Listening King Final
Interpretive (Mode of Action)
4 themes in Hermeneutics Mode of Action: - play, engage in the to and fro do not expect closure or finality, stay open, move in many directions at once.
Empathic (Mode of Action)
4 themes in Hermeneutics Mode of Action: -problem solving, identify an achievable goal
Empathic (Outcome)
4 themes in Hermeneutics Outcome: -empathy, one grasps the other's view
Interpretive (Outcome)
4 themes in Hermeneutics Outcome: -fusion of horizons; two people and understanding between themselves
Empathic (Focus)
4 themes in hermeneutics Focus: -on others internal experience, suspend my prejudices so I can replicate others experience.
Interpretive (Focus)
4 themes in hermeneutics Focus: -on mine and others verbal and non verbal communication, be present to the other and aware of others presence, to affirm and use prejudices as you co-produce with the other meanings you share.
Active Listening
6 Critical Aspects- * Avoid judgment * Give the speaker time * Focus on the speaker * Read between the lines * Use empathy, not sympathy * Have faith in the speaker to solve his or her own problems
Speed
Listening and Time Compression: Increases in _______ have different effects depending on the kind of listening you are engaging in. * L=I/R / T * L= load * I= information * R= redundancy * T= time
The Planning Fallacy
describes plans and forecasts that: are unrealistically close to best-case scenarios. Could be improved by consulting the statistics of similar cases.
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: Why is the transport metaphor wrong in terms of *Context*
there is no mention of context in the metaphor. Meanings may be radically inflected by particular contexts of writing and reading in space and time.
Redundancy
Listening and Time Compression- _________= the repetition of information.
Researchers suggest that three key variables interact to contribute to this tendency to see things as more predictable than they really are.
First, people tend to distort or even misremember their earlier predictions about an event. As we look back on our earlier predictions, we tend to believe that we really did know the answer all along. Second, people have a tendency to view events as inevitable. When assessing something that has happened, we tend to assume that it was something that was simply bound to occur. Finally, people also tend to assume that they could have foreseen certain events.
The Power of Narratives
Since we rely so much on narratives to make sense of the world, the power they have over us is impressive. There's 3 different facets of why narratives have so much sway over us.
What does Kahneman conclude about award-winning and very highly paid CEO's?
"we find that firms with award-winning CEOs subsequently underperform, in terms of both stock and of operating performance" more likely to take risks
Affect Scores and Time Compression Levels
* As time compression levels increase, poem and interpretive listening dropped off the most. * Things that we want to enjoy are going to experience this drop.
4 themes in Hermeneutics: Outcome
* Empathic- empathy, one grasps the other's view * Interpretive- fusion of horizons; two people and understanding between themselves
4 themes in Hermeneutics: Mode of Action
* Empathic- problem solving, identify an achievable goal * Interpretive- play, engage in the to and fro do not expect closure or finality, stay open, move in many directions at once.
What 3 lessons did Kahneman learn from his experience attempting to work with the team writing the high school text on judgment and critical thinking?
* Fell into inside view vs. outside view * Planning fallacy * Irrational perseverance (should have given up but didn't)
Interaction of Affect and Performance
* Levels of compression- low, medium, and high * Low= normal speed * Comprehensive, interpretive, and short-term listening * At high levels of compression, the correlation between comprehensive listening and enjoyment dropped to almost nothing.
Tim Urban- Inside the Mind of a Master Procrastinator
* Rational Decision-Maker * Instant Gratification Monkey * Procastinator's mind- monkey doesn't like the plan that the rational decision-maker makes. * Dark Playground- leisure activities happen when they aren't supposed to be happening. * Panic Monster- thing that freaks out when a deadline is quickly approaching.
Appreciative Listening
* Recent theories of theatre emphasize the importance of the listener (50% of the total creative event) * In oral interp., the reader retains his/her identity but uses vocal emphasis to involve the reader in the story * Oral interp. relates back to the oral tradition
How does Kahneman feel about optimists?
*He feels that they are lucky and that it is a blessing, but also a risk. They are normally cheerful and happy and more popular.* - "People have a tendency to create plans and forecasts that are "unrealistically close to best-case scenarios." When forecasting the outcomes of risky projects, people tend to make decisions "based on delusional optimism rather than on a rational weighting of gains, losses, and probabilities. They overestimate benefits and underestimate costs. They spin scenarios of success while overlooking the potential for mistakes and miscalculations... In this view, people often (but not always) take on risky projects because they are overly optimistic about the odds."
4 themes in hermeneutics: Focus
-Empathic- on others internal experience, suspend my prejudices so I can replicate others experience. -Interpretive- on mine and others verbal and non verbal communication, be present to the other and aware of others presence, to affirm and use prejudices as you co-produce with the other meanings you share.
Active Listening: 3 Primary things to do
-Paraphrase - Reflect feelings -`Mirror questions- repeat the last things the person said as a question.
Outcome Bias
-is a cognitive bias that enables us to judge our decision making based on the results of the process rather than the quality of the process itself. o Evaluating the outcomes of our actions makes sense. However, there is a cognitive bias where we place too much weight on the outcome and aren't critical enough of the process by which we reached that outcome. Learning to avoid the ________ _________ can help improve the quality of our decision making process.
If intuition is the mystery of knowing without knowing, is it unusual or a regular part of life? Explain.
A regular part of life in the fact that we often follow our intuition on a daily basis and experience the mystery of truly knowing something without knowing. Intuition- situation provides a cue, cue provides access to information stored in memory, information provides the answer. Intuition is recognition.
Mirror questions
Active Listening: -repeat the last things the person said as a question.
What to do during active listening
Active Listening: * Properly manage your own nonverbal behaviors * Use mirror questions * Reflect the speaker's meaning * Reflect the speaker's feelings * Avoid judgment, opinions, past history, humor, direct questions- "stay out of the way"
Active Listening: Primary Conditions
Active Listening: -Avoid judgment * Give the speaker time to get the problem out * Focus on the speaker, not on your experience * Read "between the lines" and be sensitive to nonverbal cues * Use empathy, not sympathy * Have faith in the speaker to solve his/her own problems
What are the advantages of the interpretive approach?
Advantages: * Focuses on a communicative event * Makes perception checking easy to teach * Emphasize productive/creative conversation
Interpretive Listening: Mode of Action
Interpretive Listening: - play- engage in the to-and-fro, do not expect closure or finality; stay open, move in many directions at once.
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: What is the alternative to the transmission model?
Alternatives to the transition model are described as constructivist and acknowledge that means are actively constructed by both initiators and interpreters. But there is not widely- accepted constructivist model of communication.
Means of Influencing a Listener: *Enthymeme*
An argumentative statement in which the writer or the speaker omits one of the major or minor premises, does not clearly pronounce it, or keeps this premise implied, is called an _________ -An _________ is a syllogism with a missing premise (usually the major premise) ->Every time it rains I need to carry an umbrella --->It is raining today ------->Therefore, I need to carry an umbrella.
Given the problems described in #2 above, what 2 conditions DO LEAD to skill in gaining intuitive judgment?
An environment that is sufficiently regular to be predictable. 2. An opportunity to learn these regularities through prolonged practice.
Listening
Anxiety: -start off really low, and go up to really high and then goes back down when done.
Cognitive backlog (A)
Anxiety: -thinking that you have to remember everything while you're listening.
Public speaking
Anxiety: -start off high and drop off really low
Appreciative Listening: Oral Interpretation of literature
Appreciative Listening
Appreciative Listening: Larry Barker's suggestions
Appreciative Listening: -Determine what you enjoy the most * Analyze why you enjoy it * Compare your likes and dislikes with others to develop "listening curiosity" * Read and learn more about the areas that you enjoy
* You can leave the field * You can change your attitude
Balance Theory "Out of Balance": - There is pressure on us to make the relationship in balance
the object and they like each other
Balance Theory: -A relationship is in balance when the source and the listener agree about _______ __________. * They can both value the source but dislike the object * If you dislike the source and the object. * You want to exaggerate
"In balance"
Balance Theory: -relationship between: * Source * Listener * Object of discussion
out of balance
Balance Theory: A relationship is ____ __ _________ when: * Value the source but don't feel the same about the object
Why did the "close your eyes" subjective intuitive judgment work well?
Because intuition adds value even in the justly derided selection interview, but only after a disciplined collection of objective information and disciplined scoring of separate traits. Would it have worked if the interviewers had not first gone through the objective procedure? No it wouldn't have worked without the collection of objective information. Don't solely rely on intuition- but don't dismiss it either.
Who is right most often: foxes or hedgehogs? Foxes. Who is most likely to be invited to be on TV talk shows, foxes or hedgehogs?
Classifying thinking styles using Isaiah Berlin's prototypes of the fox and the hedgehog, Tetlock contends that the fox--the thinker who knows many little things, draws from an eclectic array of traditions, and is better able to improvise in response to changing events--is more successful in predicting the future than the hedgehog, who knows one big thing, toils devotedly within one tradition, and imposes formulaic solutions on ill-defined problems. *Hedgehogs. Hedgehogs- strong beliefs about the world, account for events with coherent framework, very confident, attribute errors to outside sources.* Foxes- critical thinkers, account for luck and outside factors in probability of unpredictable outcomes. -In the final few paragraphs of the essay, Berlin reasserts his thesis that Tolstoy was by nature a fox but by conviction a hedgehog
Rules of Constructive Feedback
Constructive feedback is descriptive, not evaluative. When you evaluate, you tell someone that his performance is good or bad, that he is terrific or sloppy or slow. * This type of information does not give the individual specific pointers. It is difficult for him to change because he doesn't know exactly what behaviors need modification. * Be descriptive. Let the person know exactly what he did, and how his behavior compares to what you expect.
What is the premortem and how does it counter overconfidence and other issues associated with planning biases?
Created by Gary Klein. Simple Procedure- when the organization has almost come to an important decision but has not formally committed itself, Klein proposes gathering for a brief session a group of individuals who are knowledgeable about the decision. Evokes immediate enthusiasm. b. Has two advantages- it overcomes the groupthink that affects many teams once a decision appears to have been made. It unleashes the imagination of knowledgeable individuals in a much needed direction.
Empathic Listening: Goals
Empathic Listening: -To get inside the other's experience -To suspend my prejudices so I can replicate or reproduce the other's experience in me
Empathic Listening: Outcome
Empathic Listening: -empathy- understanding-viewed-as-a-product. One grasps the other's view as a unit of objective knowledge.
Empathic Listening: Focus
Empathic Listening: -on the other's internal experience
Empathic Listening: Mode of Action
Empathic Listening: -problem solving- identify an achievable goal, strive toward it in a stepwise way
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: Why, do you think, is this article important with relation to listening?
Important to remind us of the complexity of communicating; that it is always changing and all the different elements. Also maybe to challenge information that is given to use and look deeper.
Rules of Constructive Feedback
Feedback must be given as soon after the behavior occurs as possible. If you observe one of your workers performing a task incorrectly, don't wait until her next evaluation interview to tell her. * It will be much more meaningful if you provide instruction right after your observation. * Be careful, however, to avoid embarrassing someone by giving her constructive criticism in front of colleagues. The two of you should be alone, and have sufficient time to discuss issues that might arise.
What did Philip Tetlock find in his 20-year study of "political experts" predictions? Experts with greater knowledge also suffered from ___________. Could these national experts have outperformed dart-throwing monkeys?
Found that experts within a field produce poorer predictions than a dart throwing monkey. Monkey would have spread predictions evenly where the experts did not. Enhance illusion of their skill and became unrealistically overconfident.
Cognitive backlog
Listening and Time Compression- _________-all of the things you know you need to do and they are backing up
Rules of Constructive Feedback
Information is more readily acknowledged and acted on if it seen as useful. Ideally, the person you direct your comments to has some desire to know what you think of his performance. * Unwanted information will seldom be appreciated or acted on. It is only likely to make the person upset and defensive. Your relationship to him and his motivation to perform well are both influencing factors.
Interpretive Listening: Outcome
Interpretive Listening: -fusion of horizons- understanding-viewed-as-a-tensional event. Two persons subjectively build an understanding between themselves.
Interpretive Listening: Focus
Interpretive Listening: -on mine and the other's verbal and nonverbal communicative action
Interpretive Listening: Goals
Interpretive Listening: - To be present to the other and aware of the other's presence to me -To affirm and use my prejudices as I co-produce with the other meanings that we share.
Outside view
Kahneman & "The Outside View: -if the reference class is properly chosen, the outside view will give an indication of where the answer lies and may show how far off the inside view is EX- guessing height of a woman- should guess the average height (baseline) and adjust guess according to additional information
Inside view
Kahneman & "The Outside View: -what all of us adopt to assess the future of our projects, focuses on specific circumstances and search for evidence from our experiences.
The last section of chapter 23 is "failing a test." Who failed the test? Why did he fail it?
Kahneman, looking at the outside view. (the outside view will give an indication of where the ballpark is, but not the inside-view forecasts are not even close to it (Objective outside view is more accurate than subjective inside view)
Information Load
Listening and Time Compression- -The number of processing errors would increase as _______ _________ increases
Lecture Listening
Listening and Time Compression- ________ ________- the more you speed it up, the less attention you pay.
Active Listening: Dialogue vs. Monologue
Martin Buber's I/It * Monologue focuses on self, dialogue on the other ad on the interaction * There are occasions when it is necessary to have monologue, such as technical speech * We judge whether dialogue is present by the presence or absence of it's characteristics
System 2
Means of Influencing a Listener: -Logos or (logic) uses which System?
A weighted multiple regression equation, based on a sample from a research study, should be a strong predictor of the population (future occurrences). But is it actually better than an unweighted equation, where all independent variables are considered equally?
No, it is not better than an unweighted equation, because one can do just as well by selecting a set of scores that have some validity for predicting the outcome and adjusting the values to make them comparable. The unweighted is likely to be just as accurate in predicting new cases than the weighted.
On average, how did the investors in Odean's study do in stock trading? Why? Why did women outperform men in stock trading?
On average, the most active traders had the poorest results, while the investors who traded the least earned the highest returns. Men acted on their useless ideas significantly more often than women, as a result, women achieved better investment results than men.
Narrative Fallacy
One of the limits to our ability to evaluate information objectively is what's called the _______ _______. -Describes how flawed stories of the past shape our views of the world and our expectations for the future. -In other words, we love stories, and we let our preference for a good story cloud that facts and our ability to make rational decisions. It means that we may be drawn towards a less desirable outcome simply because it has a better story.
Rules of Constructive Feedback
Own your opinions by phrasing them appropriately. * Acknowledge that your comments are made form your point of view- others may have a different opinion. * Appropriate phrases include to me, as far as I know, from what I've observed during the past week, or simply, I think.
How were overly optimistic projections of the war in Iraq, the number of troops that would be needed, the manner in which American troops would be greeted, etc. an example of the planning fallacy?
People have a tendency to create plans and forecasts that are "unrealistically close to best-case scenarios." When forecasting the outcomes of risky projects, people tend to make decisions "based on delusional optimism rather than on a rational weighting of gains, losses, and probabilities. They overestimate benefits and underestimate costs. They spin scenarios of success while overlooking the potential for mistakes and miscalculations... In this view, people often (but not always) take on risky projects because they are overly optimistic about the odds."
How do optimists react to news that their private business projects are likely to fail? Does this sound suspiciously like the "self serving bias" in attribution theory that we discussed earlier this semester?
People who scored highly on the measure of optimism were more likely to be persistent after receiving the discouraging advice. 47% of them continued development efforts even after being told their project was hopeless, and on average doubled their initial loss before giving up.
Physiological Stress
Problems of Communication Load- -parts of the body begin to hurt because of stress. * Throat, chest, sleep patterns, etc.
negative affect
Problems of Communication Load- -really hate what you are doing.
Cognitive Load
Problems of Communication Load- -thinking about everything you have to do. -everything is piling up.
Assimilation Contrast Issues
Problems of Communication Load- ___________- moving too fast, instead of understanding the concept, you see it as something you already know or the opposite of something you already know.
Special Occasion Listening Specific Listening Issues:*The Undelayed Reaction*
Special Occasion Listening: -when you don't wait and fully process the thing you are listening to. * Quick reaction from system 1. * Don't react without thinking.
Special Occasion Listening: Critical Listening
Special Occasion Listening: -listening for the specific purpose of making a decision, determining truth
Article: "Patterns of State Anxiety, Affect, and Listening Performance"-
State Anxiety changes from moment to moment * Most anxious moment- when you begin the speech * Goes down after that point- anxiety is almost gone when you finish the speech
What is wrong with Berlo's Inference Theory of Empathy?
STEWART'S "INTERPRETIVE LISTENING: AN ALTERNATIVE TO EMPATHY": -Assumes other's experience is similar in all relevant respects, but it is impossible for us to know their experience and to set aside our views/values/self.
Is it possible to "put yourself in another's place" according to Stewart?
STEWART'S "INTERPRETIVE LISTENING: AN ALTERNATIVE TO EMPATHY": -Cannot actually put yourself in another's place but empathic communication is communicating as if you were in their place.
How does Berlo's theory differ from Howell's idea that empathy involves replicating what one perceives? Why is Howell's approach also wrong, according to Stewart?
STEWART'S "INTERPRETIVE LISTENING: AN ALTERNATIVE TO EMPATHY": a. Berlo- lay aside your own views and values in order to enter another's world without prejudice- lay aside yourself. b. Howell- the ability to replicate what another perceives (intrapersonal communicative phenomenon as if it were an individual process)
Reproductive
STEWART'S "INTERPRETIVE LISTENING: AN ALTERNATIVE TO EMPATHY": -argues that one understands text when they reproduce the meaning that was originally produced by the author
Hermeneutics
STEWART'S "INTERPRETIVE LISTENING: AN ALTERNATIVE TO EMPATHY": -how we understand and interpret text
empathetic listening
STEWART'S "INTERPRETIVE LISTENING: AN ALTERNATIVE TO EMPATHY": This relates because _________ _________ is trying to understand by recreating the state of the speaker. Interpretive listening- not setting aside your experiences and views but to create and understanding between two people.
Story Corps
Short Film on Listening- * There is power in silence that is hard to mistake * Experience on silent retreat
Special Occasion Listening Creatn' a supportive climate: Supportive Behavior
Special Occasion Listening Creatn' a supportive climate: -Description, problem orientation, spontaneity, empathy, equality, provisionalism
Special Occasion Listening Creatn' a supportive climate: Defensive Behavior
Special Occasion Listening Creatn' a supportive climate: -Evaluation, control, strategy, neutrality, superiority, certainty.
Are clinical (expert) predictions or are statistical (just performance numbers) superior?
Statistical predictions are superior
Subjective confidence (as is the case with stock traders) is a feature of which system, 1 or 2?
Subjective confidence is featured firmly in system 1.
Superstition
System 1 and Superstition- * We regularly make inferences * Speculation, what we believe to be true * We confuse those inferences with actual observation * We act on those inferences: the uncalculated risk * We need to understand why people say what they do
Narratives make information easier to understand and remember:
The Power of Narratives #1: -stories activate your emotions helping you remember key pieces of information. Once it all comes together into a story, you can process it easier.
Narratives make sense of the random/complex/confusing
The Power of Narratives #2: -narratives are the best method for incorporating numerous facts and situations into one easily understandable lesson. Why did "X" happen? Because of "Y" and "Z" interacting. Narratives convince us we've figured it out, while answering pressing questions.
Narratives bolster our sense identity:
The Power of Narratives #3: -a story can be the unifying factor in a movement. It can unify a nation. It can cause wars and strife. Political parties and movements are examples of how narratives create identity. "The party of Lincoln," "Reagan Conservatism," and even the Founding Fathers are party identities wrapped up in narratives.
The stock market, according to Kahneman, largely exists due to the illusion of skill (belief of the traders that they know something that other traders don't know).
The buyers think that the price is too low and likely to rise, while the seller thinks the price is too high and likely to drop. Success and failure is largely due to luck, not skill.
In what way is the story of Google such a narrative?
The graduate students who started Google were in fact, lucky, and that wouldn't happen to everyone. This refers back to the fallacy of the past allowing you to think this will always happen in the future.
Means of Influencing a Listener *Major Premise*
The weakness of a syllogism is the ________ ________. -Everyday use of logic omits the major premise (occurs as an enthymeme) -The very thing that is missing is likely the thing the listener needs to identify as untrue, fault reasoning.
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid:
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid:
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: Clichés
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: - inappropriate clichés are often worse than not responding at all. * Create distance between people, particularly if the individual had hoped for some honest information.
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: Ignoring
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: - this often means the listener is trying to avoid a confrontation. * To simply say nothing or change the subject after listening leaves the speaker frustrated. * It is better to disagree, let a person know that you didn't understand, anything is better than no response at all.
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: Blaming
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: -avoid a preoccupation with finding fault. * Take a positive approach whenever possible and focus on problem solving. * Generate solutions to a conflict and focus on constructive action. * Blaming quickly creates defensiveness.
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: Joking
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: -it's good to have a sense of humor, but joking about serious matters can frustrate your colleagues. * Try to face conflicts and other matters squarely. * There are times when being serious is most appropriate, and it is important to be able to recognize these times.
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: Long-Windednes
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: -monologues are deadly. The other person is apt to lose interest. * Might just as well be delivered to large numbers of people, since they do not incorporate any of the advantages of two-way communication.
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: Advice
Therapeutic Listening Responses to Avoid: -you may feel that giving advice is helpful. In reality, however, it puts you in the higher status position. * Nothing is worse than getting unwanted and unsolicited advice. * Be careful that you don't express your helpfulness by telling people what you think they should do without giving them an opportunity to take responsibility for their own actions.
Cite some evidence that such analysis of excellent corporate management proved untrue in the long run...that luck turned out to be the telling factor
There was a book discussing the analysis of 18 pairs of competing companies, in which one was more successful than the other. Stories of how businessmen rise and fall offer what human mind needs, which is a simple message of triumph and failure that identifies clear causes and ignores the power of luck.
How did the CEO's of a large stock trading company react when confronted with proof of the illusion of skill in the form of no ("0") year-to-year correlations of their stock advisors? How did the firm react to proof that success in their work was mere chance?
They thought that it would be low, but no one thought it would be zero. When confronted with the evidence that their success was just change they were unsurprised- assumed they ignored the evidence and continued as normal. One of the executives explained that they have done very well for the firm and no one can take that away from them. But if success is due to change how entitled are they to claim it?
hindsight bias & how it affects one's memory of previously held beliefs
This deals with your inability to reconstruct past beliefs. Once you adopt a new view of the world, you immediately lose much of your ability to recall what you used to believe before your mind changed.
Michael de Monteigne stated, "Nothing is so firmly believed as that which we least know." How does this idea fit into the concept of narrative fallacy? (WYSIATI)
This follows up with the fact that our flawed stories of the past that aren't true, allow us to believe that it's all we know. We believe in the things that aren't true so strongly because we think that's how its supposed to be. We can't help but build the best story on the limited information given to us. -Montaigne would say Changing your mind is a good thing. It means you've resisted the impulse to think you're infallible-(incapable of making mistakes or being wrong).
Suggestions for managing time and work
Time Management- * Automate routine tasks * Never process paper twice * Use to do lists * Break up large tasks and use benchmarks * Delegate but follow up at regular intervals * Schedule your time, including fun * Throw away the trash * Make technology work for you, not against you. * Eat right and get exercise * Never have a list of 10 items when 9 will do.
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: Explain why the "transport metaphor" (transmission model) is a poor way to understand human communication. In mass communication, the "hypodermic needle" and the "bullet" refer to old ways of viewing media communication.
Underlies commonsense understanding of what communication is. May be okay for everyday purposes, but the communication concept needs critical reframing.
Balance Theory
Understanding how me make implicit associations between concepts and sources of information. * System 1 is heavily involved in this
Therapeutic Listening: Unhelpful Behaviors
Verbal- * Advice giving * Preaching * Placating * Blaming * Exhorting * Extrensive probing and questioning * Directing, demanding * Patronizing attitude * Overinterpretation * Using words helpee doesn't understand * Straying from topic * Intellectualizing * Overanalyzing * Talking about self too much * Nonverbal- * Looking away from helpee * Sitting far apart or turned away from helpee * Sneering * Frowning * Scowing * Tight mouth * Shaking pointed finger * Distracting gestures * Yawning * Closing eyes * Unpleasant tone of voice * Rate of speech too slow or too fast
Therapeutic Listening: Helpful behaviors
Verbal- * Uses understandable words * Reflects back and clarifies helpee's statements * Appropriately interprets * Summarizes for helpee * Responds to primary message * Uses verbal reinforcers * Calls helpee by first name or "you" * Appropriately gives information * Answers questions about self * Uses humor occasionally to reduce tension * Is nonjudgmental * Adds greater understanding to helpee's statement * Phrases interpretations tentatively so as to elicit genuine feedback from helpee * Nonverbal- * Tone of voice similar to helpee's * Maintains good eye contact * Occasional head nodding * Facial animation * Occasional smiling * Occasional hand gesturing * Close physical proximity to helpee * Moderate rate of speech * Body leans toward helpee * Occasional touching
Confidence in a belief is a function of two related impressions: cognitive ease and __________. What are these?
We are confident when the story we tell ourselves comes easily to mind, with no contradiction and no competing scenario. These two do not guarantee that a belief held with confidence is true. A mind that follows WYSIATI will achieve high confidence much too easily by ignoring what it does not know. (by way of review). These do not take into account "that which is not known" and WYSIATI. Therefore, Kahneman and Klein agree that the subjective confidence that people have in their intuitions is not a reliable guide to their validity.
How does outcome bias affect the ability to evaluate the reasonableness of the beliefs when the decision was made? (e.g., a jury evaluating an accidental death)
We are prone to blame decision makers for good decisions that worked out badly and to give them too little credit for successful moves that appear obvious only after the fact. If a low risk surgery was done and had an unexpected problem occur that killed the patient, the jury will be prone to think that the doctor should have known better.
What is a "wicked" environment for developing judgment?
Where professionals are likely to learn the wrong lessons from experience. For example, a doctor continued to worry about his patients getting a disease, so he would constantly test them without washing his hands between patients. This caused the patients to get the disease, but not because of his intuitions.
Ultimately, did Klein and Kahneman agree?
Yes, they disagreed less than they thought and accepted joint solutions of almost all the substantive issues that were raised. When can intuition be trusted: if the environment is sufficiently regular and if the judge has had a chance to learn its regularities, the associative machinery will recognize situations and generate quick and accurate decisions.
If the quality of a company's CEO is correlated at .30 with company success (which is generous), then what percentage of the better companies are led by stronger CEO's?
`This is an example of a way we overestimate the impact of a single factor on a complex issue because it is convenient to think so. It is commonly found in books about business success—it is a common narrative fallacy. Assuming CEOs have the ability to change the internal state of their companies, Kahneman says that statement 2 is closer to 0.5, since it is dominated by the probability of success of the company, which, it is argued, is not significantly dependent on how the company acts. If that is the case, yes, leaders may have a significant impact on companies (let's say Jobs and Buffet had) but the long term success of the firm depends on external and unpredictable factors more than on CEO actions.
The WYSIATI rule impacts us in 4 ways (see just past the heading "Competition Neglect"). What are these? The reason that entrepreneurs so often neglect competition is because WYSIATI.
a. We focus on our goal, anchor on our plan, and neglect relevance base rates, exposing ourselves to the planning fallacy. b. We focus on what we want to do and can do, neglecting the plans and skills of others. c. Both in explaining the past and in predicting the future, we focus on the causal role of skill and neglect the role of luck. We are therefore prone to an illusion of control. d. We focus on what we know and neglect what we do not know, which makes us overly confident in our beliefs.
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: Why is the transport metaphor wrong in terms of linearity? *Linearity*
communication between two people involves simultaneous sending and receiving. This is a linear, one-way model and describes the receiver as having a secondary role. Communication is not a one-way street.
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: Rather than being transported, meaning is __________________.
constructed
How did the leaderless group exercise lead Daniel Kahneman to discover the illusion of validity?
he helped evaluate candidates for officer training using a test called the Leaderless Group Challenge. Candidates were taken to an obstacle field and assigned a group task so that Kahneman and his fellow evaluators could discern their individual leadership qualities or lack thereof. -when asked again to assess yet another group of candidates, their judgments were as clear as before. "The dismal truth about the quality of our predictions," recalled Kahneman, "had no effect whatsoever on how we evaluated new candidates and very little effect on the confidence we had in our judgments and predictions." Kahneman found this striking: *"The statistical evidence of our failure should have shaken our confidence in our judgments of particular candidates, but it did not. It should also have caused us to moderate our predictions, but it did not." Kahneman named this cognitive fallacy "the illusion of validity".* -"We were required to predict a soldier's performance in officer training and in combat, but we did so by evaluating his behavior over one hour in an artificial situation. This was a perfect instance of a general rule that I call WYSIATI, 'What you see is all there is.' We had made up a story from the little we knew but had no way to allow for what we did not know about the individual's future, which was almost everything that would actually matter."
Illusion of validity
is a cognitive bias in which a person overestimates his or her ability to interpret and predict accurately the outcome when analyzing a set of data, in particular when the data analyzed show a very consistent pattern—that is, when the data "tell" a coherent story
STEWART'S "INTERPRETIVE LISTENING: AN ALTERNATIVE TO EMPATHY": Berlo's View
lay aside your own views and values in order to enter another's world without prejudice- lay aside yourself.
Special Occasion Listening: Therapeutic Listenin
listening for the specific purpose of helping another purpose.
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: Why is the transport metaphor wrong in terms of *Time & Medium*
makes no allowance for dynamic change over time; relationships and purposes don't stay the same. Also doesn't take into account the different methods of communication and the time involved with that; letters, phone call, texts. Each medium has different technological features that adjust communication. Therefore, the medium is not neutral in the process of communication.
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: Why is the transport metaphor wrong in terms of *Content & Meaning*
makes the nature of the content seem irrelevant as well as the participants feeling about it, which both can shape communication. Doesn't talk about the meaning of the message or the information that is given. The word message only shows a micro part of the communication process and is not an appropriate label.
Hindsight Bias
o The term _______ _______refers to the tendency people have to view events as more predictable than they really are. Before an event takes place, while you might be able to offer a guess as to the outcome, there is really no way to actually know what's going to happen. o After an event, people often believe that they knew the outcome of the event before it actually happened. This is why it is often referred to as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon. After your favorite team loses the Superbowl, you might feel convinced that you knew they were going to lose (even though you didn't feel that way before the game.)
STEWART'S "INTERPRETIVE LISTENING: AN ALTERNATIVE TO EMPATHY": Howell's View
the ability to replicate what another perceives (intrapersonal communicative phenomenon as if it were an individual process)
reference class forecasting
treatment for the planning fallacy, similar to the practices recommended for overcoming base-rate neglects. * Identify an appropriate reference class * Obtain the statistics of the reference class. Use stats to generate a baseline prediction * Use specific information about the case to adjust the baseline prediction
CHANDLER'S TRANSMISSION MODEL: Why is the transport metaphor wrong in terms of *Instrumentality*
treats communication as a means to a predetermined end. However, not all communication is intentional.
Active Listening: Dialogue vs. Monologue : *AntiDialogue*
while monologue is the absence of the characteristics of dialogue and can be self-centered and exclusionary, antidialogue is the use of language for the purpose of hurting, bullying, demeaning or rejecting another person.
