Linux Essentials Chapters 8 - 15
What is an archive file?
"Multiple files put into one large file for ease of transmission and storage. Archiving makes a copy of data, however - it does not delete it."
Does ownership just apply to files?
"No - running programs or processes are usually tied to the account that launched them, and that permission level will determine whether a program may modify a file."
Do all GUI user tools rename or move a user's home directory?
"No, so if you make those kinds of changes, manually move or rename as needed."
Does the cut command remove information like it does in Windows?
"No, the extracted information is displayed, but not changed."
Do permissions on a Symbolic link mirror the permissions on the file it is linked to?
"No, the linked-to file has it's own permission string."
What does the groupadd option --non-unique or -o do?
"Normally a group ID should not be used if it is already being used by other groups. However, if you want to override that and force one or more groups to have the same id, use the non-unique option."
Give an example of using the chmod command with a letter code.
"""chmod a+x filename"" adds the executable permission for the file to all users."
"Show how you would make a file called ""my-script"" executable."
"""chmod a+x my-script"""
"How would you set a sticky bit on an existing directory, subdirectory, without otherwise altering its permissions?"
"""chmod o+t subdir"""
How do you just change a file's group membership?
"""chown :users filename"" where the new group is users."
How can you change a file's owner and its group membership at the same time?
"""chown bob:users filename"" where the new owner is Bob, and the group membership is now users."
What is the command to change ownership of a file?
"""chown newowner filename"""
How do you check the value of the last executed command or script?
"""echo $?"""
Show the command to use find to locate files associated with any given UID.
"""find / -uid 999"" if the user's UID was 999. The command is exactly the same for -gid."
"If a command such as searching for information on a particular user would include a lot of information, how would you direct that output to a file called ""davidinfo.txt""?"
"""grep david /etc/* > davidinfo.txt"
Give an example of the redirection command that would search for information on a particular user in all of the configuration files in /etc.
"""grep david /etc/*"
What permission levels are needed to change a file's owner or group membership?
"Only the root user can change a file's owner or group, but any user can change the group a file is associated with as long as they are a member of that group."
How do you change a text file's end of line encoding from the Windows method to the Unix/Linux method?
"Open the file in vi and type "":set ff-unix"""
Why is tracking package contents so critical?
"Packages can, and frequently do, contain files that will be installed to many directories on the computer."
Describe Parentheses subexpressions.
"Parentheses are used to specify how operators work, such as putting parentheses around a group of words that are concatenated with the vertical bar to ensure that the words are treated as a group, but without involving surrounding parts of the regular expression."
"Show the command you would use to create a group with the Group ID of 1002, and then name newgroup."
"""groupadd -g 1002 newgroup"""
What is the shell command for creating Groups?
"""groupadd"""
What is the command to delete a group?
"""groupdel groupname"""
What seq command would list all odd numbers between 1 and 10?
"""seq 1 2 10"""
What 2 commands can be used to modify accounts or groups associated with files?
"""set user ID (SUID) and ""set group ID ""SGID""."
How do you install vi?
"""sudo apt-get install vim"""
How do you adjust the umask command?
"""umask 022"" to create the 022 mask"
What are the file extensions for Perl programs? ".pl"
".pm", or ".t".
List the 5 options commonly used with the id utility.
"1) --group or -g displays only the effective group ID.
Give 4 examples of system-specific information that varies with time that can be used in scripts.
"1) Hostname to obtain the current hostname
Name 5 types of text files.
"1) Human language files
Name 6 information categories that netstat reports on.
"1) Interface information
What is a danger when changing a user's UID?
"Although the usermod command changes the UID in common locations such as the user's home directory and email files, it can miss user files in unusual locations."
What is the simplest form of a regular expression?
"An alphabetic or alphanumeric string, such as HWaddr or Linux3."
What do alphabetic or alphanumeric expressions match?
"Any string of the same size or longer that contains that regular expression. For example, the HWaddr regular expression matches HWaddr, This is the HWaddr, and The HWaddr is unknown."
"What does the Redirection operator ""2>>"" do?"
"Appends standard error to the existing file. If the specified file doesn't exist, it is created."
"What does the Redirection operator "">>"" do?"
"Appends standard output to the existing file. If the file doesn't exist, it is created."
What are Binary packages?
"Binary packages contain executable programs that are CPU-specific, and are typically built from source packages that contain code that a programmer can understand."
"What does the ""id"" utility display?"
"Both the numeric UID and GID, as well as their associated names. The current group is the one that's active, either by default or because you used the newgrp command."
"By default, how many pings does Linux send out, and how can you change that number?"
"By default, Linux sends one ping every second, and you can change that number with the ""-c num"" option, such as ""ping -c 4 192.168.29.3"""
How are files hidden in Linux?
"By putting a dot ""."" in front of the filename, such as "".filename.txt"""
What does the capital L Qualifier do?
"Changes tape after ""N"" kilobytes"
Describe Bracket expressions.
"Characters enclosed in square brackets [ ] which match any one character within the brackets. For example, b[aei]g matches bag, beg, and big. "
"What are programs launched by another program called, such as the programs launched by init?"
"Children, which can then in turn launch their own children. The process that launched a given process is called its parent."
What is in the /etc/passwd file?
"Colon-delimited lines, with each line - or record - defining a single account."
What are the 3 vi modes?
"Command mode, Ex mode, and Insert mode."
"What does the unzip option ""-L"" do?"
"Converts filenames to lowercase if they originated on an uppercase-only OS, such as DOS."
"What does the Redirection operator ""&>"" do?"
"Creates a new file containing both standard output and standard error. If the specified file exists, it is overwritten."
"What does the Redirection operator ""2>"" do?"
"Creates a new file containing standard error. If the file exists, it is overwritten."
"What are the keyboard shortcuts for ""cut and paste"" in Linux?"
"Ctrl+K cuts text, and Ctrl+U pastes text."
What services do routers sometimes have built in?
"DNS, DHCP, and other useful services."
How do you use netstat to get Open port information?
"Depending on the options uses, netstat returns information about open ports and the system to which they connect."
"What does the ""user mask"" or ""umask"" do?"
"Determines the default permissions for new files. It is the value that is REMOVED from 666 (rw-rw-rw-) when creating files, or from 777 (rwxrwxrwx) when creating directories."
What are Directory Write Permissions?
"Directories are files that are interpreted in a special way. As such, if a user can write to a directory, that user can create, delete, or rename files in the directory, even if the user isn't the owner of those files and does not have persmission to write to those files."
"What does the ""lastb"" command do?"
"Displays information similar to the last command, but it only shows failed login attempts."
What 3 things identify DNS resolution features in the /etc/resolv.conf file?
"Domain, Search, and Nameserver"
How do program numbers work when considering the running programs on a Linux computer?
"Each process has a Process ID number (PID) associated with it, and the numbers begin at 1, so the PID for the init process is almost always 1. Each process also has a Parent Process ID (PPID), which points to its parent."
How do you enter Ex mode?
"From Command mode, enter a colon ( : ) typically followed by by the name of the command that you want to use."
How do you copy text in vi?
"From Command mode, move the cursor to the beginning of the line where you want to start copying. Type the command ""1yy"", where the number before ""yy"" is the number of lines you want to copy. DO NOT press the Enter key. You won't see any difference, but those lines are now copied to the clipboard."
How do you edit a different file in vi?
"From inside vi, type "":e filename"" to edit the new file."
How do you create a file to edit using a text editor?
"From inside your terminal, type the name of the text editor followed by the name of the file you want to create, i.e. - nano newfile.txt."
"What do the G, H, and L keys do in vi?"
"G brings you to a line you specify, H ""homes"" the cursor taking it to the top line of the screen, and L brings the cursor to the bottom of the screen."
"What does the ""seq"" command do?"
"Generates a list of numbers starting from its first argument and continuing to its last one. For instance, the command ""seq 1 10"" generates 10 lines, each with a number between 1 and 10."
What 4 fields are contained in each line in the /etc/group directory?
"Group name, Password, Group ID (GID), and User List"
How can you avoid the legal loophole caused by the root user repudiation environment?
"Have a policy where the sudo command must be used for anyone needing to acquire root privileges. The sudo command tracks and logs a user's activity, and that creates a ""nonrepudiation environment"" in which actions cannot be legally denied."
"If your computer or network runs a login server, what is a simple way to protect that computer or network?"
"Have a very complex, effective login password."
What is the concern regarding UID's and GID's if you delete a user's account?
"If a future user ends up with any of the same UID's or GID's, they will suddenly have access to files and groups that they possibly shouldn't have unless those files or groups were moved or deleted."
Give an example of using grep in conjunction with a pipe to search for keywords in the output.
"In this example, the cut command is used to pull the user's default shells from the /etc/passwd file and then piped as input to the grep command to search for the bash keyword: ""cut -f 7 -d "":"" /etc/passwd | grep bash"""
Give an example of using a pipe and the cut command to streamline lengthy results.
"In this example, the cut command is used to pull the user's home directories from the /etc/passwd file, and then piped as input into the less command: ""cut -f 6 -d "":"" /etc/passwd | less"""
"What does the zip option ""-y"" do?"
"Includes symbolic links as such. Ordinarily, zip includes the link-to-files."
How does the caret "^" symbol affect bracket expressions?
"Including a caret after the opening square bracket matches against any characters EXCEPT the ones specified. For example, b[^aei]g matches bbq or bAg, but not bag or beg."
What does the package software maintain a database of?
"Information about installed packages known as the package database. It includes the names and version numbers of all the installed packages, as well as the locations of all the files installed from each package."
Describe the -c or -count option when using grep.
"Instead of displaying the lines that contain matches to the regular expression, displays the number of lines that match."
Describe Range expressions.
"Instead of listing every character that matches, range expressions list the start and end points separated by a dash "-". For example, in a[2-4]z, a2z, a3z, and a4z match. "
Describe the -E or --extended-regexp option when using grep.
"Instead of using basic regular expressions by default, this option allows you to use an extended regular expression. The "egrep" variant uses extended regular expressions by default."
What does the groupadd option --system or -r do?
"Instructs the groupadd command to create a system group, which is one with a GID of less than 500 or 1,000, depending on the distribution. Nonsystem groups are normally used as private user groups."
"What is the ""top"" command used for?"
"It can be used to locate CPU or memory-hogging processes, or study how resource use varies over time. The display updates every few seconds."
"What does the ""sort"" command do?"
"It can sort the contents of files with a default setting, or use options to sort the data based on the way you want to display it."
How do you display the network configuration file?
"It depends on your distribution, but it will likely be something like /etc/network/interfaces."
"What does the ""f"" option do when using sort?"
"It ignores case, because the default is to consider case and order capitalized letters first."
"Describe the ""vi"" text editor."
"It is a Unix staple and is usually installed by default. It has flexibility, power, is relatively small, and is a multimode editor. It is sometimes called ""vi improved"" or ""vim"" and can be launched by typing ""vi""."
"Describe the ""emacs"" text editor."
"It is a big editor with lots of lots of features, so it's less likely to be installed by default. "
"Describe the ""nano"" text editor."
"It is a clone of pico, that adds some extra features. Even so, it is small, lightweight, and easy to use."
Describe the gedit GUI editor.
"It is a fairly typical text editor, often installed by default on the GNOME desktop environment."
"What is the ""wheel"" group?"
"It is a group that is only on some Linux distributions. Its members are granted certain administrative privileges, such as the right to use the sudo command."
"What does the zip option ""-m"" do?"
"Moves files into the zip archive; that is, the original files are deleted."
How would you use the mail command from a script?
"Pass it the ""-s subject"" parameter to specify a subject line, and give it an email address as the last argument. Type a message, and terminate it with a Ctrl+D keystroke."
"What does the command ""sed"" do in a script?"
"Provides many of the capabilities of a conventional text editor, such as search and replace operations, but via commands that can be typed at a command prompt."
"What does the command ""echo"" do in a script?"
"Provides messages to the user, such as 'echo ""Press Enter Key""'. It can also be used to display the value of variables."
"What do the r, w, x, and - (dash) mean in a Linux permissions string?"
"R is for read access, W is for write access, X means the file may be executed as a program, and a dash denotes the absence of any given permission."
What does the usermod option --expiredate or -e do?
"Sets the date when the account will be disabled, expressed in the form YYYY-MM-DD. The default is for an account that does not expire."
"What is the ""P"" top option used for?"
"Sets the display to sort by CPU usage, which is the default."
What does the usermod option --inactive or -f do?
"Sets the number of days after a password expires, after which the account become completely disabled. The value of ""-1"" disables this feature and is the default."
What are 2 ways you can set up special execution permissions.
"Setting the Set User ID (SUID) to ""s"" in the execute part of the permissions string that belongs to the Owner Permissions, or setting the Set Group ID (SGID) to ""s"" in the execute part of the permissions string that belongs to the Group Permissions."
"What is the ""root"" user also known as in Linux?"
"Superuser, Administrator, and Super user."
"What is one method of trying to ""fix"" a memory leak?"
"Terminate the program and then relaunch it, which resets the program's memory consumption."
What are 3 common lines to see in a text editor window?
"The Title bar, the Status bar, and the Shorcut list."
Describe Start and End of Line expressions.
"The caret "^" represents the start of a line, and the dollar sign "$" denotes the end of a line. For example, ^bag matches bag ONLY if it is first in a line of characters, while bag$ matches bag ONLY if it is last in a line of characters."
What is Lossless Compression?
"The data recovered by uncoompressing the file is identical to what went into it. Gzip, bzip2, and xz all use lossless compression."
"What is a ""umask"" (user mask)?"
A bit pattern representing the permission bits that are to be removed from new files as they're created by processes.
"What is a ""Memory Leak""?"
A type of program bug in which the program requests memory from the kernel and then fails to return it when it's done with the memory.
"What is a ""Skeleton Directory""?"
A directory that holds files that should be copied to each new user's home directory as the user's account is created. It is typically located at /etc/skel.
What is shown in the Shortcut list?
A summary of some of the most common operations and the keystrokes that trigger them.
"What does the log file ""message or syslog"" display?"
A general purpose log file that contains messages from many daemons that lack their own dedicated log files.
What is a Program?
A group of related projects that are managed together using coordinated processes and techniques. They tend to be on-going.
"What is a ""broadcast""?"
A type of network communication in which one computer sends a message to many computers - typically all the computers on the sender's local segment.
Name 4 types of information you would typically find in an RPM-based package filename.
"The extension is .rpm, there is usually a code for the type of architecture, such as x86_64, the name of the distribution that the package is for, such as Samba 4.1.17, and an indicator for the type of disribution, such as fc21 for Fedora 21. Altogether, that would look like: samba-4.1.17-1.fc21.x86_64.rpm"
"How do you use the ""host"" command to view DNS information?"
"Type the command ""host www.website.com"""
How do you replace text using a Linux text editor?
"Use Ctrl+\ or M-R and the program will prompt you to enter a search term,"
"If you only want to display the beginning or end lines of a file, how can you do that instead of using the cat command?"
"Use the ""head"" command to display the first 20 lines of text, and the ""tail"" command to display the final 20 lines of text."
"How do you compress an individual file using gzip, bzip2, or xz?"
"Use the compression system followed by the filename, such as ""xz filename.tiff"" which will then become filename.tiff.xz."
Can you manage user accounts using GUI's?
"Yes, and the particular GUI is dependent on the system. Also, some of these GUI's are only effective for listing users, or allowing users to change their passwords. Their administrative use is limited."
Can a file owner change the group ownership of a file?
"Yes, but only if he is a member of the group he is trying to change the ownership to."
Describe vi's Insert mode.
"You enter text in Insert mode, and when you hit the Esc key, vi returns to Command mode."
Name 4 popular GUI editors available in Linux.
"emacs, gedit, Kwrite and Kate, and Geany."
What is the most common location where most shells will look for scripts?
#!/bin/sh
Give 2 examples of variables that are assigned within scripts.
$Addr and $Name
What is a variable in a script?
A placeholder for a value that will be determined when the script runs.
What programs open filenames with the extension .tif
.png, or .jpg? The GIMP and Eye of GNOME ("eog)
"What is a ""function""?"
A part of a script that performs a specific subtask and that can be called by name from other parts of the script.
What are 3 common terminal identifiers?
:0 means that it is a local GUI login. pts/# and tty# both indicate text sessions.
All files are associated with what 2 things?
All files have an associated user and an associated group.
"What does the variable ""$?"" do?"
It holds the exit status - or return variable - of the most recently executed command. It is useful when you want your script to perform special error handling.
Describe the emacs GUI editor.
It is a text-mode editor and a GUI editor . The GUI includes features of emac.
"Without any options, what does the netstat command diplay?"
All the open ports and the systems to which they are connected.
What does the groupadd option --force or -f do?
Allows you to force the system to create a group name even if that name already exists.
"What does an ""until loop"" do?"
Causes a command to execute as long as its condition is false.
"What does a ""while loop"" do?"
Causes a command to execute as long as its condition is true.
"What does the Redirection operator ""<>"" do?"
Causes the specified file to be used for both standard input and standard output.
Name 11 popular Unix distributions. Arch
CentOS, Debian, Fedora, Gentoo, Mandriva, openSUSE, Red Hat, Slackware, SUSE Enterprise, and Ubuntu
Name 7 common Linux filesystems. 1) Ext2fs 2) Ext3fs 3) Ext4fs 4) ReiserFS 5) JFSArch
CentOS, Debian, Fedora, Gentoo, Mandriva, openSUSE, Red Hat, Slackware, SUSE Enterprise, and Ubuntu 7) Btrfs
Name 10 free and 2 commercial Linux distributions. Free: Arch
CentOS, Debian, Fedora, Gentoo, Mint, OpenSUSE, Scientific, Slackware, and Ubuntu. Commercial: Red Hat Enterprise and SUSE Enterprise.
What does the usermod option --login or -l do?
Changes the account's username to the specified value.
"What is the ""s"" top option used for?"
Changes the displays update rate and will ask you to enter time in seconds.
What does the Capital C Qualifier do?
Changes to directory dir before performing operations.
"What does the ""d"" option do when using sort?"
Considers only blanks and alphanumeric characters - it doesn't consider special characters.
What is the default view in the File Manager
Nautilus, and what is kept there? The Home location is the default view, and it is where users will store their own files.
What programs open filenames with the extension .pdf? Evince
Okular, Adobe Reader, and xpdf.
What are 2 main things you should always consider when deciding whether or not to delete a user's account?
File preservation and UID/GID reuse.
Describe the find command search criteria -perm mode.
Finds files that have certain permissions. The mode can be expressed either symbolically or in octal form.
What does Ctrl+G display?
The nano help documentation.
What happens after you create a file in a text editor?
The new file opens up and you are in edit mode to edit the file.
"What does the command ""routercheck"" do?"
Pings the router to send back 5 return packets.
How do you define a function?
Placing parentheses after the function name and then enclosing the lines that make up the function within curly braces. ( { } )
Package management requires what type of access?
Root access.
What file access does the root user have?
Root users have read and write access to every file on a Linux computer.
What are used to connect individual local networks to the Internet?
Routers.
Describe the find command search criteria -gid GID.
Searches for files whose group ID (GID) is set to GID.
Describe the -r or -R or --recursive option when using grep.
Searches the specified directory and all of the subdirectories rather than simply the specified directory. You can also use "rgrep" rather than specify this option.
"What does the Redirection operator ""<"" do?"
Sends the contents of the specified file to be used as standard input.
"What does the ""n"" option do when using sort?"
Sorts by numeric value.
What does the usermod option --comment or -c do?
Specifies the comment field for the user. In most cases this is their full name.
What are the 2 types of output that can result from redirection?
Standard output and Standard error.
Describe the -f file or --file=file option when using grep.
Takes pattern input from the specified file rather than from the command line. The "fgrep" command is a shortcut for this action.
"What does the log file ""Xorg.0.log"" display?"
The most recent startup of the X Window System (X).
Describe the domain entry in the /etc/resolve.conf file.
This is the line where you identify your computer's default domain. This makes it so the computer can search for hostnames without domain names on your network.
What does the usermod option --unlock or -U do?
Unlocks a locked account password.
How do you unzip files?
Unzip newzipfile.zip
"What does the command ""chmod"" do?"
Updates a file's permission modes.
"What does the zip option ""-f"" do?"
Updates files in an archive if they've changed since the original archive's creation.
What is a Chipset? One or more chips that provide key functionality for the computer. They handle the hard disk interfaces
USB interfaces, network services, etc.
"Describe the ""pipe"" or ""pipeline"" redirected outpout."
The standard output from one program is redirected as the standard input to a second program.
"What is displayed on the ""swap"" line of the output from the mem command?"
The swap line shows how much swap space Linux is using.
"What does the log file ""/cups"" display?"
This directory holds log files related to the Linux printing system.
What does the capital W Qualifier do?
Verifies the archive after writing it
How are GPLv2 and GPLv3 different? GPLv2 is not as restrictive as GPLv3
but that also allowed loopholes in the implementation of the FSF philosophy, so GPLv3 was created to combat hardware and software restrictions.
Can you patent an entire program? No
but you can patent the algorithms that the program uses.
When was the FSF founded? In 1985
by Richard Stallman.
Describe a Symbolic link. Also known as a soft link
a symbolic link is a file that refers to another file by name. When you tell a program to read or write to a symbolic link, Linux redirects the access to the original file. Symbolic links can work across filesystem boundaries.
How do you move to the beginning or the end of a line in the terminal window? Ctrl+A moves the cursor to the start of the line
and Ctrl+E moves it to the end.
What 2 umbrella terms refer explicitly to Open Source and Free Software Foundation software and development? Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
and Free/Libre Open Source Software (FLOSS).
Why does the Linux Kernel still use GPLv2? The Linux Kernel is often used in devices such as TiVo's and Android-based phones
and GPLv3 would be too restrictive to allow the necessary boot processes used by those types of devices.
What is a Multi-core CPU? The circuitry for two or more CPU's are combined into one unit. The OS "sees" this as multiple CPU's
and Linux can run as many CPU-intensive programs as you have cores, so they don't slow each other down.
Which 4 distributions offer the longest time between releases? CentOS and Debian on the free side
and Red Hat Enterprise and SUSE Enterprise on the commercial side.
Describe a Primary partition. A primary partition is the simplest type of partition
and a disk can have from zero up to 4 primary partitions. One can be an extended partition.
What is the Apache license? And open source license that permits redistribution under the same or another license
and a text file called NOTICE that comes with the original work must be included in any derivative work.
Describe the newest and most popular Linux filesystem. Btrfs supports files up to 16 EiB
and filesystems of the same size. It has multiple features, including the ability to combine multiple physical disks into a single filesystem.
What is a common Shell Scripting language? Bourne Again Shell (Bash)
and if there is any file extension, it is usually ".sh".
Describe Python. Python is an interpreted language whose major goal is code readability. It supports object orientation
and is often used for scripting , and can also be used to write more complex programs.
Should you use FAT on a Linux system? FAT's compatibility makes it a good choice on dual-boot systems
and it can be used in 2 ways on a Linux machine: msdos (short filenames) and vfat (long filenames).
Describe an Extended partition. A disk can only have one extended partition
and it serves as a placeholder for logical partitions.
What makes up any given Linux distribution? The Kernel
and its utilities and configuration files. Each distribution is - in essence - its own OS.
What is the difference between a desktop computer and a workstation? Workstations tend to be more powerful and specialized
and often run Unix or Linux.
Describe libparted-Based tools. Libparted tools can handle both MBR and GPT
and one tool - Gparted - is GUI-based, so easier for people to use.
Name 6 functions of Raspberry Pi. 1) Used for video and image processing 2) Supports the execution of IoT applications 3) Allows you to install a 3rd- party operating system 4) Can convert a TV into a Smart TV 5) It is used to make supercomputers 6) Supports Python programming by default
and other programming languages as well.
Describe a Logical partition. Logical partitions always reside within an Extended partition
and since their boundaries are logical - instead of physical - you can have as many logical partitions as you like.
What is Nginx? Nginx (pronounced Engine X) is a web server than can retrieve resources from one or more servers
as well as operate as a mail server. It is fast and lightweight.
How do you update the man database? Log in as a superuser and type the command "makewhatis" or "mandb"
depending on which distribution you are using.
What are 2 command line DHCP programs that can be run in Linux?
dhclient and dhcpcd
When it comes to file management
in Linux, what are directories? Directories are just files that contain other files, so - with some exceptions - any file management options on the command line will work with directories as well.
Describe Apache OpenOffice. Originally created by Oracle and called OpenOffice.org
it was donated to the Apache group in 2011. It has 6 applications: Writer, Calc, Impress, Base, Draw, and Math.
What are trademarks? Names
logos, and similar identifiers of a specific company or product. Software and the companies that produce it often use trademarks, as do hardware companies.
What is a primary difference between Windows and Linux when it comes to where programs reside in the directory structure. In Windows
most - or all - of a program's files reside in the same directory, such as C:\Program Files\Someprogram. In Linux, a program's files are likely to reside in standard locations that are shared with other programs.
How does the mv command work with respect to moving files on the same filesystem vs. moving them to a different file system? When the source and target are on the same filesystem
mv rewrites directory entries without actually moving the file's data. When you move a file from one filesystem to another, mv copies the file and then deletes the original file.
What is Assembly language? And older
rarely used language with a simple one-to-one correspondence between machine code numbers and the symbols that the programmer uses.
How do you know if a file is a hard link when looking at the results from an ls command? The original file and the hard link can be identified as links by the presence of the value 2 in the second column of the ls output. That column identifies the number of filename entries that point to the file
so a value higher than 1 indicates that a hard link exists.
What are Desktop Environment Suites? Linux uses a basic GUI
so desktop environment suites are used to provide a more complete user experience.
How much DC power can a power supply deliver? Each power supply has a limited amount of deliverable power
so if you add a hard disk or a power-hungry plug-in card, you could exceed the amount of power that is available.
Describe the Lynx web browser. It is a text-based browser
so it can be used if you are running Linux in text-mode, and it is also useful to test web pages.
What is LXDE? The Lightweight X11 Desktop Environment uses fewer resources
so it is ideal for older or less powerful computers.
In order to run on any given CPU
software must be what? Recompiled for that CPU.
How can you tell the complete path of the directory that you are in at any given time? Use the "pwd" command. Some Linux distributions display your complete path on the command line at all times
some do not.
What is the primary difference between an embedded computer and a desktop or laptop? How much control the user has over the OS. Embedded devices are used - not maintained - by end users. System administration tasks are done at the factory or by using much simpler
specialized interfaces.
What 2 ways in a Linux installation can you typically find additional information other than using man or info pages? There is often a documentation file called "doc" or "documentation" after the file name
such as "samba-doc". There are also README files with some installations.
What is the term in parentheses after the Kernel designation when viewing the text-mode login prompt
such as (tty1)? Tty1 is the name of the hardware being used for the login.
Describe the filenames for hard disks and partitions in Linux. Hard disk filenames include letters
such as /dev/sda, dev/sdb, and so on, with each disk using the next letter. Partition filenames use numbers, such as /dev/sda1, dev/sdb6, etc.
Name 6 types of software that need to or can be run on a Linux computer. 1) The X Window System GUI (X for short) 2) A desktop environment
such as GNOME, KDE, Xfce, or Unity 3) A web browser 4) An email client 5) A Graphics editor 6) An Office suite
Name the 5 parameters you will need to choose from if setting up a Linux virtual machine in the cloud. 1) CPU size 2) Memory size 3) Storage size 4) Storage type 5) Type of Linux distribution
such as Linux Server, Fedora, Red Hat, etc.
If you are using a paid version of Linux
such as Red Hat Enterprise or SUSE Enterprise, where can you get support? Check the details of your purchase/license, because free support may be part of your purchase.
Describe binary codes. Numbers that represent operations
such as adding 2 numbers or choosing which of two actions to take.
What do bracketed characters stand for? They match any character in a set
such as b[ao][lo]k matches balk and book, but not buck.
What is in the /var directory? Misc. transient files
such as log and print spool files. /var/tmp holds files that should NOT be deleted when the computer reboots.
How do you know if a file is a symbolic link when looking at the results from an ls command? The symbolic link is denoted by an "l" (lowercase L) as the first character of the file's permissions string
such as lrwxrwxrwx.
What does the "-l" option do when using the ls command? The ls command normally displays filenames only. This option (a lower-case "L") produces more details
such as the file's permission string, owner, group, size, and creation date.
What is the difference between using one dash "-" or two dashes "--" when using various ls commands? When you use just one dash
the list comes out vertically on the screen. When you use two dashes, the list comes out horizontally.
When are man pages most useful? When you need to know the options to use with a command
the name of an option in a configuration file, or similar details.
What is one issue with web browsers and cloud computing? Some cloud computing providers will only work with specific web browsers. If one Linux browser does not work
try a different one.
Is there a way to tell the man query to search a specific section? Yes
type the section number in the query, i.e. - "man 3 cat" to search for information about the concatenate command in the "Library calls provided by program libraries" section.
What is in the /media directory? This is the NEW mount point for removable media
typically split into subdirectories for each mounted filesystem.
What is in the /mnt directory? This is the TRADITIONAL mount point for removable media
typically split into subdirectories for each mounted filesystem.
When using less
what are the search functions? "/pattern" searches forward for the word pattern in the document, while "?pattern" searches backwards. You can do this with any keyword.
With regard to drivers
what benefit can be gained from upgrading the Kernel? A Kernel upgrade can provide bug fixes to both existing drivers and entirely new drivers. That also applies to any software that has drivers that affect your system.
If you can't find what you're looking for in the man or info pages
what directories often have a lot of information? /usr/doc and /usr/share/doc
When inside a terminal window
what do the prompts usually end in? Most default prompts end in a "$" or a ">" greater than symbol for ordinary users. If using the root account, the prompt usually ends in "#".
In the text-mode login prompt "Essentials login"
what does Essentials stand for? Essentials is the computer name.
With regard to hardware
what does X Window System handle? It detects most of your hardware automatically, including the video card, monitor, keyboard, and mouse, and configures them automatically?
Given the way that humans understand symbols
what does programming involve? Writing a program in a symbolic programming language and then translating that symbolic code into the numeric form that computers understand.
In the text-mode login prompt "Fedora Release 21"
what does that stand for? Fedora Release 21 is the OS name and version.
When copying files
what does the "-R" or "--recursive" command do? When copying from a directory, that option will copy the directory and all of its subdirectories.
When copying files
what does the "-u" or "--update" command do? Copies the file only if the original is newer than the target, or if the target doesn't exist.
When using command completion
what happens if more than one entry matches the letters that you have typed? You will get an alert - most likely audible - and then you hit the TAB key again to see the list of entries that start with those letters.
Since it is so simple and widespread
what is FAT used on? USB flash drives, smartphones, e-book readers, digital camera media, etc.
In Linux
what is Task 7 (providing user interface elements to move and resize windows) controlled by? A program called a "window manager".
In Cloud Computing
what is meant by the cloud vs the computing? The "cloud" represents the Internet, and "computing" represents what you are doing over the Internet.
If you aren't getting results from your man page searches
what is one possibility? The man database has not been updated, especially after a fresh program or Linux installation.
In Linux
what is root? Root is the Linux administrative user.
In Linux
what is the Library that most programs rely on? Libc
With regard to the code of a CPU
what is true of upgrades to that CPU? As long as the changes remain in the same CPU "family", they can run the same code as their predecessors.
If you can't optimize the display of your monitor after attempting all of the available resolutions
what might the problem be? You might have to upgrade the video card because some cards aren't able to handle the optimum resolution of certain monitors.
Broadly speaking
where do drivers usually exist? In the Kernel, or in a Library/Application.
What are the file extensions for C: source code files? ".c" files are the main source code
whereas ".h" files are header files which contain short definitions of the functions in the ".c" files.
Of the 3 common video connectors
which 2 are digital? DVI and HDMI
Network protocols involve transferring data over what? One or more Ports
which are numbered resources on a computer.
Name 3 applications that drivers sometimes reside in. 1) SANE
which handles scanners 2) Ghostscript, which converts printed output into a form that particular printers understand 3) X, which manages the display
Where can you find an info page GUI browser? The GNU Emacs editor
which is a powerful text editor, provides an info page browser. Also, tkinfo is a stand-alone program with similar functionality.
What filesystem is used on DVD and Blu-ray media? Universal Disk Format (UDF)
which is intended to replace ISO-9660.
How are C: programs compiled? They are generally compiled with the gcc program
which is part of the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) package.
How do you display the contents of a file in Linux? Use the "cat" command
which is short for concatenate.
Are programs converted by an Interpreter converted all at once? No. The conversion happens one line at a time
which means the program is never completely converted into machine code. The interpreter determines what each line does, and then does that one thing. For that reason, interpreted programs run more slowly than compiled programs.
What are the 2 types of pre-release versions of Linux distributions? Alpha software is extremely new and very likely to contain bugs
while Beta software is more stable, but still not as stable as final release software.
What does the "--recursive" or short form "-R" option do when using the ls command? It causes ls to display directory contents recursively
with directories as well as subdirectories listed.
"What does the zip option ""g"" do?"
Appends files to an existing archive.
"What does the ""r"" tar command do?"
Appends non-tar files to an archive.
"What does the ""A"" tar command do?"
Appends tar files to an archive.
"Give an example of using the ""cp"" command in reverse order in a script."
"The script cp1:
What programs open filenames with the extension .gz
. xz, or .bz2? Gunzip, unxz, or bunzip2
What can you do if X does not detect your hardware or configure it properly? You must manually edit the X configuration file
/etc/X11/xorg.conf.
Name 3 common locations where Linux stores programs. /bin
/usr/bin, and usr/local/bin
What is in the /usr directory? Programs and files that are used in normal system operation but are not critical for a bare-bones boot of the system. It is split into subdirectories that mirror parts of the root organization - /usr/bin
/usr/sbin, /usr/lib, etc.
Name 3 common location where Linux stores programs run by root. /sbin
/usr/sbin, and usr/local/sbin
What is the exit value for the successful execution of a script?
0
What is the root group's user ID (uid)?
0
What is the root user's user ID (uid)?
0
List the first 4 IEEE-1541 size prefixes. 1) kibibyte (KiB) is 210 (1
02 4) bytes (1 Kb) 2) mebibtye (MiB) is 220 (1,048,57 6) bytes (1MB) 3) gibibyte (GiB) is 230 (1,073,741,82 4) bytes (1GB) 4) tebibyte (TiB) is 240 (1,099,511,627,77 6) bytes (1,000GB)
Name the 6 regular expressions that use non-alphanumeric characters.
1) Bracket Expressions 2) Range Expressions 3) Any Single Character 4) Start and End of Line 5) Repetition 6) Escaping.
Name 6 advantages of a projectized organization.
1) All project members are collocated in the same physical area. 2) Project manager has full authority to manage the project and resources. 3) Full-time resources are assigned to the project. 4) Loyalty is established with the project manager. 5) Other ad hoc resources may report to the project manager. 6) There is dedicated project support staff.
List 5 often used options that work with the grep command.
1) -c or --count 2) -f file or --file=file 3) -i or --ignore-case 4) -r or -R or --recursive 5) -E or --extended-regexp
Give 8 examples of search criteria that are often using with the "find" command.
1) -name pattern 2) -perm mode 3) -size n 4) -group name 5) -gid GID 6) -user name 7) -uid UID 8) -maxdepth
Name the 3 Extended Regular Expressions.
1) Additional Repetition Operators 2) Multiple Possible Strings 3) Parentheses
List 4 directories that are Unshareable
2 Static and 2 Variable. Static - /etc and /boot
List 4 directories that are Shareable
2 Static and 2 Variable. Static - /usr and /opt
Describe PATA. It has a wide
40- or 80-pin cable that transfers several bits of data simultaneously, hence the word Parallel in the name Parallel ATA, or PATA.
"What is the ""load average"" that is displayed when top is running?"
A measure of the demand for CPU time by applications.
Give an example of when a system-specific command might affect a script.
A script that installs software can check free disk space and abort the installation if insufficient disk space is available.
"What does the Redirection operator ""<<"" do?"
Accepts text on the following line as standard input.
"What is ""gedit""?"
An official text editor of the GNOME desktop environment.
"What does the ""u"" tar command do?"
Appends files that are newer than those in an archive.
Name 3 Linux programs written in C++. KDE
Apache OpenOffice, and LibreOffice.
"What does the ""--one-file-system"" Qualifier do?"
Backs up or restores only one filesystem (partition)
How does Linux assign UID's and GID's?
Based on the highest current values.
"What does the command ""mail"" do in a script?"
Can be used to send email from a script.
What are Portfolios?
Collections of programs, subportfolios, and projects that support strategic business goals or objectives. Unlike programs, portfolios may consist of projects that are not related.
"What are ""play"" and ""aplay""?"
Commands to use a basic audio player.
"What does the ""d"" tar command do?"
Compares an archive to files on a disk.
"What does the ""c"" tar command do?"
Creates an archive.
What does the capital M Qualifier do?
Creates or extracts a multi-tape archive.
List 9 popular protocols and their port numbers. 20-21 FTP ~ 22 SSH ~ 23 Telnet ~ 25 SMTP ~ 53 DNS ~ 67 BOOTP
DHCP ~ 110 POP3 ~ 143 IMAP ~ 443 HTTPS
"What does the zip option ""-d"" do?"
Deletes the specified files from the archive file.
"When using a Case statement, what must each set of commands end with?"
Double semi-colons (;;).
How is a Functional Organization designed?
Each group does their own thing and has one primary supervisor, such as a human resources department, and IT department, a marketing department, etc.
Describe a Weak matrix organization.
Emphasizes functional work over project work, and the functional managers have most of the authority.
Describe a Strong matrix organization.
Emphasizes project work over functional duties, and the project manager has the majority of authority.
What does the usermod option --non-unique or -o do?
Enables a single UID number to be reused. It is used in conjunction with --uid (-u).
What does Ctrl+R or F5 do when editing a text file?
Enables you to insert another file into the current one at the cursor's present location.
"What does the zip option ""-e"" do?"
Encrypts the archive with a password.
"What does the command ""cut"" do in a script?"
Extracts text from fields in a file.
"What does the ""--exclude file"" Qualifier do?"
Excludes file from the archive
"What does the zip option ""-x files"" do?"
Excludes the specified files.
What are the 3 types of partitions? Primary
Extended, and Logical.
How do modern Linux distributions get the packages and package files that are needed?
From network software repositories.
Who assigns personnel and tasks in a matrix organization?
Functional managers assign employees to the project, while project managers assign tasks associated with the project to the employee.
Name the 6 most common Linux desktop environments. KDE
GNOME, LXDE, Unity, Xfce, and Build Your Own.
What does the PCPU option for the w command do?
Identifies the total amount of CPU time associated with the current process running in the session.
What does the JCPU option for the w command do?
Identifies the total amount of CPU time associated with the session.
Where is user group membership information kept?
In the /etc/group directory. It contains colon-delimited lines - or records - and each line defines one group.
Where are most account features defined?
In the /etc/passwd file.
Where does Linux store most of its log files?
In the /var/log directory tree.
Where does the kernel maintain process information?
In the process table.
"What does the zip option ""-r"" do?"
Includes files and subdirectories inside the directories that you specify.
"What can the utilities ""who"" and ""w"" tell you?"
Information about who is currently using the computer.
"What can the utilities ""whoami"" and ""id"" tell you?"
Information about your own identity.
Describe vi's Command mode.
It accepts commands which are usually single letters.
What does Ctrl+W or F6 do when using a text editor?
It activates a search feature that searches the file that you have open.
What do many program packages depend on?
Library packages which contain code that can be used by many programs.
What programs open filenames with the extension .odt? OpenOffice.org
LibreOffice, or most word processors.
What is Command History? Just like other terminal windows
Linux remember previous commands, and you can use the arrow keys to scroll back and forth through them.
Name 3 Embedded Systems that use Linux. Android
Linux-based network appliances, and TiVo.
How is a Matrix organization different than a functional organization?
Matrix organizations are organized along departmental lines, like functional organizations, but resources assigned to a project are accountable to the project manager associated with that project.
How would you change the default shell for all of your users at the same time?
Modify the usermgmt.conf file.
What is unique about the useradd and usermod commands?
Most of their options do exactly the same things.
What can you do instead of deleting a user's files?
Move their home directory to another's home directory and change the permissions on those files.
Give 4 examples of cloud computing applications. Office 365
Netflix, Dropbox, and Hulu.
"What does the unzip option ""-n"" do?"
Never overwrites existing files.
Are functions run in the order they appear in the script?
No. They are run only when called in the main body of the script.
"What does the unzip option ""-o"" do?"
Overwrites existing files without prompting.
What do the letters N
P, and U do when inside an info node? N moves to the next node in a series, P moves to a previous node in a series, and U moves up one level in the node hierarchy.
What do you call variables that are frequently passed to the script?
Parameters or arguments.
How do you use netstat to get Interface information?
Pass netstat the --interface or the -i option to obtain information about your network interfaces similar to what ifconfig returns.
What does the lower-case p Qualifier do?
Preserves all protection information
What are 5 common desktop environment features? File managers
Program launchers, Window controls, Multiple desktops, and Logout options.
Describe a Projectized organization.
Project managers have the majority of the power, and they are responsible for making descisions regarding projects, and for acquiring and assigning resources from inside or outside of the organization. Even support staff such as HR and admin works will usually report to the project managers.
What does the "wc" command do?
Provides basic statistics on text files.
What is the often used abbreviation for regular expressions?
Regexp
"What does the command ""chroot"" do?"
Runs commands with a special root directory.
Describe the find command search criteria -uid UID.
Searches for files by user ID (UID).
Describe the find command search criteria -user name.
Searches for files that are owned by the specified user.
"What is the ""M"" top option used for?"
Sets the display to sort by memory usage.
What does the usermod option shell or -s do?
Sets the name of the user's default shell.
Why would you NOT use an ampersand when writing a script?
Sometimes one command must run after another or may even rely on output from the first.
What is DNS?
The Domain Name System is a global network of servers that translate between hostnames and IP addresses.
What is the difference between redirecting standard output by using the > redirection operator and redirecting standard error output by using the <2 operator?
The number 2 represents standard error at the command line.
What is an IP address?
The number that is assigned to a computer for network addressing purposes.
"What symbol do script utilities ignore, and why?"
The pound sign (#) because shell scripting languages use a hash mark (pound sign) as a comment character.
What does the Comment field usually hold in a user record?
Their full name.
What is TCP/IP?
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a set of standards that underlie most modern network communications at the software level.
How do you undo a change in vi?
Type the letter u.
How do you create a pipe?
Use the vertical bar key ( | ) between the two commands.
When is a project considered a success?
When the goal it sets out to accomplish are fulfilled and the stakeholders are satisfied with the results.
How can you examine an archive without extracting it?
With the --list command.
Describe the fdisk family. Fdisk
cfdisk, and sfdisk are simple, text-based partitioning utilities for MBR disks.
Give an example of an argument. "cat afile.txt" where "cat" is short for the concatenate command
and "afile.txt" is the argument.
Describe Absolute references. These references are relative to the root "/" directory
as in /home/fred/afile.txt that is in Fred's home directory.
Describe apt-get. A text-mode tool for Debian PMS that can install repositories and remove software packages from your local Linux system. It can perform package upgrades for individual packages
all of the packages on your system, or your entire distribution.
The term "server" can apply to what? An entire computer
or to a single program running on that computer.
Name 6 things that are often plugged into the motherboard. 1) One or more slots for CPU's 2) Multiple slots for RAM 3) Slots for Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) or other cards 4) Connectors for Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) disks
and sometimes for Parallel ATA (PATA) disks 5) Back panel connectors for devices such as USB, keyboards, monitors, etc. 6) Connectors for additional external devices, such as front-panel USB plugs
Why does the Kernel host most drivers? Because drivers typically require privileged access to hardware
and that is the purpose of the Kernel.
What are info pages also known as? Nodes
and the info page system is made up of a series of interrelated nodes.
What is Dual Licensing? When a company creates 2 versions of a product - one that is open source and free
and the other that adds features not available in the open source version.
Is C: an efficient programming language? Yes
but it is also easy to write buggy programs because it lacks some error-checking features that are common in other languages.
In addition to computer programs
what are Creative Commons licenses aimed at? Audio recordings, video recordings, textual works, etc.
On the command line
what are arguments? Subcommands or codes that follow the program name.
In essence
what are hard links? Duplicate directory entries that point to the same file.
What is in the /tmp directory? Temporary files that are sometimes deleted when the computer reboots
but not always, depending on the distribution that you are using.
Describe SATA. SATA is mostly software compatible with PATA
but it uses thinner cables that can handle just one hard disk per cable. Currently, SATA is the dominant disk technology on new computers.
What does the command "ls-la" do? It lists the files as the ls command would normally do
but it also lists the permissions on those files.
What does the "cd" command do? It changes the directory that you are working in. Your current directory doesn't matter for a lot of commands
but it does when you begin to refer to files.
How do you use the "whereis" search function? Whereis does NOT search user directories
but it is a good way to find program executables and related files. Simply type "whereis keyword" to find the directory where that keyword exists.
What do question mark wildcards stand for? Single characters such as b??k could stand for book
balk, buck, etc.
What benefit does Linux offer when used on embedded systems? The distributions include fixed
basic configurations and guided setup tools to help inexperienced users set up critical basic options, such as network settings and time zones.
How do you create a new
blank file in Linux? Use the "touch" command, i.e. - "touch newfile.txt"
Describe the GPTfdiskFamily. The gdisk
cgdisk, and sgdisk tools are similar to the fdisk family of tools, but work with GPT disks. They provide more options than libparted tools, but are not as user-friendly to learn.
In essence
what are symbolic links? Separate files that refer to the original file by name.
Give 4 examples of OS utility programs. Calculators
calendars, text editors, and disk maintenance tools.
Describe the C: language. It is a very important
compiled language in Linux since most of the Linux kernel and a large number of Linux applications are written in C:.
What is the simplest usage of man pages? Type the "man" command followed by the name of a command
configuration file, system call, or other keyword.
How do you search for wildcards when using the ls command? Use the asterick "*" after the wildcard you are searching for. For example
if you search for a file name that start with "t", your search string would look like this "ls t*".
What is the Linux GUI known as? X Window System
or X for short.
How can you view a formatted text file in raw form? Use the -L option in less
i.e. - "less -L file.html"
What are filesystems? Data structures that help the computer organize directories and files. In Windows
each filesystem receives its own letter, such as A:, B:, C:, etc. In Linux all filesystems are part of a single directory tree.
What is X Server? A program that implements X for a computer
especially the component that interacts most directly with the video hardware.
What is Preemptive Multitasking? When the Kernel schedules CPU time for programs
even if the programs didn't voluntarily give up control. (UNIX)
Are your terminal login credentials all-encompassing? No. You can run terminal windows as yourself and/or as the root
even in the same session by just opening up new tabs.
Describe Relative references. In Linux
every directory includes a hidden subdirectory ".." that can be referenced. For example, if Sally is working in her home directory, but want to reference a file in Fred's home directory, she can use the command "../fred/afile.txt". This can be used for more than one directory, depending on how "deep" your reference needs to be.
What is GPL? General Public License is a common
free software license created and favored by the Free Software Foundation.
What is the promise of Open Source? Better quality
higher reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, and an end to predatory vendor lock-in.
What does 32-bit vs. 64-bit mean as far as binary numbers? CPU's process data in binary using only 0's or 1'. CPU limits are based on the number of digits they can process - 32 or 64
in this case.
What is Blender? A program to create complex 3D images
including both stills and animations.
What programs open filenames with the extension .1 through .9? Man
info, and less.
Are all Linux Kernels the same? No
kernels are constantly evolving, and any 2 different Linux distributions will likely have slightly different kernels.
What is Raspberry Pi? A very inexpensive minicomputer - about the size of a credit card - that allows you to plug in devices such as a mouse
keyboard, etc.
What are 3 shells other than Bash? Tcsh
ksh, and zsh.
What is a Command Line Shell? A shell is a program that allows users to type commands to do things such as rename files
launch programs, etc. Command line shells vary from one OS to another.
How are nodes organized? Nodes are organized on levels
like the organization of a book. A subject will have a main node, then multiple nodes at a lower level.
Describe ARM CPU chips. ARM chips incorporate a processor called "Reduced Instruction Set Computing" (RISC) that strips down the process to bare-bones minimum
making it use significantly less electrical power. For this reason, ARM chips are ideal for mobile devices.
Describe dpkg. A low-level package tool used in the Debian family of PMS tools that can be used to directly install
manage, and remove software packages. It is limited in functionality, however, and cannot download software packages from the repositories.
Describe C++. It is an extension to C: that adds object-oriented features
meaning that greater emphasis is given to data structures and their interactions than to the procedures used to control the flow of the program.
Give 5 examples of times when copies of software must be made
regardless of copyright laws. 1) Moving a copy of the program from an installation medium to a hard drive or solid-state drive. 2) Moving a copy of the program from a hard drive or solid-state drive to the computer's random access memory (RAM). 3) Moving a copy of the RAM into swap space. 4) Moving a copy of the RAM into various smaller caches on the motherboard or CPU. 5) Copies of the program on one or more hard drives or solid state drives as a backup in case of disk failures.
How does Linux compare to Windows in the server arena? Linux dominates the server arena
regularly powering email servers, web servers, file servers, etc.
What is ODF? The OpenDocument Format is an open set of file formats meant to standardize common files such as word processing
spreadsheets, etc.
Describe Infrastructure as a Service. Infrastructure as a Service provides resources such as virtual machines
storage, etc. The end user does not need anything on their local machine. (Amazon Web Services)
What is a Super Server? Some servers run via a super server
such a xinetd. The server programs run constantly, keeping the servers they manage unloaded except when they're needed.
How do you access a file system in Linux? You must mount it with the mount command
such as "# mount /dev/sda5 /shared"
How are Linux directories sorted alphabetically? Upper-case directory names
such as "/X11" will always be listed before lower-case directory names, such as "/usr"
What does the "man" command do? It looks up whatever command follows it in the Linux manual systems
such as "man cat" to look up the concatenate command.
What are 4 popular Linux desktop environment suites? GNOME
the K Desktop Environment (KDE), Unity, and Xfce
Does Android run the same Linux applications that a desktop or server does? No. Although Android is a Linux-based OS
the applications are entirely different.
Describe Dynamic Content. Content that varies depending on the user
the time of day, or some other criteria.
What happens if the only way to get an updated driver is via a "kernel patch"? You must make changes to the main kernel source-code package
then recompile the kernel.
What decides which category the man queries will search? Depending on the distribution that is being used
there are different configuration files specifically for the man pages, and there is an area there called SECTION that defines the search order.
Do manual pages only describe programs? No
they can also describe configuration files and other features of Linux installations.
Is there a way to make man pages searches as powerful as the "apropos" command? Yes
using the '-k" option. "apropos cat" and "man -k cat" will bring back the same results.
What do the "cp" command do? Copies files
using various available options.
How are partitions different when using GPT? GPT supports up to 128 partitions
with no distinction between primary, extended, or logical partitions.
Is GPT better than MBR? It is more versatile
yes, but Windows only supports MBR natively, and GPT only in certain circumstances, so when dual-booting with Windows, keep that in mind.
Does the mv command allow the same options as the cp command? Mostly
yes, with the exception of --preserve, --recursive, and --archive.
How to you display files that hold information related to the Linux printing system?
"""cat /var/log/cups"""
What is a second way to change group membership of a file?
"""chgrp users filename"" associates the file with the users group, but did not use a colon like the chown command does."
"Show how you would change permissions on a file using the Base 8 method so the owner has full access, the group can read and right, and the world can only read."
"""chmod 764 filename"""
Show how you would use the cut command with -d and -f options to pull information from columns 1 and 3 out of the /etc/passwd directory.
"""cut -d "":"" -f 1,3 /etc/passwd"""
What are the 3 math processes you can pass to chmod to change permissions?
" + (plus sign to add permssions), - (minus sign to remove permissions), and = (equals sign to equal permissions)"
What are the default options that are always on when using the wc command?
"""-l"" for the file's newline count, ""-w"" for the files's word count, and ""-c"" for the file's byte count."
"Other than the ""lwc"" options, what are 2 other options that can be used with the wc command?"
"""-m"" to show the file's character count, and ""-L"" which displays the length of the longest line in the file."
How do you interrupt a running command in a Linux shell?
"""Ctrl+c"""
What is copying text called in vi?
"""Yanking"" text."
What are the text and GUI-based utilities available for Debian to access network repositories?
"""apt-get"" is the text utility and Synaptic is the GUI."
Show the command to add a user named Bob to the group called newgroup WITHOUT removing him from his other groups.
"""groupadd -aG newgroup bob"" - The -a option causes the group membership to be established without the user leaving their other groups, and the G option sets the name of one or more users that now have membership to the given group."
How can you use the id utility to display information about a particular user?
"""id username"""
"How do you display the network configurations of only one interface, such as eth0?"
"""ifconfig eth0""."
What is the syntax for using the passwd command to change a user's password?
"""passwd username"""
What is the simplest tool for identifying processes?
"""ps"" which produces a process listing."
What is the command to see the routing configuration on a Linux machine?
"""route"""
What is the basic command for installing software on RPM-based distributions?
"""rpm"""
How do you install traceroute on Linux?
"""sudo apt-get install traceroute"""
"Show an example of the command to delete a user's account that is presently logged in, and also delete the user's files at the same time."
"""sudo userdel -rf username"""
What is the simple version of the shell command to delete a user's account?
"""sudo userdel username"""
Give an example of a tar creation command.
"""tar czvf /home/username/my-work-archives - /home/username/my-work"" - This command would create an archive (c), compress it through gzip (z), display the files being archived (v), and then create the archive file (f)."
Give an example of a text command on Red Hat to install the Yumex GUI.
"""yum install yumex"""
How would you remove software on Red Hat?
"""yum remove PROGRAMNAME"""
How would you tell Red Hat or CentOS to look for an update?
"""yum upgrade"""
Show the command to use the zip program to zip files.
"""zip newzipfile.zip afile1.txt afile2.txt"" This will zip both afile1.txt and afile2.txt into a new zip file called newzipfile."
"Show how you would use the ifconfig and route commands to assign the IP address 192.168.29.39/24 to the eth0 network, with 192.168.29.1 as the router."
"# ifconfig etho0 up 192.168.29.39 netmask 255.255.255.0
How do you delete an entire directory tree? Pass the "-r"
"-R", or "--recursive" option to the rm command to along with a directory name, i.e. - "rm -r somedirectory/".
What are the file extensions for C++ source code files? ".cc"
".cpp", ".cxx", and ".c++", with header files ending in ".h", ".hh", ".hpp", ".hxx", or ".h++".
What is typically the name of log daemon configuration files?
"/etc/configuration.conf, or something similar."
Give 2 examples of directories that should probably be protected by a sticky bit.
"/tmp and /var/tmp are used by many users, and you would not want any user to have the power to delete another user's temporary files."
"Give 3 examples of using the ""if"" conditional expression."
"1) ""-f file"" is true if the file exists and is a regular file.
List the 7 File Type Codes used in Linux permission strings.
"1) - (dash) Normal data file
List 2 characteristics of the load average information.
"1) A system on which no programs are demanding CPU time has a load average of zero.
Name 6 precautions you should always take when using or considering the use of the root user administrative privileges.
"1) Ask yourself if root access is truly needed. If there is another way, do it the other way.
Name 5 characteristics of Linux packages.
"1) Each package is a single file that can be stored on a disk, or transmitted over the Internet.
Name 3 results from a ping that can help you troubleshoot connectivity.
"1) If you can ping local systems, but not remote systems, the problem is probably in your router or an improper router configuration.
What are the 2 ways that DHCP can deliver IP addresses?
"1) In a fixed way, so that each computer receives the same IP address every time it boots
Name 5 common network user database systems in use.
"1) Network Information System (NIS)
Name 7 commands that are commonly used in scripts.
"1) Normal file manipulation commands, such as ls, mv, cp, and rm.
"Describe Owner, Group, and World/Other permissions."
"1) Owner Permissions - Determines what a file owner can do with a file.
Name 3 security concerns when using a wi-fi network.
"1) Sensitive data such as passwords, credit card numbers, etc., can be intercepted.
What 3 things change on the command line when you log in as the root user?
"1) The username changes to root
"What are 4 common informational things can you find out about using the ""who"" command?"
"1) Username of the user(s) is in Column 1
"In order from weakest to strongest, what are the 3 most common wi-fi security levels?"
"1) Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) - extremely weak - essentially useless
How does the 5-step typical software installation task work?
"1) You issue a command to install a program.
Describe what grep is looking for in the command line "grep -r eth0 /etc/*.
"Finds all files in the /etc directory that contain the string eth0, which is the identifier for the first Ethernet device on most distributions. Since the -r (recursive) option is used, grep searches files in subdirectories of /etc, as well as those in /etc itself."
What does the passwd command do?
"For a regular user, it enables them to change their password. For a super user, it can be used to change any user's password."
Name 3 valid looping statements used in Bash.
"For, while, and until."
"What does the unzip option ""-f"" do?"
"Freshens files from the archive; that is, extracts only those files that exist on the main filesystem and that are newer in the archive than on the main filesystem."
What is a Network Mask?
"A way to distinguish between the network and machine portions of an IP address. The netmask defines the individual bits of an IP address that belong to each part of the IP address - the host, or the network."
How do you change which programs run during the init process?
"Add the ""init="" option to your boot loader's kernel option line, as in ""init=/bin/bash"" to run bash."
"How can you view ""dot files"" using the ls (list) command?"
"Add the letter ""a"" to the list command, i.e. - ""ls -la""."
"When using the ls -l command, what can you add to the command to view subdirectories, but not the content of those subdirectories?"
"Add the letter ""d"" after the ""l"", i.e. - ""ls -ld""."
What does the command router do?
"Adjusts the comptuer's routing table, which determines through which network device specific network packets are sent."
What is a router?
"Also known as a gateway, a router connectes 2 or more networks together. "
"What is ""phishing""?"
"Attempts to extract sensitive data such as passwords, financial data, etc., from users by posing as a trusted individual or organization."
What are the 2 forms of regular expressions?
"Basic and extended, and the form that you use depends on the program."
What is the problem with relying on DNS?
"Because both hosts and many network tools rely on hostnames, if DNS resolution doesn't work, the network is nearly useless."
What is Shell Quoting?
"Because the shell uses certain characters, such as the vertical bar "|" and the asterick "*" for its own purposes, you must enclose certain regular expressions in quotes. Otherwise, the shell will incorrectly treat the regular expression as shell commands."
What is a way to create passwords that are easy to remember?
"Choose a phrase, and then just take the first letter of each phrase as the password, i.e. - I really hate trying to remember passwords would equate to the password ""irhttrp"". As long as that acronym does not form an actual word, all you have to do is add some numbers and special characters and then capitalize a few words to make it a strong password."
What is the problem with terminology surrounding vi's modes?
"Command mode is sometimes referred to as normal mode, Insert mode is sometimes called edit mode or entry mode, and Ex mode is often not referred to as a mode, but rather as ""colon commands""."
"What does the Redirection operator "">"" do?"
"Creates a new file with standard output. If the specified file exists, it is overwritten."
"What does the zip option ""-s size"" do?"
"Creates a potentially multifile archive, with each file no larger than ""size"" bytes, or some other size denomination."
Name 2 directory locations other than their home directory where user files are stored.
"Email is stored in the /var/spool/mail directory, and temporary files are stored in the /tmp directory."
What do you need to remember about the case of Environment Variables?
"Environment variable names are all uppercase, whereas nonenvironment shell script variables are all lowercase, or mixed case."
How do you paste text in vi?
"From Command mode, move the cursor to where you want the text to be pasted. Type either a lower-case p to paste the text below, or an upper-case P to paste the text above."
How do you search in vi?
"From command mode, enter a forward slash ( / ) followed by the text you want to find to look forward. Use a question mark the same way to search backwards."
Why would you redirect output to an error file?
"If a command is producing several error messages, you can redirect the output to a standard error file and search for strings that might be relevant."
What is the Linux normal naming convention for ethernet and wi-fi devices?
"Ethernet is usually eth0, followed by eth1, followed by eth2, etc. Wireless is normally wlan0, wlan1, wlan2, etc. Not all Linux distributions use that naming convention, however."
Describe vi's Ex mode.
"Ex mode is used to manipulate files, including saving your current file and running outside programs."
What does the capital X Qualifier do?
"Excludes files listed in ""file"" from the archive"
Name 3 keystrokes that can initiate a search and replace operation in nano.
"F14, Ctrl+\, and Esc+R"
"What does the command ""find"" do in a script?"
"Find searches for patterns within the contents of files based on filenames, ownership, etc."
Give 2 examples of directory names that result from log files being rotated.
"If a log file is rotated on December 1, 2016, /var/log/messages will become /var/log/messages-20161201, /var/log/messsages-1.gz or something similar, and a new /var/log/messages will be created."
How can you use the load average to detect runaway processes?
"If a system normally has a load average of 0.5, but suddenly gets stuck at a load average of 2.5, some CPU-hogging processes may have gotten ""hung"", also known as being unresponsive."
What is the difference between an account expiration date and a password expiration date?
"If a user's password expires, they can just reset it. If their account expires, an Administrator must reset or renew the account."
What is a good example of when you should change ownership of files or directories.
"If an employee leaves an organization, their file ownership should be given to members of that organization who can properly determine the disposition of the old employee's files."
"When the logical (| |) operators are used, what happens?"
"If either side of the operator is true, the condition as a whole is true."
"What does the ""Case"" statement do?"
"If more than two answers are valid, the case statement determines which action to take based on which answer was given."
Give an example of a umask.
"If the umask is 022, then files will be created with 644 permissions by default, and new directories will have 755 permissions."
"What does it mean if there is ""x"" in the password field, or if it is blank?"
"If there is ""x"" in the password field, that means the password is defined elsewhere or is disabled. If there is a blank space, it means that the group does not use a password."
What is a common error when using grep commands?
"If you are logged in as a standard user, but try to use the grep command on system directories, such as /etc, grep will give error messages."
How are the plus sign "+" and minus sign "-" used in conjunction with the -perm mode option?
"If you precede mode with a plus sign, find locates files in which ANY of the specified permission bits are set. If you precede mode with the minus sign, find locates files in which ALL of the specified permission bits are set."
How can you create files in a group different than the group you logged in with?
"If you want to create files in a different group, use the command ""newgrp project1"". That command makes project1 your current group, so any files you make will be associated with that group."
Describe Escaping expressions.
"If you want to match one of the special characters, such as a dot ".", you must escape it - that is, precede it with a backslash. For example, if you wanted to match the domain name www.sybex.com, you would "escape" the dots by typing www\.sybex\.com."
Describe the search entry in the /etc/resolve.conf file.
"If you want your computer to search in domains other than your own local domain, you would put those domains on this line, separated by commas. You can specifiy up to six domains in this way."
"Why might you need to change things such as a user's UID, home directory, etc.?"
"If you were migrating user accounts to another machine, network server, etc., you might need to change parameters of your user's accounts to match whatever they need to be in the new location."
"Typically, where would you find a umask command?"
"In a system configuration file, such as /etc/profile, or in a user configuration file, such as ~/.bashrc."
How do you change the case of text in vi?
"In command mode, put your cursor on the text you want to capitalize and then press the tilde ( ~ ) as many times as you need to in order to capitalize the relevent text."
How are the user listings in /etc/group different than in /etc/passwd?
"In the /etc/group directory, the same user can be listed multiple times if they are a member of multiple groups. Likewise, a single group entry that only has one GID can list countless users in that record, depending on how many users are members of that group."
Where is local user information stored in Linux?
"In the /etc/passwd file, each line in this file represents login information for one user. Use the command ""cat /etc/passwd"" to display them."
How do you keep the network link from starting up automatically when the computer boots?
"In the network configuration file, change ONBOOT to ""no""."
What are new Linux configurations using to display IP information?
"Instead of the ifconfig and route commands, they are using ""ip addr show"" and ""ip route show""."
"What does the ""traceroute"" command do?"
"It is a step up from the ping command, and it sends a series of 3 packets to each computer between your system and the specified target system."
"When using a sticky bit, where is it put in the permissions string?"
"It is indicated by a ""t"" in the world execute bit position."
What does it mean if there is a large jump in time between hops during a traceroute?
"It is likely a large physical distance between the routers that the traceroute is communicating with. This is common with intercontinental links, and isn't necessarily a configuration problem, but rather something to consider when you are deciding on the possible network performance from any given communication path."
What is the grep command looking for when it searches for files?
"It is looking for files that contain the specified string. It returns the name of the file, and if it's a text file, the line containing that string."
"Describe the ""pico"" text editor."
"It is modeled after emacs, but omits many of its advanced features in order to simplify the editor."
Describe the Geany editor.
"It is not tied to any particular desktop environment, it is small and lightweight, and relatively powerful. It also runs under other OS's, including Windows."
"What does the ""else"" clause do?"
"It is used with the ""if"" command to say that if the conditions are met, execute a certain command. If the conditions are not met (else), execute a different command."
What does the "find" command do?
"It locates files using surface features, such as filename and a file's date stamps. Find does NOT use regular expressions, but it does support pattern matching."
What is a big limitation to using the last command?
"It only includes text-mode logins, so it doesn't show users who are logged in via a GUI session."
Why is Unicode a better choice than ASCII?
"It provides a much larger character set, allowing the encoding of any alphabet in common use on Earth."
"What does the command ""ps -u username ax"" do?"
"It shows processes on the computer owned by the username included in the command, including PID values and command names."
"What does the command ""ps ax"" do?"
"It shows processes on the computer, including PID values and command names."
What does the "grep" command do?
"It uses regular expressions to locate data. The grep utility locates files by scanning their contents, and also returns some of the data included in the files. "
What can happen if you add a dot to the beginning of a filename in order to hide it?
"It will hide the file, but it will also make it inaccessible to any program that uses the original filename. You can still hide the file, but if you want any of those programs to still be able to see it, you have to go back and reference the ""dot"" version of the filename instead of the original filename."
What is the Kernel Ring Buffer?
"It's like a log file for the kernel, but it's stored in memory rather than a disk file and its contents continue to change as the computer runs."
Describe the Kwrite and Kate editor.
"Kwrite and Kate are editors associated with the K Desktop Environment (KDE). It is more sophisticated than gedit, and adds some additional features, but is still not nearly as powerful as emacs."
What does the -s option do when using the cut command?
"Lines without a delimiter are not printed, although when using the standard -f option, they are."
What does the lower-case v Qualifier do?
"Lists all files read or extracted. When used with ""--list"", displays file sizes, ownership, and time stamps."
How is load average reflected on a computer that has multiple CPU's?
"Load averages can reach the number of CPU's or cores before competition for CPU time begins. For example, a load average of 4.0 on a system with a four-core CPU reflects processes demanding exactly as much time as the computer has available."
"What does the command ""grep"" do in a script?"
"Locates files that contain the string you specify, or displays the lines that contain those strings."
What does the usermod option --lock or -L do?
"Locks the account's password, preventing logins."
"For legal reasons, why is it better to have users use sudo rather than login in as a root user?"
"Logging directly into the root user accounts sets up a ""repudiation environment"", where a person can deny actions, such as denying they were logged in as the root user. They could then perform damaging or illegal activities but not be able to be held responsible."
Name 3 ways you can login as the root user.
"Login directly via a text-mode shell, remote login via SSH, or some computers have a GUI root login."
What is the first thing you should check before making any changes to a user's account?
"Make sure they are not logged in, because changes to their account such as changing their username or their home directory will cause problems for them."
"When using grep, what does the ""cut"" command do?"
"Many files have more than one line, often called a record. Grep can extract text from fields in a file record. It's frequently used to extract variable information from a file whose contents are highly patterned."
Why does file and/or group membership seem to change if you move the data from one computer to another?
"Many filesystems store ownership and group information by using the UID and GID numbers, and a single user or group can have different UID or GID numbers on different computers, even if the name associated with the account or group is identical. This can be overcome by changing the UID's/GID's to match as needed."
What is the difference between metacharacters and Ctrl key sequences?
"Metacharacters require you to press the first key, such as Command, Ctrl, etc., FOLLOWED by the next key, rather than pressing the first key and the next key at the same time, such as with Ctrl+Alt+Delete."
"After you're done writing a shell script, what do you need to do?"
"Modify it so that it is executable. You can do this with the ""chmod"" command with the ""a+x"" option to add execute permissions for all users."
How does Linux use firewalls to protect computers and networks?
"Most Linux distributions enable firewalls by default, and you can adjust their settings as needed. Firewalls can work to protect an individual computer, or can run on a router to protect an entire network."
Most computers are configured to do what with regard to DNS?
"Most computers are configured to use a DNS server, which is a server that performs DNS lookups."
What is a disadvantage of using network user databases?
"Most user accounts won't show up in /etc/passwd or /etc/shadow, and groups may not appear in the /etc/group directory."
How do you delete text in vi?
"Move your cursor to the line you want to delete and type ""dd"". This will both delete the line, as well as copy it to the clipboard."
Describe the nameserver entry in the /etc/resolve.conf file.
"Nameserver identifies DNS server computers by IP address. You can have up to 3 lines, each with a different DNS server IP address."
"If one user is logged into the same machine multiple times, does the who command only count them once?"
"No, they are counted for each individual login."
Are you limited to using only one pipe in a command line?
"No. Here is an example of using a 2nd pipe to determine the number of users who have the bash shell in their /etc/passwd record: ""cut -f 7 -d "":"" /etc/passwd | grep bash | wc -l"""
"Are changes that you make with the ifconfig, route, and DHCP client programs permanent?"
"No. If you want to make permanent changes, you must store your settings in a configuration file. The name and format of that file varies from one distribution to another."
Are all log files the same?
"No. You can increase the verbosity of a log file, and how to do that varies from one program to another."
"In whichever network configuration file your distribution of Linux uses, how do you set up your system to use DHCP?"
"On the BOOTPROTO line, make the entry BOOTPROTO=""dhcp"" rather than BOOTPROTO=""static"". Also remove the lines: IPADDR, NETMASK, NETWORK, BROADCAST, and GATEWAY"
How do you use the cut command?
"Pass it one or more options that specify the information that you want, followed by one or more filenames. For instance, user's home directories appear in the 6th colon-delimited field of the /etc/passwd file, so to extract only directory names, use the command ""cut -f 6 -d "":"" /etc/passwd"""
How do you use netstat to get Masquerade information?
"Pass netstat the --masquerade or -M option to obtain information about connections mediated by Linux's Network Address Translation (NAT) features, which are also known as ""masquerading""."
What does the lower-case g Qualifier do?
"Performs an incremental backup or restore, using ""file"" as a list of previously archived files."
"What does the zip option ""-F or -FF"" do?"
"Performs repairs on a damaged archive file. The ""--fix/-F"" option performs minimal repairs, whereas the --fixfix/-FF is more thorough."
"What does the ""last"" command do?"
"Produces a list of recent login sessions, their start and end times, or a notice that the user is still logged in."
What are two common package systems?
"RPM and Debian. You cannot install an RPM package on a Debian-based system, and vice-versa."
Name 7 RPM-based distributions.
"Red Hat, Fedora, CentOS, SUSE Enterprise, openSUSE, and Mandriva."
How do you install software over the network on RPM-based disbributions?
"Red Hat, Fedora, and CentOS use the command ""yum"" or they use various GUI fronts ends, such as Yumex. SUSE Enterprise and openSUSE use ""zypper"" or a GUI such as YaST2. Mandriva uses ""urpmi"" or the GUI Rpmdrake."
What does the capital P Qualifier do?
"Retains the leading "" / "" on filenames"
"What does the ""mem"" command accomplish?"
"Reveals total random access memory (RAM) statistics, including the total memory in the computer, the amount of memory used, and the amount of free memory."
"If you forget to make a script executable, how can you run it anyway?"
"Run the shell program, followed by the script name, such as ""bash my-script""."
What are shell scripts and what are they used for?
"Scripts that are associated with Bash, or another shell. Shell scripts can help automate tedious, repetitive processes, or to perform new and complex tasks. They are programs written in a language that's built into a shell."
Describe the find command search criteria -size n.
"Searches for files based on size. Normally "n" is specified in 512-byte blocks, but you can modify this by trailing the value with a letter code, such as "c" for characters (bytes) or "k" for kilobytes."
What are commonly run servers in Linux that should be shut down when possible to avoid security risks?
"Secure Shell (SSH), the Apache web server, or a mail server such as Sendmail or Postfix."
"What does the log file ""secure"" display?"
"Security-related messages, including notices of when users emply su, sudo, and similar tools to acquire root privileges."
"What does the zip option ""-0 through -9"" do?"
"Sets the amount of compression; -0 applies no compression, and is very fast, and the numbers work their way up to -9 which has the maximum compression, but is the slowest."
What is Lossy Compression?
"Some graphics, audio, and audio-visual file formats apply lossy compression, in which some data is discarded. This should never be used on program files, system configuration files, or most user data, which is why tar only supports lossless compression tools."
What does it mean if your traceroute results have an unusually large number of astericks?
"Some routers block all traceroute data, and that is indicated by multiple instances of not receiving responses from that network."
How do you use netstat to get Program use information?
"Some versions of netstat support the -program or -p parameter which attemps to provide information about the programs that are using network connections. This is not always successful, but often is."
"What does the ""r"" option do when using sort?"
"Sorts in descending order, because the default is to sort in ascending order."
What does the usermod option --home or -d do?
"Specifies the account's home directory, which is usually /home/username."
What are 3 names that standard Linux users are known as?
"Standard users, unprivileged users, and unprivileged accounts."
What is normally shown in the Status bar?
"Status information, information regarding a filename to write to, and and terms that you want to find in the document when you perform a search."
What are Loops?
"Structures that tell the script to perform the same task repeatedly until a particular condition is met, or until some condition is no longer met."
"What is a ""system user"" and how can you identify them?"
"System users are ""nonlogin"" accounts for daemons, services or applications. They typically use /usr/sbin/nologin, /sbin/nlogin, or /bin/false as their default shell. They normally have a low UID and their accounts are locked with no password."
"In the remote host column, what does "":0"" indicate?"
"That the login was a console login, either via text-mode or GUI."
what does a Case statement as a whole always end with?
"The ""esac"" string, which tells the script what to do based on which variable in the case statement was true."
Name a common command that uses conditional expressions.
"The ""if"" command allows the system to take one of two actions depending on whether a certain condition is true."
"As netstat results vary from one distribution to another, what other tool can be used?"
"The ""ss"" tool is a faster and simpler tool that displays information about established network connections."
"In addition to the who command that shows who is logged into a computer, what other command will show similar information?"
"The ""users"" command."
How do you use netstat to get All Connections information?
"The --all or -a option is used in conjunction with others. It causes netstat to display information about the ports that server programs open to listen for network connections, in addition to already open connections."
"When retreiving user information in the /etc/passwd directory, what do the options -d and -f do?"
"The -d option is how you define a delimiter, such as ""-d "":"""" to use a colon, and -f is how you specify which fields in the output to cut, such as ""-f 1,3""."
"In the command ""ps -u rich -forest"", what do the -u and -forest options do?"
"The -u option restricts output to processes owned by the specific user (rich), and the -forest option shows parent/child relationships."
"Give an an example of when you would need to use ""Special Execute Permissions"" on a directory."
"The /passwd program, which stores user's passwords must be run as root in order to write to it. However, for regular users to be able to change their own passwords, it must have root privileges even if an ordinary user runs it."
What directory does the last command pull its information from?
"The /var/log/wtmp file. However, not all distributions create that directory by default."
"When you open a file with vi, the filename is at the bottom of the screen along with information such as ""5L, 19C"" What do those numbers and letters indicate?"
"The 5L shows that there are 5 lines, and the 19C indicates that there are 19 characters in the document."
What is the Base 8 or Octal number method of showing permissions?
"The Owner, the Group, and the World/Other each get one number starting at 0 and adding together up to 7. Each number starts with 0, and then adds 4 if read permissions are present, 2 if write permissions are present, and 1 if execute permissions are present, i.e. - 777 means all three user groups have full permissions, whereas 000 means all three user groups have no permissions."
"When using the tar command, what would you be doing with the tar option c vs. the tar option z?"
"The c option creates an archive, while the z option extracts it's contents."
Give an example of how you would use the xargs command to remove all files that ended with the tilde ( ~ ) character.
"The command ""find ./ -name ""*~"" | xargs rm"" finds all of the files in the current directory ( ./ ) with a name than ends in a tilde (*~), and that list is then piped to xargs which adds its own rm command."
What command other than su -c can you run to execute commands with root user privileges?
"The command ""sudo"" is similar to su -c and it runs just one command at a time."
Give an example of a tar extraction command.
"The command ""tar xzvf my-work-archive.tgz"" would create a subdirectory in the current working directory called home/username/my-work-archive and populate it with the files from the tarball archive."
"What is the difference between the ""host"" command and the ""dig"" command?"
"The dig command can perform more complex queries and can return more information, but the output is more difficult to interpret."
"Just like the rpm utility, when using the dpkg utility to install a software package, what must you know?"
"The exact name of the package to install, i.e. - dpkg -i samba_3.6.1-3_amd64.deb"
The command "wc newfile.txt" returns the results 37591990newfile.txt. What does that output mean?
"The file newfile.txt contains 37 lines, 59 words and 1990 bytes because by default, wc displays a count of lines, words, and bytes."
"When using tar, what is listed first, the location to put the archive file, or the location you are pulling the files from?"
"The location to put the archive file, followed by the location you are pulling the files from."
IP addresses are broken down into what 2 parts?
"The machine - or host - portion, and the network portion."
What is a Hostname?
"The name that a computer uses for the benefit of humans. Hostnames consist of a computer portion and a network portion. For instance, in the hostname machine1.wgu.edu, the machine name is machine1, and the network name is wgu.edu."
What does it mean when log files are rotated?
"The oldest log file is deleted, and the latest log file is renamed with a date or number, and a new log file is created."
Why wouldn't you allow DHCP to configure IP addresses for servers in your network?
"The other computers in your network will likely need to know where the servers are that provide services such as the file server, print server, mail server, etc., and the network computers will know the location of those servers via their IP addresses. If DHCP assigns a different IP address to a server after it reboots, it would instantly be ""lost"" to every other computer in the network."
"When using the su command, what happens if you use a dash ( - ) within the command?"
"The program opens a login script that runs the user's login scripts. This is important because these scripts often set environment variables that can be important for that user, such $PATH."
What do you have to be concerned with when using regular expressions or extended regular expressions?
"The program you are using may support one, the other, or both, so to avoid unexpected results, you should find out which versions the program you are using supports."
"Give an example of when you would have to use a pipe instead of a standard command such as rm, find, etc."
"The rm command doesn't provide an option to search and delete every file in a directory tree that matches a certain criteria. The find command could do the search part of the equation, but not the deletion. The solution is to combine the output of find to create a series of command lines using rm."
"What happens if you try to launch your text editor to open a file that doesn't actually exist, or that you mispelled the filename?"
"The text editor will display ""New File"" near the bottom of the display because you'll be editing a new file since the file you specified doesn't exist."
"Other than a user's files, what else might you want to retain rather than delete?"
"The user's email, which is normally kept in the /var/spool/mail/username directory."
What is normally shown in the Title bar?
"The version number of the text editor, the name of the file being edited, and the modification status."
Describe Multiple Possible Strings.
"The vertical bar | separates 2 possible matches, i.e. - car | truck would match car or truck."
"How many bits are in a Linux permissions string, and what do they do?"
"There are 10 bits altogether. The first bit is the File Type Code, the next 3 bits are the Owner Permissions, the 3 bits after that are the Group Permissions, and the final 3 bits are World/Other Permissions."
"What if you search a hardware manufacturer's website, and they don't have a Linux compatible driver for your hardware?"
"There is a binary package called ""ndiswrapper"" that allows you to use Windows wi-fi drivers in Linux. You could also look into buying a USB wi-fi adapter that supports Linux."
"If a program doesn't create its own log file, what other options are available?"
"There is a utility called ""system log daemon"" whose process name is generally ""syslog"" or ""syslogd"". It is started during the system startup scripts."
What are 2 drawbacks to using a shell command to delete a user's account?
"There will be no warning or confirmation message - the account will be immediately deleted. Also, when using the shell command, the user's home directory is not deleted by default. You have to remember to use the ""--remove"" (-r) option."
What do the commands "sort" and "cat" do?
"They allow the display of resulting data to be manipulated, which can be helpful in your search."
"What do the first 2 characters in the line ""#!/bin/bash/"" mean?"
"They are a special code that tells the Linux Kernel that this is a script, and to use the rest of the line as a pathname to the program that will be used to interpret the script."
What type of files are shell scripts?
"They are plain-text files, so you can edit them with text editors such as vi, nano, or pico."
How are variables represented in a script?
"They are represented by a dollar sign ($) followed by a number from zero up. $0 stands for the name of the scripts, $1 is the first parameter in the script, $2 is the second parameter, and so on."
What are functions useful for?
"They help to create modular scripts. For example, if your script needs to perform half a dozen distinct computations, you can place each computation in a function and then call them all in a sequence."
Describe Additional Repetition Operators.
"They work like an asterisk, but they match only certain numbers of matches. For example, a plus "+" sign matches one or more occurrences, while a question mark "?" specifies zero to one match."
"What does the log file ""gdm"" display?"
"This directory holds log files related to the GNOME Display Manager (GDM), which handles GUI logins."
What does /etc/resolve.conf do?
"This file contains the IP addresses of up to three DNS servers, as well as the name of the computer's Internet domain and of other domains that should be searched when the user omits a domain name from a hostname."
"What is the purpose of the ""Xargs"" command in a pipe?"
"To build a command from standard input. A command line creates a call for certain data, and then Xargs acts on that data."
What does the package software database enable the package to do?
"To uninstall software quickly, establish whether a new package's dependencies have been met, and determine whether a package that you're trying to install has already been installed. If so, whether the installed version is older than the one you're trying to install."
What are Regular Expressions?
"Tools for expressing patterns in text. They are similar to wildcards. They can be plain text without adornment, and certain characters are used to denote patterns."
How do you save changes in vi without exiting the editor?
"Type "":w"""
When you first open vi you are in Command mode. How do you get to Insert mode and then add text?
"Type ""I"" to enter Insert mode, enter your text as normal, and then press Esc to exit Insert mode."
What can you do to find the name of the ethernet and wireless devices on your computer?
"Type ""ifconfig"" with no options. Even normal users can view that information."
How do you save a file when using a text editor?
"Type Ctrl+O to bring up the save dialogue, or type Ctrl+X to exit to either exit, or to save and exit."
How do you save your work in vi after escaping from Insert mode?
"Type a colon ( : ) to enter Ex mode, and then finish the command with ""wq"". W is for write, which writes (saves) your progress, and the Q is quit."
"If you change to the root user using the ""su"" command, how can you ""downgrade"" back to standard user status?"
"Type the ""exit"" command."
"After you've made changes to your network configuation file, what should you do?"
"Type the ""ifdown netname"" command to turn your network off, then the ""ifup netname"" to restart it with the latest changes."
"If you type a command and get ""No such file or directory"" error, how can you locate the error?"
"Type the ""which"" command followed by the command that you tried to execute, such as ""which xterm &""."
How do you execute an external command from inside vi?
"Type the Ex mode command "":!"" followed by the name of the program, such as "":!ls""."
How do you replace all occurrences of any given text with new text?
"Type the command ""%s/original/replacement/g"". Change % to to a starting line, comma, and ending line to perform the change on a specific range of lines."
How do you open vi and see which version you have?
"Type the command ""vi""."
How do you launch a text editor to edit a specific file?
"Type the name of the text editor followed by the filename, i.e. - ""nano filename.txt"""
What is one way to find the user administration tool on the GUI version of Linux that you are using?
"Type the word ""user"" in the search bar and whatever user administration tools are available will be shown."
"Typically, which programs log messages?"
"Typically, only daemons."
What are the 4 letter codes you can pass to chmod to change permissions?
"U for the user, g for the group, o of other users, and a for all."
"If a text file is encoded in ASCII, what else is it encoded in?"
"Unicode, because ASCII coding is a subset of Unicode."
"What does the command ""getent passwd"" do?"
"Unlike the command ""cat /etc/passwd"" which only brings back local user accounts, ""getent passwd"" also searches user databases that are contained on network servers."
"What does the zip option ""-FS"" do?"
"Updates files in an archive if they've changed since the original archive's creation, and deletes files from the archive if they've been deleted on the filesystem."
"What does the unzip option ""-u"" do?"
"Updates files; similar to -f, but also extracts files that don't exist on the filesystem."
"If you wanted to delete a user's account who was presently logged in, what options would you have to pass to the userdel command?"
"Use the ""--force"" (-f) option to force the deletion, and you can also use the ""--remove"" (-r) option at the same time to delete the user's files."
"What is a way to view a more compact summary of ""who"" data?"
"Use the ""count"" option (or -q). The display will only have the usernames and total number of users logged in."
How can you use the command line to scan for wi-fi networks?
"Use the ""iwlist scan"" command as root. The result will be a lot of data, so pare it down with the command ""iwlist scan | grep ESSID""."
How would you look at the most recent entries in a log file?
"Use the ""tail"" command which displays the last 10 lines of a file (or as many as you designate with the -n option)."
What is another way to get who data with a different command?
"Use the ""w"" command to get similar information, but in much more detail."
"In order to execute a script, you just need to type its name, but what option should you also include?"
"Use the ' ./"" option to tell Linux to run the script in the current directory rather than searching the current path."
"Once you open a file in vi, and you want to add more content, how do you do that?"
"Use the arrow keys to navigate to the area where you want to add text, and then hit the o key to insert another line. Vi goes into Insert mode and you can continue editing the document."
How can you list all of the users on a machine from the command line?
"Use the command ""cat /etc/passwd"", although this lists all information about all users."
How do you examinge the kernel ring buffer?
"Use the command ""dmesg"". However, the dmesg command creates a lot of output, so use the less command to pipe the output through, i.e. - dmesg | less"
How can you determine if your distribution includes the wheel group?
"Use the command ""grep wheel /etc/group""."
How do you switch to a different user on the same Linux machine?
"Use the command ""su username"" This enables you to become the root user, or any other standard user, as long as you have the password for any given account. (su stands for ""switch user"" or ""substitute user""."
How can you overcome the issue of a deleted user's UID/GID content being accessed by a future user who is assigned that UID?
"Use the find command with the option -uid and again with the option -gid. Once you have found the deleted user's files and groups, you can move or delete the files, and you can make whatever modifications you need to the group membership's of that UID to be appropriate for the new user."
How can you limit the amount of user information you get when looking in the /etc/passwd directory?
"Use the grep command, such as ""grep aaron /etc/passwd"" to just see information about the user ""aaron""."
"What is the ""k"" top option used for?"
"Use to kill a process. Top will ask you for the PID, and if it is able to kill the process, it will."
What does the usermod option --append or -a do?
"Used with --groups (-G), causes the specified groups to be added to, rather than replace the existing set of groups for the user."
What are the 2 primary group strategies in Linux?
"User groups where an individual user sets ownership and permissions in the group, and Project groups where people who work in any given area and have similar permissions will all hold membership and share permissions."
Name 7 fields that you will find in a user's record in the /etc/passwd file.
"Username, Password, User ID (UID), Group ID (GID), Comment field, Home directory, and their Default Shell."
What does the lower-case f Qualifier do?
"Uses a file on the computer called ""host"" as the archive file. The computer and the files could be called anything."
How would you remove or upgrade software on Debian--based systems?
"Using the ""apt-get remove"" command or the ""apt-get upgrade"" command."
What is an alternative form for a conditional expression?
"Using the ""test"" keyword rather than square brackets around the conditional, i.e. - ""if test -s /tmp/tempstuff""."
What are the 2 methods for setting a sticky bit?
"Using the chmod command, you can either use the octal code of ""1"" or the symbolic code of ""t"" to set the sticky bit on the directory in question."
Name 4 popular text-mode editors in Linux.
"Vi, emacs, pico, and nano."
What was the first full-screen editor for Unix?
"Vi, which was small enough to fit on floppy discs. The GNU project developed an improved version called ""vi improved"", or vim. "
When does Linux use swap space?
"When it runs out of RAM, or when it determines that RAM is better used for buffers or caches than to hold currently active programs."
What is the initial startup process for a Linux machine?
"When the computer boots up, the kernel runs just one program - usually /sbin/init. The init process is then responsible for starting all of the other basic programs that Linux must run."
How is a salted hash resolved when a user enters their password?
"When the user types their password, it is salted and hashed, and if the salted hashes match, access is granted."
What does the usermod option --move-home or -m do?
"When this option is included with the --home (-d), moves the existing home directory to a new location."
"If you know you only need root user privileges for exactly one command, what can you do?"
"When upgrading to the root user with the su command, use the ""-c"" variable followed by that one command, i.e. - ""su -c command""."
"What is the difference in password usage between ""sudo"" and ""su -c""?"
"When using sudo, you will be asked for either your own user account password, or the root password, depending on how the system is set up. When using the su -c option, you will always be asked for the root user password."
What is Wi-Fi?
"Wi-Fi refers to the most common forms of wireless networking, more properly known as IEEE 802.11. "
Give 3 examples of graphical interface shell programs.
"Windowmaker, KDE, and GNOME corresponding programs."
How is Linux different than Windows as far as security risks?
"Windows major security vulnerabilities lie with worms and viruses, whereas with Linux, the risks center on outsiders breaking into your computer by abusing server programs that you run."
How are passwords stored in a user record?
"With a ""salted hash"", which is a one-way mathematical process with additional random input (salt), that produces what looks like nonsense to humans."
What are 2 ways you could install a .deb file extension package?
"With dpkg or apt-get. If using apt-get, you would download a package and its dependencies from the Internet and use the install command, ""apt-get install samba""."
How do you change permissions in a text-shell?
"With the ""chmod"" command."
"After you've found a wi-fi network, how do you connect to it from the command line?"
"With the ""iwconfig"" command."
"A new user is created with the useradd command, so how do you modify a user who already has an account?"
"With the ""usermod"" command, including any applicable options."
"How do you bring up the ""netname"" interface and configure it with DHCP?"
"With the command ""dhclient netname"" or ""dhcpcd netname"". Depending on your disribution, one or both of those commands will work."
How can you search your computer to see what hardware you can use to connect to a wi-fi network?
"With the command ""lspci"""
"Since the root user is a super user, can they still read, write, or execute a file that has all zeros or all dashes in the permisisons string?"
"Yes, although the super user will still need an execute bit set to run a program file."
Can you zip tarballs?
"Yes, and the file extension will depend on the compression program that you used. "".tgz"" for gzip, "".tbz"" or ""tbz2"" for bzip2. "".txz"" for xz."
Are there Linux packages that are architecture independent?
"Yes, packages such as fonts and desktop themes."
Are scripts involved in Linux startup processes?
"Yes, so understanding scripts will help you to manage your Linux startup process."
Do WPA and WPA2 have different versions?
"Yes, they have personal and enterprise editions. The enterprise editions are more complex and often use a dedicated authentication server. "
Can you get information about individual users with the getent command?
"Yes, use the command ""getent passwd username"""
Can you modify a group from the command line?
"Yes, using the ""groupmod"" command. It can be used with the --gid (-g) and --non-unique (o) options, as well as the --new-name (-n) option, which changes the name of the group."
Can you view and manipulate data in the process table?
"Yes, using tools such as ""ps"" and ""top""."
Can multiple users access Linux machines simultaneously?
"Yes, using tools such as SecureShell (SSH)."
Can you change file permissions and group memberships from a GUI?
"Yes, via a GUI file manager such as Nautilus. However, you will need to run the software as the root user if you are going to need root level permissions."
Can you run external commands from inside a shell?
"Yes, you just have to specify the locations, such as /usr/bin/xterm & and /usr/bin/kmail &."
"If a user has read/write access to a directory, but not to the files that are in that directory, can they still create or delete files in that directory."
"Yes. Although the user can't modify a file in that directory, they can create new files in that directory, or delete files that are in that directory."
Do certain types of files compress better than others?
"Yes. Plain-text files compress extremely well, binary program files compress moderately well, and precompressed data, such as most video file formats) compress poorly, or may even expand in size when compressed again."
Can you exit a script using something other than the normal return value?
"Yes. You can use the ""exit"" command to immediately exit the script if there is an error or if the user terminates the script."
"Other than displaying the contents of short text files, what else can you do with the ""cat"" command?"
"You can concatenate files together to display contents from both. For example, if you have a file called newfile.txt with the text ""Hello world above."" and another file called newfile2.txt with the text ""Hello world below"", the command ""cat newfile.txt newfile2.txt"" will display the text from both files."
"How are the terms ""encrypted"" and ""hashed"" often confused?"
"You can decrypt an encrypted object, but you can't ""dehash"" a hashed object. Passwords on Linux are salted and hashed, though you'll sometimes see the term ""encrypted"" mistakenly used in Linux documentation."
Describe LibreOffice. It was created as a fork of the original OpenOffice.org and is becoming the most popular office suite in Linux. It also includes the 6 programs Writer
Calc, Impress, Base, Draw, and Math.
What is dpkg?
It is the lowest level interface to the Debian package system. It is roughly equivalent to the rpm utility on RPM-based systems.
"Ordinarily, what is a script's return value?"
It is the same as the last command that the script called.
What is the reason behind rotating log files?
It keeps the log files from growing out of control.
What does the lower case j Qualifier do?
Processes an archive through bzip2
What does the lower case z Qualifier do?
Processes an archive through gzip
What does the capital J Qualifier do?
Processes an archive through xz
What is the primary difference between a project and a program?
Projects are a temporary endeavor to accomplish something specific, while a program is the repetitive management of the end result of the project.
"What is the ""q"" top option used for?"
Quits from Top.
Describe the find command search criteria -group name.
Searches for files that belong to a certain group.
Describe the find command search criteria -name pattern.
Searches for files that match a name or a name pattern.
Describe yum. A text-mode tool for the Red Hat PMS that is used on Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL)
Fedora, and CentOS. Allows installation from repositories, removal of software packages from your local Linux system, and package upgrades.
"What does the unzip option ""-t"" do?"
Test the integrity of files in the archive.
"Typically, configuration files and shell scripts are what type of files?"
Text files.
"When you are assigning a value to a variable from the output of a command, what should you do?"
That command should be enclosed in back-tick characters ( ` ).
"What do the ""$0"" and ""$1"" variables represent in a script?"
The $0 variable represents the name of the script and the $1 variable represents the first parameter that is passed to the script.
What is the most informative line in the output of the mem command?
The -/+ buffers/cache line. It shows the total memory used by the programs.
"What is one of the most important options to use when using the ""free"" command?"
The -m option causes the display to use units of mebibytes (MiB) rather than the default of kibibytes (KiB).
"In Linux, what purpose do the commands tar, zip, and cpio have?"
They are all archiving commands.
What are permissions on Symbolic links set to?
They are always set to 777 so all users can read the contents of the link to discover the name of the file to which it points.
What is one of the reasons for using variables?
To make it easier to modify the script in the future.
How would you use the command "grep -r eth0 /etc/* to search for the string "eth0" OR "eth1"?
Use the bracketed search "grep -r eth[01] /etc/*.
Describe the find command search criteria -maxdepth levels.
Used to search a directory to some limited number of subdirectories.
What happens in Ex after you run a command?
Vi automatically returns to Command mode.
What are the 2 ways Linux provides security of files?
Via Ownership and Permissions.
How do Linux distributions stay up to date with software?
Via the same network software respositories where distributions packages are stored.
What are Redirection Operators?
Short strings that appear after the command and its arguments.
What is a GUI? A Graphical User Interface that uses icons
menus, and a mouse pointer to input commands rather than using a command shell.
What happens if a power supply becomes over-burdened? The computer can crash or behave erratically
perhaps corrupting data or files. Such problems can be hard to distinguish from other problems, such as bad RAM or a failing hard disk.
How do you switch between a GUI login prompt and a text-mode login prompt? You can obtain a text-mode prompt by pressing Ctrl+Alt+F1 or Ctrl+Alt+F2. To return to the GUI login prompt
press Alt+F1 or Alt+F7.
What is Command Completion? It is a way to enter a long command or filename with a minimal number of keystrokes. To use it
simply start typing the command or filename, and then hit the TAB key.
What advantage do Interpreted programs have over compiled programs? Interpreted programs are easier to develop
since you don't have to deal with the compilation process, and they are easier to modify. Just open the program in a text editor, make your edits, and resave it.
How does Linux treat capitalization when using wildcards? Wildcards are case sensitive
so b[a-z]ck doesn't match bAck or b3ck, as opposed to using a question mark, such as b[?]ck matches back, bAck, and b3ck.
Do businesses prefer longer or shorter release cycles? Distributions are only supported for a few months to approximately 1 year after a new distribution comes out
so businesses prefer a longer time between installations in order to avoid disruptions.
What does the term "locate" do? It searches a database of terms that Linux maintains
so it is faster than find. However, you can't control where it is searching.
Can you run a program that is not in one of the $PATH directories? Yes. You have to type the program's directory location
along with its name, i.e. /home/Aaron/myprog
What are the 3 common classes of wildcards in Linux? A question mark "?"
an asterisk "*", and bracketed values "[ ]".
What are the 2 display modes for Linux? Text-mode
and GUI. The primary GUI program is X Window System, or X for short.
Give 1 example each of system files that users should be able to view
and files that they should not. 1) View - System files such as fonts and icons 2) Not View - The /etc/shadow file, because it hold encrypted passwords
What is Unity? Unity is the default desktop environment for Ubuntu
and it aims for simplicity and a consistent desktop environment across various desktops and platforms.
What is modeled after SCSI? ATAPI
and it often uses USB interfaces to connect to external disks.
Why are text-mode tools better to use in Linux than a GUI? Text-mode tools provide more flexibility
and the tasks that they accomplish vary less between Linux distributions than the tasks in GUI distributions.
What happens if you launch a GUI program from a terminal window? The GUI opens its own window or windows
and the terminal window will freeze, but stay open.
Are files and directories that are deleted with the rm command gone forever? Yes
and there is no "recycle bin" like there is in Windows. Short of special systems tools, once you delete a file or a directory with the rm command, it's gone forever, so be cautious, especially when using it in conjunction with the "--recursive" option that deletes entire directories AND their subdirectories.
How many connectors can a PATA cable have? It can have up to 3 connectors - one for the motherboard or disk controller card
and two more for hard disks.
What is a monitor's aspect ratio
and what are the common ratios? The aspect ratio is the ratio of the length to the height of the display. Modern monitors usually use a ratio of 4:3 or 16:9.
What is the most popular web browser for Linux
and what is its biggest drawback? Firefox, but it is a complete browser, so it consumes a lot of memory.
What is the FSF
and what is their free software philosophy? The Free Software Foundation advocates for the "free" use of software, meaning that the software itself might still cost money, but people should be free to do what they want with it.
What is a resource/financial benefit of using cloud computing? You only use and pay for the resources that you need
and you can scale up or back as needed based on your business needs.
Why would you use the "touch" command on a file or set of files that already exists? It will update the files' access and modification time stamps to the current date and time. This helps if you are using a command that works on files based on their access times
and you want the program to treat the old files as if they are new. This would also work if you want to distribute a collection of files and you want them all to have identical time stamps.
Name the 7 primary differences between Linux and Windows. 1) Licensing (Linux is open source) 2) Costs (Linux is mostly free) 3) Hardware compatibility 4) Software availability (MS is more common for users
but Linux is better at server software) 5) User interfaces 6) Configurability (Linux is more configurable) 7) Security (Linux is more secure against viruses)
What is the difference between a copyright and a patent? A copyright protects a single creative work
but a patent protects the idea itself. Patents typically apply to inventions.
What is Xfce? A desktop environment that provides more configurability than GNOME or Unity
but aims to consume fewer resources.
What is a monolithic Kernel? A kernel that does everything a kernel is supposed to do
but in one big process. (Linux, BSD)
What is SCSI? The Small Computer System Interface is a parallel interface that was once common on servers
but is less common today.
What is the main difference between OS X and Linux? OS X is largely limited to Apple hardware. Linux
by contrast, runs on a wide variety of hardware, including most PCs. You can even install Linux on Macintosh computers.
Can you use ls to display contents from more than one directory at a time? Yes
by listing both directories in the command, i.e. "ls /bin /usr"
Can you view a history of the commands that you've used in Linux? Yes
by typing the "history" command. Alternatively, you can type "history 10" to see the 10 most recent commands.
How many categories are searched when using man pages? List them. 1) Executable programs and shell commands 2) System calls provided by the kernel 3) Library calls provided by program libraries 4) Device files (usually stored in /dev) 5) File formats 6) Games 7) Miscellaneous (macro packages
conventions, and so on) 8) System administration commands 9) Kernel routines
Describe a Hard link. A hard link is a duplicate directory entry - both entries point to the same file. Because they work by tying together low-level filesystem data
hard links can only exist on a single system. Neither link holds priority over the other.
Other than clicking the "X" to close a window
how can you close a terminal window? Type "exit" at the command prompt.
If a program is in one of the common directories
how can you run it? Usually by just typing its name.
If a directory that you want to delete has content in it
how can you turn off the error message that rmdir will give you? Use the option --ignore-fail-on-non-empty option. Rmdir still won't delete the directory, but it doesn't return the error message.
What are 3 ways that hardware compatibility differs between Windows and Linux? 1) Not all hardware manufactures make drivers for Linux
so they must be developed by the open source community. 2) Linux developers maintain drives for old hardware much longer than manufacturers. 3) Linux is less resource intensive, so you can still be productive on older hardware.
How are the connectors on a motherboard managed? Most are managed by the board's primary chipset. However
sometimes additional chipsets are installed for specific purposes, such as an extra Ethernet chipset or an extra SATA chipset.
How do you make a directory in Linux? With the "mkdir" command
such as "mkdir newdir".
How can you delete an entire directory tree when using the rmdir command? Use the "-p" or "--parents" option
such as "rmdir -p newdir1/newdir1inside".
How do you remove a directory in Linux? Use the "rmdir" command followed by the directory name
such as "rmdir newdir".
How can you search man pages if you don't have much information about what you are looking for? Use the "whatis" command followed by the subject
such as "whatis cat" to learn about the concatenate command.
What is LGPL? Lesser GPL allows developers to use libraries in the creation of program functionality
such as GUI's. GPL is too restrictive, so Lesser GPL was created.
Can you use bracketed characters to stand for a range of values? Yes
such as b[a-z]ck matches back, and buck, but not b3ck.
Name 7 types of System Files. 1) System startup scripts that launch servers and other important daemons. 2) Program files - both binary files and scripts. 3) Program support files
such as fonts and icons. 4) Configuration files that define how the system works (network settings, disk layout, etc.). 5) Configuration files for most servers and other daemons 6) Data storage for system programs, such as the database that describes what programs are installed. 7) System log files that record normal system activity.
Describe Shareable vs. Unshareable files created by the FHS. Shareable files may be shared between computers
such as user data files, program binary files, etc. Unshareable files contain system-specific information, such as configuration files, that should not be shared between computers.
Describe Software as a Service. Users don't have to install software locally because they access the applications via the cloud
such as with Office 365.
How big can MBR partitions be? With sector sizes of 512-bytes
which is the nearly universal size, MBR can support disk sizes up to 2 tebibytes (TiB).
What is the difference between the number sign (#) and the dollar sign ($) when looking at a Linux command line? The dollar sign ($) usually denotes a regular user
while the number sign (#) usually denotes the root, administrative user.
What is the difference between distributions with a longer release cycle vs. a shorter release cycle? Distributions with short release cycles aim to provide the latest software available
while those with longer release cycles strive to provide the most stable environment.
If you are the only user on a Linux computer
why do you still need to have a root account and an individual user account? It provides a layer of protection against bugs, malware, etc., because even if you have access to the root account, as long as you are only logged in as a single user, the problem you are having won't be able to affect the system files.
Do you need a CD to install Linux? No
tools such as UNetbootin can copy files from a Linux installation disk onto a USB flash drive.
What 3 ways can a text session be initiated?
"A terminal launched in a GUI, a text-mode console login, or a remote login via SSH or some other protocol."
How many characters does ASCII support?
"128 unique characters, not including control characters."
What are the 2 primary types of IP addresses in use today?
"4-byte IPV4 addresses, and 16-byte IPV6 addresses."
Very basically describe the process of creating a network.
"A computer - or host - gets assigned an IP address and an associated netmask. Using the IP address, the computer can communicate with other computers on the local network - that is, anything that doesn't require a router as an intermediary. Each computer on the local network is given the router's IP address to use as a default gateway to talk to other, external networks."
Describe Any Single Character expressions.
"A dot "." Represents any single character except a new line. For example, a.z matches a2z, abz, aQz, or any other 3-character string that begins with a and ends with z."
"What is a ""block device""?"
"A file that corresponds to a hardware device to and from which data is transferred in blocks of more than 1 byte. Its code is ""b""."
Describe Repetition expressions.
"A full or partial regular expression may be followed by a special character to denote repetition of the matched item. For example, an asterisk denotes zero or more matches, so in the example A.*Lincoln, any combination that starts with "A" and ends with Lincoln would meet the criteria, such as Abe Lincoln or Abraham Lincoln."
What does a shell script begin with?
"A line that identifies the shell that is used to run it, such as ""#!/bin/sh"" or ""#!/bin/bash/"""
"What is ""netstat""?"
"A network diagnostic tool that can be used in place of several other tools, depending on the parameters that are passed to it. It can return information that is not easily obtained in other ways."
What is APT?
"A package management tool that's most often used atop Debian packages, although a version for RPM exists. APT enables package installation and updates from Internet repositories."
Give an example of when you would redirect a program's output.
"A program that searches text for a pattern could be fed data, such as raw text files."
"What is a ""shell""?"
"A program which mediates between the user and the operating system, typically accepting commands and invoking the conventionally applied to command line driven interfaces, such as bash, csh, and zsh."
How are system-specific commands useful in scripts?
"A script can perform one action when one condition is met, and another in some other case."
What is a Script?
"A script is a program written in an interpreted language, typically associated with a shell or compiled program."
What is an Environment?
"A set of variables that any program can access, such as the current directory and the search path."
"What is a ""sticky bit""?"
"A special filesystem flag that can alter permissions. In the case of someone who has read/write access to a directory, but not to the files inside the directory, a sticky bit can keep the user from being able to create or delete files in the directory unless they own those files or the directory that the files are in."
"If you use ping to discover that one of your DNS servers isn't working, what can you do?"
"You can edit the /etc/resolv.conf file to remove that DNS server from your configuration. However, if your system is set up to be configured via DHCP, the IP address of the faulty DNS server will probably be reinstated eventually. If you want to remove it permanently, a network admin will need to remove it from your DHCP configuration."
What does the groupadd option --gid or -g do?
"You can either assign a group ID with this option, or if you don't, the groupadd command will assign the next available GID."
Describe the -i or --ignore-case option when using grep.
"You can perform a case-insensitive search, rather than the default case-sensitive search."
"Instead of using ""up"" in the ifconfig command, and ""add"" in the route command, what other options are there?"
"You can take down a connection by using down rather than up with ifconfig, and delete routes by using del rather than add with route."
Give an example of when you might use a pipe.
"You might pipe the lengthy output of a program through the ""less"" pager, which enables you to page up and page down through the output."
How do you uncompress a file?
"You must use the same program that you compressed it with. For gzip, the decompression command is ""gunzip"". For bzip2, the uncompression command is ""bunzip2"". For xz, the uncompression command is ""unxz""."
What is the difference between dhcpcd and dhcpd?
"dhcpcd is a DHCP client, while dhcpd is a DHCP Server."
"Type the grep command that would use an extended regular expression to search the /etc/passwd directory for the words "games" or "mail" and on the same line, the word "nologin"."
"grep -E "(games|mail) .*nologin" /etc/passwd
"As a general rule, which compression commands provide the best compression?"
"gzip provides the least compression, while xz provides the most. The Linux kernel is compressed with xz."
Name 3 tools that you can use to test your DNS server.
"host, dig, and nslookup, although nslookup is deprecated and there are plans to remove it."
"What do the commands ""i"", ""a"", and ""o"" do in Command mode?"
"i and a both enter Insert mode, and o opens a line below the current one."
Name 3 text-based network configuration tools.
"ifconfig, router: and /etc/resolve.conf:"
How can you use the "touch" command to ensure you don't accidentally create new files when all you want to do is change their timestamp? Use the "-d string" or "--date=string" option to set the date of the file that is represented by the specified string. For example
"touch -d "July 4 2015 afile.txt" will change the timestamp for that file to July 4, 2015.
What are 3 advantages of a functional organization?
1) Growth potential and a career path for employees. 2) The opportunity for those with unique skills to flourish. 3) A clear chain of command.
Name 5 characteristics of a matrix organization.
1) Project manager authority ranges from weak to strong. 2) Ther are a mix of part-time and full-time project resources. 3) Resources are assigned to projects by the department functional managers. 4) Project managers and functional managers share authority levels. 5) There is better interdepartmental communication.
What are 5 disadvantages of a functional organization?
1) Project managers have limited authority. 2) Multiple projects compete for the same limited resources. 3) Resources are generally committed part-time to the project rather than full-time. 4) Issue resolution follows the department chain of command. 5) Project team members are loyal to the functional manager.
"In Linux, what is the ""mail spool""?"
A file or directory that holds a user's incoming mail.
How do you modify the behavior of a log daemon?
Adjust its configuration file.
What is the command "wc" used for?
To find information about how many words or lines are in a text file.
How do Debian-based systems access network repositories?
Atop the basic Debian package lies the Advanced Package Tool (APT) that provides access to network repositories.
How can project managers overcome the limitations of working within functional organizations?
Build strong relationships with the functional managers of each section, and maintain open communications. Use good communication, negotiation, and interpersonal skills when dealing with the team members.
"When the logical (&&) operators are used, what happens?"
Both sides of the operator must be true for the condition as a whole to be true.
What does ifconfig do?
Brings up or shuts down a network connection by associating an IP address and network mask to a piece of hardware.
"What is the ""r"" top option used for?"
Changes a processes priority.
What does the usermod option --uid or -u do?
Changes the account's UID number to the specified value.
What keyboard shortcut takes you to the next line in a Linux text editor?
Ctrl+N
What are the Directory Execute Bits?
Directories use the execute bit to grant permission to search the directory.
What is Swap Space?
Disk space that is set aside as an adjunct to memory.
"What does the zip option ""-h or -?"" do?"
Displays basic help information.
"What is the ""h or ?"" top option used for?"
Displays help information.
"What does the ""x"" tar command do?"
Extracts files from an archive.
"What does the unzip option ""-p"" do?"
Extracts files to a pipeline.
What does the "cut" command do?
Extracts individual data items from a line's files. It is frequently used to extract variable information from a file whose contents are highly patterned.
Which commands invoke the search feature in pico or nano?
F6 and Ctrl+W
"What does the command ""free"" accomplish?"
Generates a report on the computer's total memory status.
What is System Messaging?
How a log daemon accepts messages from other processes. It sorts through the messages and then directs them to a suitable log file depending on the message's source and priority code.
What does the User List contain in /etc/group records?
It can specify users who belong to a group in a comma-delimited list at the end of an /etc/group record.
What is happening if the return time from a traceroute from any given device is significantly more than adjacent systems?
It is possible that the machine with the increased return time is overloaded - even if it is just overloaded at the time of your trace.
What does the --recursive (-r) option do when used with the chown or chgrp commands?
It ensures that every subdirectory and file in any given tree gets the same permission/ownership changes as the top-level file.
Why should you only use the wc command on plain-text files?
It may produce incorrect or nonsensical results on formatted files. For those files it is better to use an editor more suited to that file type.
What does it mean if you see an asterick ( * ) in the time field on a traceroute?
It means that no response from your packet was received from that system.
What do higher load averages mean on a single-CPU system?
It reflects programs competing for available CPU time.
What does the ampersand (&) accomplish when placed after a command?
It tells the shell to go to the next line without waiting for the first to finish. This is important if you are trying to launch multiple programs because the attempt to launch one program won't happen until the first program has launched.
"When using the traceroute command, what does the -n option do?"
It tells the system to display target computers IP addresses rather than their hostnames.
How do you launch your preferred text editor?
Just type its name into the command line.
"What does the ""t"" tar command do?"
Lists an archive's contents.
"What does the unzip option ""-l"" do?"
Lists files in the archive but does not extract them.
"What does the unzip option ""-v"" do?"
Lists files in the archive in a more verbose format than -l does.
"Other than moving a user's files and email to a different person's directory, what else could you do to preserve them?"
Move them to a long-term back-up medium in case they are needed in the future.
Do projects always have a defined beginning and end time or date?
No, they do have a defined end RESULT, but since projects are often used to create something new, the actual period of time that it will take to complete the project is not always known.
Do you have to use command lines from inside a shell to perform su or sudo tasks?
No. Most Linux distributions come with a GUI that will allow some administrative tasks as long as you know the root user password.
What are the advantages of using network user databases?
One networked computer that is properly backed up can contain user information from hundreds or even thousands of computers. Administrators of those computers do not have to deal with maintaining accounts on multiple different computers which simplifies day to day administration of those systems.
How do you use netstat to get Routing information?
Pass netstat the --route or -r option to obtain a routing table similar to that created by the route command.
Name a popular Email Server written for Linux. Sendmail
Postfix, or Evolution
"In the remote host column, what does an IP address represent?"
Remote access from the computer identified by that IP address.
What does the -c option do when using the cut command?
Selects only designated character positions.
What does the -f option do when using the cut command?
Selects only designated fields.
What does the usermod option --gid or -g do?
Sets the name or Group ID (GID) of the user's default group. The default value is a new group named after the user.
What does the usermod option --groups or -G do?
Sets the names or GID's of groups to which the user belongs - more than one may be specified by separating them with commas.
"Even if a computer only has one user account, what will it also likely have?"
Several system accounts.
Describe a Balanced matrix organization.
Shared, equal emphasis between projects and functional work. Both the project manager and the functional manager share power.
What are the 3 types of matrix organizations?
Strong, Weak, and Balanced.
"What does the log file ""cron"" display?"
Summarizes processes that are run at regular intervals via the cron daemon.
"What does the log file ""boot.log"" display?"
Summarizes the services that are started late in the boot process via SysV startup scripts.
What is a unique data point that the ss command gives?
TCP socket statistics
What 2 things are run everytime you run Tar?
Tar runs both commands as well as Qualifiers - usually one of each.
"When using tar for archiving, what happens?"
Tar will compress the files on the fly into one file called a tarball.
Where does the lastb command pull its information from?
The /var/log/btmp directory.
"By default, where does the who command pull data from?"
The /var/run/utmp file.
What is DHCP?
The Dynamic Host Control Protocol is a way for most computers on a network to obtain configuration information from another computer - the DHCP server.
Why is there a Group ID (GID) in both a user's /etc/passwd record and also their /etc/group record?
The GID in a user's record from the /etc/password directory is the only GID that can be listed in their record. It represents their primary or default group.
"Other than a network's router IP address, what is one other very important IP address that every host on a local network has to have?"
The IP address of a DNS server so computer host names and IP addresses can be translated.
What must the project managers and the functional managers in a matrix organization agree on?
The amount of time that a team member is going to work for the project manager vs. the amount of time they are going to spend doing their "regular" job working for the functional manager. Otherwise, team members will often drift towards their work with the functional manager and not dedicate as much time to the project.
What is POSIX time?
The amount of time that has elapsed since midnight UTC on any given date.
What are Backticks?
The backtick ( ` )is the character to the left of the number 1 on most keyboards. Text within backticks is treated as a second command whose results are submitted to the command line.
Why should you consider file preservation when deleting a user account?
The files might still be needed by others in the organization.
Why are functional organizations problematic for project managers?
The members of any given department are loyal to their own chain of command, but initially will have no reason to follow the directives of a project manager that is put in charge of them.
What is Ethernet?
The most frequently used wired network hardware in use today. Speeds normally range from 10 Mbps per second up to 10 Gbps.
"In the output of the ""w"" command, what is displayed in the ""WHAT"" column?"
The program that the present session is running.
"In the output of the ""w"" command, what is displayed in the ""FROM"" column?"
The remote hostname.
What do conditional expressions do?
They enable a script to perform one of several actions contigent on a particular condition - typically the value of a variable.
"When you create files, what are those files associated with?"
They will be associated with whatever your primary or default group is set to when you log in.
What is the goal of Project Management?
To deliver a unique product or service, whether it be tangible or intangible.
Give an example of when you might use the mail command.
To send mail to the superuser about the actions of a startup script.
Name 2 Linux distributions that use the Debian package installer.
Ubuntu and Mint.
"Other than SSH, what is another way to log on multiple times to a Linux computer while still only using one keyboard and monitor?"
Us the Virtual Terminal (VT).
What does the -d option do when using the cut command?
Uses the designated delimiter as field delimiter instead of the default delimiter (Tab).
What are 2 ways that conditional expressions can be combined together?
With the logical (&&) or the logical (| |) operators.
"What does the ""o"" option do when using sort?"
Writes the sort results to a specified file.
How do you save a program's output for future reference?
You can redirect it to a file or redirect the input to a program from a file.
"If you are configuring your network settings manually, what 2 things should you add into the /etc/resolve.conf file?"
Your DNS server name and your network name.
Describe Home Directory references. The tilde "~" refers to the user's home directory
as in ~/afile.txt is the same as /home/fred/afile.txt
What command would you use to just display the username of Linux users?
cat /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f1
What is the difference between using hard links and symbolic links? If you use symbolic links
deleting the original file makes the file completely inaccessible; the symbolic links remain, but point to a non-existent file. If you use hard links, must delete ALL copies of the file to delete the file itself.
Can Kernels be patched? Yes
distribution maintainers offer "patch kernels" to fix bugs or add features.
Which account has access to all files and directories
except those created and used by specific programs? Root, which is why most system activities can only be done when logged in as the root user.
Name 5 risks when it comes to running a server. 1) They can contain bugs that allow others to run programs locally. 2) The server can be misconfigured
giving outsiders access. 3) Users with remote access can abuse their access. 4) A server can be used as a stepping stone to attack other servers, making it look like the attack originated from a different location. 5) Servers are subject to Denial of Services (DoS) attacks.
How can you find out how an executable program would be handled? Use the "type" command and the name of the program
i.e. "type fee".
How do you run a program in the background as you launch it? Append an ampersand ($) to the end of the command line
i.e. - "firefox &"
How do you find information about a command? Type the word "info" prior to the command
i.e. - "info cat" to get information about the concatenate command.
Describe Static vs. Variable files created by the FHS. Static files normally don't change unless modified by the System Administrator
i.e. - program executable files. Variable files change often, such as user files, automated scripts, etc.
What does the "-p" or "-parents" option do when using the mkdir command? Ordinarily you will get an error if you try to make a directory inside a directory that doesn't exist. However
if you use the "-p" option, it will force Linux to create the parent directory, such as "mkdir -p first/second" to create a subdirectory called second in a parent directory called first that doesn't exist yet.
Name 8 things that the software of a computer must do to manage displays. 1) Initializing the video card
including setting resolution. 2) Allocating sections of the display to hold windows that belong to particular applications. 3) Managing overlapping windows so that only the "topmost" window contents are displayed. 4) Managing a pointer that the user controls via a mouse or similar device. 5) Directing user input from a keyboard to whatever application is active. 6) Displaying text and shapes within windows at the request of programs. 7) Providing user interface elements to move and resize windows. 8) Managing the interior of windows, such as displaying menus and scrollbars.
What is in the /boot directory? Boot files such as the Linux kernel
initial RAM disk, and boot-loader configuration files.
Where is the best source to look for documentation about any given Linux distribution? Although there are many "general" websites on the Internet
it is best to seek information on the page of the specific distribution that you are working with.
What does the "ls" command do? Provides information by displaying the names of files in a directory. If you pass it no options
it shows the files in the current directory. However, you can pass it both options and file or directory specifications.
List 5 things that sometimes are not automatically configured by X when plugged in via USB. 1) Human Interface devices (mice
keyboards, etc.) - Adjust the X configuration file, if necessary. 2) External Disk storage 3) Mobile phones, cameras, music players, and E-book readers - some need their settings adjusted to be seen as a USB storage device. 4) Scanners 5) Printers
What does virtualization software do? It allows the creation of simulated hardware
operating systems, network resources, etc.
What is the default shell in most Linux distributions? Bourne Again Shell
or "bash".
How do you delete a file? Using the remove command
or "rm", i.e. - "rm file1.txt file2.txt" to remove both of those files.
Describe PHP. PHP
or Hypertext Preprocessor, was created for use on web servers in order to generate dynamic content. It is an interpreted language that requires a PHP-aware web server, such as Apache.
What is a license created by the FSF and often used for libraries? The Lesser GPL
or Lesser General Public.
What do asterisk wildcards stand for? An asterisk matches any character
or any set of characters, including no character. For example, "b*k" matches book, balk, and buck, but "b*k" also matches bk, bbk, and backtrack.
Websites built with PHP can support what types of content? User logins
shopping carts, different content based on user locations, etc.
Are Linux's native filesystems case-sensitive? Yes
to Linux, afile.text, Afile.txt, and AFILE.TXT are 3 different files.
Why does the size of a motherboard matter? The bigger and more bulky it is
the more things that can be plugged into it for use by the system. However, that comes with the tradeoff of the machine itself needing to be bigger in order to accommodate the large size.
What is a Microkernel? Smaller than monolithic kernels
they move as many tasks as possible into non-kernel processes and then manage the communications between processes. (Windows, HURD)
What happens when you partition a disk? You split the disk into 2 or more sections that can be created in whatever sizes you like
up to the max size of the disk.
Can you use the mkdir command to create directories inside other directories? Yes
use the command "mkdir newdir/newdir2" to create a directory called newdir2 inside the directory newdir.
In programming
what "language" do humans understand better than binary? People are better at handling words and symbols, such as "+" or "if".
When copying files
what does the "-a" or "--archive" command do? It is similar to a recursive copy, but it also preserves the ownership and links attached to the files and folders.
When copying files
what does the "-f" or "--force" command do? It forces the system to overwrite files without prompting.
When copying files
what does the "-i" or "--interactive" command do? It makes the system prompt you before overwriting files.
When copying files
what does the "-p" or "--preserve" command do? Normally the user who issues the cp command owns the copied file and uses that account's default permissions. The option preserves ownership and permissions, if possible.
In Linux
what is Task 8 (Managing the interior of windows, such as displaying menus and scrollbars) controlled by? GUI libraries known as widget sets.
When a Linux distribution has multiple partitions
what is always the case with the filesystems that are present? One of the filesystems is always the root system, and every other filesystem is "mounted" to the root, including any attached media such as a USB flash drive, a DVD, etc.
In Linux
what is the backslash "\" used for? It serves as a "quote" or "escape" character to enter otherwise hard to specify characters, such as spaces as part of a filename. For that reason, a backslash is not a legal character in Linux filenames.
Give an example of using the "find" command to find a text string in a Linux directory. "find /usr/share/doc -name *text*"
where text is the keyword you are looking for.
Describe Java. Java was created by Sun Microsystems
which is now Oracle. It is a cross-platform language that's somewhere between being compiled and interpreted.
What can you do if the X configuration file is missing? Without X running
you can manually generate a configuration file by typing "# Xorg - configure" as root. The result is a file called /root/xorg.conf.new, and that file needs to be copied to /etc/X11/xorg.conf
Does the less functionality only work on man pages? No
you can use it to navigate through files as well. Just type the command followed by the filename, such as "less readme.txt"
What is in the /home directory? User's home directories that are separated from the OS so that if you have to reinstall the OS
you don't lose your user's data.
Are you confined to the way a terminal window looks? No. Using the standard menu options of the terminal window
you have various options to change the look and feel.
What is a big memory benefit of using the command history tools? If you've forgotten the exact name of a file or command that was recently used
you might be able to retrieve it by going through the list of commands, or by searching with Ctrl+R.
Give an example of when you would need 2 drivers to manage a device. To print to a USB printer
you use the Kernel's USB driver and a Ghostscript printer driver.
Give an example of a CPU seeing multi-core CPU's. If you have two 4-core CPU's
you will get the performance of an 8-CPU system.
Give an example of program subdirectories that are in the /etc directory. If you have Samba and X Windows System installed
you would have the directories /etc/samba and /etc/X11 subdirectories - respectively.
