink.

AA(V)E

another term for AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH

For compound adjectives, the stress is on the second part

bad-TEMpered, old-FASHioned

Primary auxiliary verb

be, have, do

Direct speech- Imperrative

command (request)

If clause

condition

compound noun

consists of two or more words used together as a single noun

Jamaican English

dental /th/ and /th/ pronounced al alveolar /t/ and /d/ respectively

Inversion

inverted order of words in a sentence (variation of the subject-verb-object order)

Copula

main verb: A copula verb is a linking verb. It is used to join an adjective or noun complement to a subject. be (is, am, are, was, were), appear, seem, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, become and get are copula verbs. Example: Sagar is a doctor.

lexical verb

main verb: Lexical verbs are the main verbs (or action words) in a sentence. They can show the subject's action or express a state of being. They fall into several categories: transitive, intransitive, linking, dynamic, and static.

Pragmatics

noun. Pragmatics is the study of how words are used, or the study of signs and symbols. An example of pragmatics is how the same word can have different meanings in different settings. An example of pragmatics is the study of how people react to different symbols.

Main clause

result

Deixis

the function or use of deictic words, forms, or expressions. "we construct a context from the deixis of the text"

contracted form

the short form of a word. For example, in English, "not" changes to "n't", "will" changes to "'ll", etc.

antepenultimate syllable

third to last syllable

For compound verbs, the stress is on the second part

underSTAND, overFLOW

Indian English

w/v merging

Few

with plurals

little

with singular nouns

Antonyms

words that have opposite meanings