Lit Devices

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intransitive verb

An intransitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, die, etc. Second, unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object receiving the action. Here are some examples of intransitive verbs: Huffing and puffing, we arrived at the classroom door with only seven seconds to spare. Arrived = intransitive verb. James went to the campus cafe for a steaming bowl of squid eyeball stew. Went = intransitive verb.

cueing systems

semantics/define context syntax define word by its placement in a sentence activate prior knowledge critical comprehension

creative comprehension

story mapping, venn diagrams, fishbone organizer

split infinitve

A split infinitive occurs when one or more words separate to and the verb.

Anastrophe

A is a form of literary device wherein the order of the noun and the adjective in the sentence is exchanged. In standard parlance and writing the adjective comes before the noun but when one is employing an ______ the noun is followed by the adjective. This reversed order creates a dramatic impact and lends weight to the description offered by the adjective. Example: He spoke of times past and future, and dreamt of things to be.

foot

A metrical unit composed of stressed and unstressed syllables.

misplaced modifer

A misplaced modifer is a word or group of words that causes confusion because it modifies the wrong word in the sentence. Hiding in the deep grass.

history of the English language

A thumbnail sketch of the history of the language might be handy. English derives from the Germanic language family: several tribes from the Continent — the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes -- arrived in England in the fifth century C.E. and took their language with them. Soon their language was distinct enough to warrant a new name; it's now known as either Anglo-Saxon (from two of the tribes) or Old English (abbreviated OE). Although students of Anglo-Saxon can see the continuity with the English of today, at first sight it seems to be a completely foreign language. The most famous work in OE is the anonymous epic poem, Beowulf (around the eighth century). OE was spoken in the early part of the Middle Ages, but with the Norman Invasion in 1066 came a strong French influence on the English language. Over time, the language reached the state now known as Middle English (or ME). ME, to the untrained eye, looks a bit more like English, but beginners would do well to start with a glossary. By around the year 1500, the language had reached the stage known as Modern English (ModE). Even the first few centuries' worth of Modern English can be difficult for beginners, as anyone who's read Shakespeare can attest. But the structure of the language has remained the same for the last half millennium, with only some surface changes. Words like "dost" and "hath" lasted a few more centuries, but by 1750 were pretty much archaic, except perhaps in religious language. (We probably associate the language of the Bible with this early stage of ModE — "thou shalt not," "who art in heaven" -- because the most important English translation of the Bible, the King James Version or Authorized Version, appeared in 1611, toward the end of Shakespeare's career.) English spelling was fluid for a long time: it settled down only in the middle of the eighteenth century, around the time when Samuel Johnson published the first major Dictionary of the English Language (1755). As a glance at the history of the language will show, English is derived from a Germanic language — Old English, in fact, is thoroughly Germanic in its forms, structures, and vocabulary. But around the year 1100, English saw an influx of words from French (which is a romance language, i.e., derived ultimately from Latin); and in the Renaissance, words by the thousands were imported directly from Latin. For this reason, English is today a mongrel language, mixing Germanic and latinate roots. Often we can find pairs of words, near synonyms, of which one comes from an Anglo-Saxon root and one from a latinate root. Sometimes, in fact, we have three closely related words, one each from Anglo-Saxon, from Latin via French, and directly from Latin, as in kingly (Germanic), royal (from French roi), and regal (from Latin rex, regis). As a (very rough) general rule, words derived from the Germanic ancestors of English are shorter, more concrete, and more direct, whereas latinate words are longer and more abstract: compare, for instance, the Anglo-Saxon thinking with the Latinate cogitation. Most of our vulgarities are of Anglo-Saxon ancestry: compare, for instance, sh*t (Germanic) with excrement (latinate).

Anapestic u u /

And a BRUSH (unstressed/unstressed/stressed)

Spondaic //

Heartbreak (stressed/stressed)

MLA APA and Chicago citation

MLA Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's Dilemma. New York: Penguin Group, 2006. Print. APA Pollan, M. (2006). The omnivore's dilemma. New York, NY: Penguin Group CS Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's Dilemma. New York: Penguin Group, 2006.

Reading Strategies

Reading strategies to help high school students and middle school students understand their textbooks iStock_000003798811XSmallStudents may be getting a good early start on reading in the elementary grades, but to meet the increasing demands of textbook reading in high school and middle school, students need continued reading coaching and support, according to recent articles in the Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy (JAAL) and Preventing School Failure. Educators have become increasingly aware that many high school and middle school students just don't have the skills to read their math, science and social studies textbooks. It doesn't help that many textbooks don't exactly use best practices when presenting unfamiliar vocabulary and information, and that content teachers in the upper grades are typically not trained to develop students' reading skills. Content teachers in middle school and high school need to give their students strategies so they can access their reading material. Below are some strategies Among the strategies that have been validated for textbook comprehension with upper elementary and middle school students, researchers say, are linking text to students' prior knowledge, questioning, summarizing, using imagery and setting a purpose for reading. "The value of student construction of concept maps has been well-documented for the science classroom," the authors write. PLAN Case Study One strategy that has been developed for textbook reading is called PLAN (Predict- Locate-Add-Note). PLAN (Predict, Locate, Add, Note) was tested in two 6th-grade classes (50 students) taught by the same teacher in a Texas middle school. One class used PLAN and the other did not. In one class, the teacher taught students the PLAN strategy and illustrated how to create concept maps on the board. The four steps are as follows: Predict content and structure of text before reading based on titles, subtitles and graphics. Locate known and unknown information on concept map. Add words and phrases to map during reading. Note new understanding by making changes in concept map. The students practiced creating concept maps in groups and then individually. They also implemented the PLAN steps with their science textbooks. The process of reading itself became a subject of discussion during science class. Students talked about what it takes to be a successful reader, created paper projects describing a successful reader and drew a concept map on the board of what a successful reader does. To encourage students to discuss how they felt when they couldn't understand reading material, the teacher assigned several brief, challenging reading exercises that included complex ideas and college-level grammar. Following these assignments, the students discussed what it felt like to not completely understand text and also talked about the importance of using reading strategies to understand new science material. They talked about feeling embarrassed, worried, anxious, scared and nervous. Before the intervention, the teacher's science classes silently read their textbooks while listening to an audio recording of the chapter. In the treatment class, the students now worked together to create a concept map on the board. The teacher reported a positive response from students, noted that they enjoyed the map making and made comments such as "this makes sense." The teacher guided students in class as they individually previewed a textbook chapter by looking at the title and subtitles, size of letters, color of letters and how the text was organized. They predicted the chapter content and noted on the concept map what was known and unknown, revising the concept map as they proceeded to read the chapter. The Results for Reading Comprehension While there was no difference in the pre-test reading comprehension test scores between the teachers' two classes, there was a statistically significant difference in the post-test reading comprehension scores of textbook chapters, with the treatment group scoring higher, the researchers write. Treatment group students also scored higher on a reading strategy checklist which included 10 yes or no questions regarding which strategies students used for reading a textbook chapter and for monitoring comprehension. The teacher reported that that while students with learning difficulties needed the most support in adopting PLAN, it was most helpful to them judging by their post-test comprehension scores. Average ability students also needed coaching to use PLAN while higher ability students quickly adopted the approach and used it successfully. All students were eventually able to use the strategies more independently, the teacher said. She concluded that "PLAN opens the door to better understanding" and "teaches kids greater respect for books." She added that students are "able to grasp and understand more and make more connections." Using Scaffolding to Improve Reading Experience In scaffolded reading experience, teachers give students tools and techniques that help organize their reading experience in three stages: Pre-reading stage During-reading stage After-reading stage. In the pre-reading stage, students and teachers establish the purpose for reading and activate the students' prior knowledge of the topic. The teacher also tries to create a context for learning, a term that is becoming ever-more expansive and includes reader attitudes toward learning and reading, the support network as well as the environment where learning takes place. A major pre-reading strategy is to develop a list of words associated with the topic. Students generate a list of vocabulary words associated with the instructional concept, then brainstorm about more words, group them into categories and then finally name the categories. If the topic was WWII, for example, students might initially mention Pearl Harbor, Rosie the Riveter or the persecution of Jews, activating their background knowledge on the subject. Students can then elaborate on these first words with parameters set by the teacher, e.g. no more than eight groups with a minimum of three words in each group. "These parameters force students to think deeply about the concepts of each word and assess whether the word should be associated with a particular group," the researchers write. The primary purpose of the during-reading stage is is better comprehension as students read and interact with the text. During reading, students can make use of the following techniques: text structures noticing various text structures (e.g. narrative, expository) to become familiar with ways that information is presented; visualization - creating images by looking for descriptive words and using them as clues, and self-regulation - working independently of the teacher by adjusting the rate of reading, making predictions, asking questions, rereading and reading to discover answers to questions. Story Pyramids for Better Reading Comprehension Story pyramids were originally used for narrative text, but they have been modified to be used with expository text, the researchers write in Preventing School Failure. The story pyramid requires that the learner pay attention to the underlying structure of the text while reading. In an eight-step pyramid for expository text, students are told to: identify the topic using one word describe the topic using two words describe the setting using three words, etc. After students have read a passage, they may be asked to write a summary of the most important information in a text. It may be as concise as three sentences or as long as one page. Students may use the pyramid to write the topic sentence in the summary and to provide more supporting details. The closing statement should synthesize information on the topic. An important "don't" for teachers of adolescents, the researchers say, is don't assume that students have been taught the reading strategies in earlier grades. While students may have the skills necessary to read or at least recognize words, they often need assistance in comprehending what they are reading.

subordinate clause

Recognize a subordinate conjunction when you see one. Some sentences are complex. Such sentences have two clauses, one main [or independent] and one subordinate [or dependent]. The essential ingredient in a complex sentence is the subordinate conjunction: after although as because before even if even though if in order that once provided that rather than since so that than that though unless until when whenever where whereas wherever whether while why The subordinate conjunction has two jobs. First, it provides a necessary transition between the two ideas in the sentence. This transition will indicate a time, place, or cause and effect relationship. Here are some examples: Louisa will wash the sink full of her dirty dishes once her roommate Shane cleans his stubble and globs of shaving cream from the bathroom sink. We looked on top of the refrigerator, where Jenny will often hide a bag of chocolate chip cookies. Because her teeth were chattering in fear, Lynda clenched her jaw muscle while waiting for her turn to audition. The second job of the subordinate conjunction is to reduce the importance of one clause so that a reader understands which of the two ideas is more important. The more important idea belongs in the main clause, the less important in the clause introduced by the subordinate conjunction. Read these examples: As Samson blew out the birthday candles atop the cake, he burned the tip of his nose on a stubborn flame. Burning his nose > blowing out candles. Ronnie begins to sneeze violently whenever he opens the door to greet a fresh spring day. Sneezing violently > opening the door. Even though Dana persevered at the calculus exam, she was only adding another F beside her name in Dr. Armour's grade book. Adding another F > persevering at the exam. Punctuate a complex sentence correctly. Complex sentences follow two common patterns: main clause + Ø + subordinate clause. Nicky shook her head and sighed Ø as she puzzled over the algebra problem. subordinate clause + , + main clause. When the doorbell rang, Nicky slammed shut her textbook and rose to pay for her pizza. Punctuation gets trickier when the subordinate clause begins with a relative pronoun like who, which, or where. Sometimes you will need a comma, and sometimes you won't, depending on whether the clause is essential or nonessential. When the information in the relative clause clarifies an otherwise general noun, the clause is essential and will follow the same pattern that you saw above: main clause + Ø + essential relative clause. Nicky paid the deliveryman Ø whose rusty hatchback choked and coughed in the driveway. Deliveryman is a general noun. Which one are we talking about? The relative clause whose rusty hatchback choked and coughed in the driveway clarifies the restaurant employee we mean. The clause is thus essential and requires no punctuation. When a relative clause follows a specific noun, punctuation changes. The information in the relative clause is no longer as important, and the clause becomes nonessential. Nonessential clauses require you to use commas to connect them. main clause + , + nonessential relative clause. Nicky paid Fernando , whose rusty hatchback choked and coughed in the driveway. Fernando, the name of a unique restaurant employee, lets us know which deliveryman we mean. The information in the relative clause is no longer important and needs to be separated from the main clause with a comma. Relative clauses can also interrupt a main clause. When this happens, use no punctuation for an essential clause. But if the clause is nonessential, separate it with a comma in front and a comma behind. Take a look at these examples: After seeing the cheap tip, the man Ø who delivered Nicky's pizza Ø wished that he had driven more slowly. After seeing the cheap tip, Fernando, who delivered Nicky's pizza, wished that he had driven more slowly.

subordinate conjunction

fragment

Recognize a fragment when you see one. A fragment occurs whenever you do these three things: You begin a group of words with a capital letter. You conclude this group of words with an end mark—either a period [ . ], question mark [ ? ], or exclamation point [ ! ]. You neglect to insert a main clause somewhere between the capital letter at the beginning and the end mark concluding the word group. Every sentence must have at least one main clause. A main clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. Once you have a main clause, you can then add other grammatical elements, but you must have the main clause as the base of the sentence. Read the main clause below, then the additions to it: Victor sneezed repeatedly. During the stressful chemistry test, Victor sneezed repeatedly. Because Julissa wore too much perfume, Victor sneezed repeatedly during the stressful chemistry test. Victor sneezed repeatedly, each time asking Janice for a new tissue to blow his nose. To deal with the stress building up in his head, Victor sneezed repeatedly as he slogged through the difficult chemistry test. Slogging through the stressful chemistry test, Victor sneezed repeatedly while John chewed his pencil and Julissa rubbed her lucky rabbit's foot. Without the main clause Victor sneezed repeatedly, all of the sentences above would be fragments. Know the most common types of fragments and how to fix them. Fragments result if you punctuate certain word groups as if they are complete sentences. The most common of these word groups are the following: subordinate clauses, participle phrases, infinitive phrases, afterthoughts, verb phrases, and appositives. You have a number of different options when fixing a fragment. Frequently, you can attach the fragment either to the front or to the end of a nearby main clause. Another option is to add whatever words will give the fragment its own mandatory main clause. Below you will find examples of different fragments and the revisions that they require to become complete sentences. Subordinate Clause Fragments A subordinate clause contains a subordinate conjunction, a subject, and a verb. Because this type of clause does not express a complete thought, it cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Read this example: Flooring the accelerator, Juan wove through the heavy traffic. As his ex-girlfriend Gigi chased him down the interstate. These are possible revisions: Flooring the accelerator, Juan weaved through the heavy traffic as his ex-girlfriend Gigi chased him down the interstate. As his ex-girlfriend Gigi chased him down the interstate, Juan floored the accelerator, weaving through the heavy traffic. Flooring the accelerator, Juan weaved through the heavy traffic. In hot pursuit was his ex-girlfriend Gigi, who was chasing him down the interstate. Participle Phrase Fragments A participle phrase usually begins with an ing or ed word. In the case of irregular verbs, an irregular past participle, like burnt or spoken, will begin the phrase. Here is a participle phrase pretending to be a complete sentence: Aunt Olivia always wears a motorcycle helmet. Worrying that a meteor or chunk of space debris will conk her on the head. These are possible revisions: Worrying that a meteor or chunk of space debris will conk her on the head, Aunt Olivia always wears a motorcycle helmet. Because she worries that a meteor or chunk of space debris will conk her on the head, Aunt Olivia always wears a motorcycle helmet. Aunt Olivia always wears a motorcycle helmet. She worries that a meteor or chunk of space debris will conk her on the head. Infinitive Phrase Fragments An infinitive phrase will begin with an infinitive [to + base verb]. Check out the infinitive phrase below masquerading as a complete sentence: Jiggling his foot nervously, Ronald sat in the provost's office. To explain why he had brought Squeeze, his seven-foot pet python, to Mr. Parker's English class. These are possible revisions: Jiggling his foot nervously, Ronald sat in the provost's office to explain why he had brought Squeeze, his seven-foot pet python, to Mr. Parker's English class. To explain why he had brought Squeeze, his seven-foot pet python, to Mr. Parker's English class, Ronald sat in the provost's office, jiggling his foot nervously. Jiggling his foot nervously, Ronald sat in the provost's office. He needed to explain why he had brought Squeeze, his seven-foot pet python, to Mr. Parker's English class. Afterthought Fragments Afterthought fragments begin with these transitions: especially, for example, for instance, like, such as, including, and except. These transitions frequently introduce good details that the writer is providing as an afterthought for previous information. Read the afterthought fragment that follows: Jacob has several ways to annoy his instructors. Such as rolling his eyes, smirking, reading supermarket tabloids during lecture, folding handouts into paper airplanes, and drawing caricatures on his desk. These are possible revisions: Jacob has several ways to annoy his instructors, such as rolling his eyes, smirking, reading supermarket tabloids during lecture, folding handouts into paper airplanes, and drawing caricatures on his desk. Rolling his eyes, smirking, reading supermarket tabloids during lecture, folding handouts into paper airplanes, and drawing caricatures on his desk are the many ways Jacob annoys his instructors. Jacob has several ways to annoy his instructors. For example, he rolls his eyes, smirks, reads supermarket tabloids during lecture, folds handouts into paper airplanes, and draws caricatures on his desk. Lonely Verb Fragments Lonely verb fragments occur when you have a verb phrase without a subject. Typically, the subject is understood, but because it does not occur within the word group, the necessary main clause is missing. Take a look at this example: After dinner, Mike and Pat leave their dirty dishes on the back patio. And let the raccoons, opossums, and armadillos that visit the yard eat the leftovers. These are possible revisions: After dinner, Mike and Pat leave their dirty dishes on the back patio and let the raccoons, opossums, and armadillos that visit the yard eat the leftovers. After dinner, Mike and Pat leave their dirty dishes on the back patio so that the raccoons, opossums, and armadillos that visit the yard can eat the leftovers. After dinner, Mike and Pat leave their dirty dishes on the back patio. They enjoy letting the raccoons, opossums, and armadillos that visit the yard eat the leftovers. Appositive Fragments An appositive is a word or group of words that renames a noun right beside it. Because an appositive does not contain a main clause, it cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Look at the example below: When Dustin pulled into the driveway, Alicia admired his flashy new car. A red convertible with fancy rims and fuzzy dice hanging from the rearview mirror. These are possible revisions: When Dustin pulled into the driveway, Alicia admired his flashy new car, a red convertible with fancy rims and fuzzy dice hanging from the rearview mirror. Alicia admired Dustin's flashy new car, a red convertible Mustang with fancy rims and fuzzy dice hanging from the rearview mirror, when it pulled into the driveway. When Dustin pulled into the driveway, Alicia admired his flashy new car. Dustin recently bought a red convertible with fancy rims and fuzzy dice hanging from the rearview mirror. Understand the concept of an intentional fragment. Occasionally, writers will include an intentional fragment to emphasize a point. Read the example below: Because the milk carton was empty, Paul poured orange juice on his bowl of cereal. What a dork! Intentional fragments are not grammar errors. They can, however, get you into trouble if you are a beginning writer. Your teachers might think that any fragment in your composition is evidence that you do not understand the concept of a complete sentence. Before you include an intentional fragment in a piece of writing, you should ask your teachers if they will mind. Use this strategy to proofread for fragments: If you notice that your teachers are constantly marking fragments in your compositions, you should try this effective proofreading trick to get the problem under control: Read your composition backwards. Rather than starting with the first sentence and reading through the piece in a normal fashion, begin with the last sentence and work your way back to the top. This way, the sentences won't flow together. You will instead see each sentence as an individual unit. A word group that does not express a complete thought will stand out so that you can catch it and fix the problem. Look at this short paragraph which contains an afterthought fragment embedded in it: David will eat anything on a dare. We have watched him consume many nauseating things. For example, broccoli dipped in chocolate sauce, a raw fish head with the eyes intact, and a handful of live earthworms. Sharon has to close her eyes, and I've had to fight the urge to gag. If you read the paragraph backwards, starting with the last sentence first, the fragment announces itself: Sharon has to close her eyes, and I've had to fight the urge to gag. For example, broccoli dipped in chocolate sauce, a raw fish head with the eyes intact, and a handful of live earthworms. We have watched him consume many nauseating things. David will eat anything on a dare. If you try this proofreading strategy, do not use it exclusively. To find other problems, you will still need to read your composition in the normal way as well.

MLA citation

Salinger, J. D. The Cather in the Rye. (underlined or italicized) NewYork: Little, Brown, and Company, 1945. Print.

when to use apostrophes

add 's to singular nouns and indefinite pronouns, singular nouns ending in s unless it distorts pronunciation (the boss's pen) only use ' to plural nouns ending in s or es cents' worth ladies' night

when to use colons

after a complete idea, but the second idea must be a list, definition, or explanation of the first idea do not use after a verb, preposition, in place of a dash

writing process

choose a topic determine purpose and audience research topic choose approiate form get it on the page draft revise as you go proofread and evaluate publish

prewriting

obseve read jotting ideas/drawing research talk remember reflect brainstorm thought or word clusters story maps outlines consider purpose, pov, audience focused free writing

coordinating conjunction

Recognize a coordinating conjunction when you see one. And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating conjunctions. To remember all seven, you might want to learn one of these acronyms: FANBOYS, YAFNOBS, or FONYBAS. F = for A = and N = nor B = but O = or Y = yet S = so Y = yet A = and F = for N = nor O = or B = but S = so F = for O = or N = nor Y = yet B = but A = and S = so Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. Look at the examples that follow: The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious. The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon. Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates getting his claws trimmed. Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores the German shepherd across the street. Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid eyeball stew. I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive and time-consuming to make. Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored his serving, so I got a spoon and ate it myself. Understand the difference between coordination and subordination. Use a coordinating conjunction when you want to give equal emphasis to two main clauses. The pattern for coordination looks like this: main clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main clause. Subordination, however, emphasizes the idea in the main clause more than the one in the subordinate clause. Generally, the patterns look like these: main clause + Ø + subordinate clause. subordinate clause + , + main clause. Read the pairs of sentences that follow. The first version coordinates the two ideas. The second version subordinates one idea to emphasize the other. To survive the fetal pig dissection, Rinalda agreed to make all of the incisions, and Frances promised to remove and label the organs. To survive the fetal pig dissection, Rinalda agreed to make all of the incisions if Frances would promise to remove and label the organs. Diana stared dreamily at the handsome Mr. McKenzie, but Olivia, who hated economics, furiously jiggled her foot, impatient to escape the boring class. While Diana was staring dreamily at the handsome Mr. McKenzie, Olivia furiously jiggled her foot, impatient to escape the boring economics class that she hated. At a red light, Maria jumped out of Gino's car and slammed the door, for she could not tolerate one more minute of the heavy metal music that Gino insisted on blasting from the stereo. At a red light, Maria jumped out of Gino's car and slammed the door because she could not tolerate one more minute of the heavy metal music that Gino insisted on blasting from the stereo. Making an A in Anatomy and Physiology has not helped Sima choose a career. She might decide to make her parents happy and go to medical school, or she might use her knowledge of the human body to become a sculptor. Making an A in Anatomy and Physiology has not helped Sima choose a career. Although she might decide to make her parents happy and go to medical school, she might also use her knowledge of the human body to become a sculptor. Kyle refused to eat the salad served with the meal, nor would he touch any green vegetable put on his plate. After Kyle refused the salad served with the meal, he then would not touch the green vegetables put on his plate. Joe spent seven hours studying calculus at the Mexican diner, so now he can set his math book on fire with his salsa breath. Since Joe spent seven hours studying calculus at the Mexican diner, he can now set his math book on fire with his salsa breath. Because she gets seasick, Danielle is dreading the spring break cruise, yet she might enjoy herself once she realizes how many cute guys in skimpy bathing suits parade the decks. Even though Danielle is dreading getting seasick on the spring break cruise, she will probably enjoy herself once she realizes how many cute guys in skimpy bathing suits parade the decks. Punctuate coordinating conjunctions correctly. Three patterns in writing use coordinating conjunctions. Add commas when required. Pattern 1 — Connecting two main clauses When you connect two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction, use a comma. The pattern looks like this: main clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main clause. Here is an example: While I am at work, my dog Floyd sleeps on the bed , and my cat Buster naps in the bathtub. Pattern 2 — Connecting two items You can also use a coordinating conjunction to connect any two items. These items can be any grammatical unit except main clauses. The pattern looks like this: item + Ø + coordinating conjunction + item Here are some examples: My dog Floyd has too many fleas and too much hair. My cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality. Pattern 3 — Connecting three or more items in a series When you have three or more items in a series, you generally use a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Some handbooks and style guides will tell you that this comma is optional, but my advice is to put it in. The pattern looks like this: item + , + item + , + coordinating conjunction + item Here is an example: Swatting olives off the kitchen counter, dragging toilet paper streamers through the house, and terrorizing Jacques Cousteau, the parakeet, have consumed another of Buster's days. Yes, you can begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction! Some teachers warn that beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is wrong. Teachers will typically tell you this because they are trying to help you avoid writing fragments. Other times teachers give this advice because their preference is that a sentence not begin with a coordinating conjunction. What you should remember is that you break no grammar rule if you begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. Because you might be breaking your instructors' rules, however, you should ask what their preferences are. If you decide to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, keep these three things in mind: Be sure that a main clause follows the coordinating conjunction. Do not use a coordinating conjunction to begin every sentence. Use this option only when it makes the flow of your ideas more effective. Do not use a comma after the coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are not transitional expressions like for example or first of all. You will rarely use punctuation after them. Here are some examples: While I was answering the telephone, Buster, my cat, jumped onto the kitchen counter and swatted all of my jalapeño-stuffed olives onto the dirty kitchen floor. So I had to rinse off the cat hair and crumbs sticking to these delicacies before I could add them to the salad. Flying down the bumpy path, Genette hit a rock with the front wheel of her mountain bike, flew over the handlebars, and crashed into a clump of prickly palmetto bushes. Yet even this accident would not deter her from completing the race. Only when an interrupter immediately follows the coordinating conjunction do you need to use commas. Read this example: We hoped that decorating the top of Christine's cupcake with a dead grasshopper would freak her out. But, to our amazement, she just popped the whole thing in her mouth, chewed, and swallowed.

preposition

Recognize a preposition when you see one. Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually, prepositions show this location in the physical world. Check out the three examples below: Arf! The puppy is on the floor. Bad dog! The puppy is in the trash can. Don't chew the cell phone! The puppy is beside the phone. On, in, and beside are all prepositions. They are showing where the puppy is. Prepositions can also show location in time. Read the next three examples: At midnight, Jill craved mashed potatoes with grape jelly. In the spring, I always vow to plant tomatoes but end up buying them at the supermarket. During the marathon, Iggy's legs complained with sharp pains shooting up his thighs. At midnight, in the spring, and during the marathon all show location in time. Because there are so many possible locations, there are quite a few prepositions. Below is the complete list. about above according to across after against along along with among apart from around as as for at because of before behind below beneath beside between beyond but* by by means of concerning despite down during except except for excepting for from in in addition to in back of in case of in front of in place of inside in spite of instead of into like near next of off on onto on top of out out of outside over past regarding round since through throughout till to toward under underneath unlike until up upon up to with within without * But is very seldom a preposition. When it is used as a preposition, but means the same as except—Everyone ate frog legs but Jamie. But usually functions as a coordinating conjunction. Understand how to form a prepositional phrase. Prepositions generally introduce prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases look like this: preposition + optional modifiers + noun, pronoun, or gerund Here are some examples: At school At = preposition; school = noun. According to us According to = preposition; us = pronoun. By chewing By = preposition; chewing = gerund. Under the stove Under = preposition; the = modifier; stove = noun. In the crumb-filled, rumpled sheets In = preposition; the, crumb-filled, rumpled = modifiers; sheets = noun. Realize that some prepositions also function as subordinate conjunctions. Some prepositions also function as subordinate conjunctions. These prepositions are after, as, before, since, and until. A subordinate conjunction will have both a subject and a verb following it, forming a subordinate clause. Look at these examples: After Sam and Esmerelda kissed goodnight After = subordinate conjunction; Sam, Esmerelda = subjects; kissed = verb. As Jerome buckled on the parachute As = subordinate conjunction; Jerome = subject; buckled = verb. Before I eat these frog legs Before = subordinate conjunction; I = subject; eat = verb. Since we have enjoyed the squid eyeball stew Since = subordinate conjunction; we = subject; have enjoyed = verb. Until your hiccups stop Until = subordinate conjunction; hiccups = subject; stop = verb. If you find a noun [with or without modifiers] following one of these five prepositions, then all you have is a prepositional phrase. Look at these examples: After the killer calculus test After = preposition; the, killer, calculus = modifiers; test = noun. As a good parent As = preposition; a, good = modifiers; parent = noun. Before dinner Before = preposition; dinner = noun. Since the breakup Since = preposition; the = modifier; breakup = noun. Until midnight Until = preposition; midnight = noun.

Macnamara

language learning dependent upon social activities

Anagram

An extremely popular form of literary device wherein the writer jumbles up parts of the word to create a new word. From the syllables of a phrase to the individual letters of a word, any fraction can be jumbled to create a new form; a form of wordplay that allows the writer to infuse mystery and a little interactive fun in the writing so that the reader can decipher the actual word on their own and discover a depth of meaning to the writing. Example: "debit card" is "bad credit". As you can see, both phrases use the same letters. By mixing the letters a bit of humor is created.

strategies for assessing student writing

Holistic scoring is a quick method of evaluating a composition based on the readers general impression of the overall quality of the writing • Primary trait scoring, which is also known as focused holistic scoring, is similar to holistic scoring, but it focuses on the most important characteristics of specific types of writing. This type of holistic scoring takes into account the differences between, for example, descriptive writing and persuasive writing. To use this approach, review the rubric for the type of writing in question before you begin scoring, and keep the criteria listed on the rubric in mind as you read and score each paper • Analytic scoring is based on an in-depth analysis of aspects of writing such as focus/organization, elaboration/support/style, and grammar, usage, and mechanics. Analytic scoring is usually based on a

prepositional phrase

At the sound of the bell, the students bolted for the door, A group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun.

Diction

_____is the distinctive tone or tenor of an author's writings. ____ not just a writer's choice of words it can include the mood, attitude, dialect and style of writing.____ is usually judged with reference to the prevailing standards of proper writing and speech and is seen as the mark of quality of the writing. It is also understood as the selection of certain words or phrases that become peculiar to a writer. Example: Certain writers in the modern day and age use archaic terms such as 'thy', 'thee' and 'wherefore' to imbue a Shakespearean mood to their work.

Analogy

A literary device that helps to establish a relationship based on similarities between two concepts or ideas. By using this device we can convey a new idea by using the blueprint of an old one as a basis for understanding. With a mental linkage between the two, one can create comprehension regarding the new concept in a simple and succinct manner. Example: In the same way as one cannot have the rainbow without the rain, one cannot achieve success and riches without hard work.

transitive verb

A transitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like kick, want, paint, write, eat, clean, etc. Second, it must have a direct object, something or someone who receives the action of the verb. Here are some examples of transitive verbs: Sylvia kicked Juan under the table. Kicked = transitive verb; Juan = direct object. Joshua wants a smile from Leodine, his beautiful but serious lab partner. Wants = transitive verb; smile = direct object.

Appositive

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these examples: The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. Punctuate the appositive correctly. The important point to remember is that a nonessential appositive is always separated from the rest of the sentence with comma(s). When the appositive begins the sentence, it looks like this: A hot-tempered tennis player, Robbie charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket. When the appositive interrupts the sentence, it looks like this: Robbie, a hot-tempered tennis player, charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket. And when the appositive ends the sentence, it looks like this: Upset by the bad call, the crowd cheered Robbie, a hot-tempered tennis player who charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket.

writing steps and strategies

Brainstorming, Drafting, Revising, Publishing, Evaluation

Circumlocution

Circumlocution ____ is a form of writing where the writer uses exaggeratedly long and complex sentences in order to convey a meaning that could have otherwise been conveyed through a shorter, much simpler sentence. ______ involves stating an idea or a view in an indirect manner that leaves the reader guessing and grasping at the actual meaning. Example: Instead of writing "he arrived for dinner at 8 pm" the author writes, "8 pm was when he reached the dinner party".

Dactylic / u u

DESperate (stressed/unstressed/unstressed)

Alliteration

Definition: A literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound or a specific vowel group, it involves creating a repetition of similar sounds in the sentence. They are also created when the words all begin with the same letter. Alliterations are used to add character to the writing and often add an element of 'fun' to the piece.. Example: The Wicked Witch of the West went her own way. (The 'W' sound is highlighted and repeated throughout the sentence.)

Allusion

Definition: A figure of speech whereby the author refers to a subject matter such as a place, event, or literary work by way of a passing reference. It is up to the reader to make a connection to the subject being mentioned. Example: It's no wonder everyone refers to Mary as another Mother Teresa in the making; she loves to help and care after people everywhere- from the streets to her own friends. In the example the author uses the mention of Mother Teresa to indicate the sort of qualities that Mary has.

stages of second language acquisition

Figure 2.1. Sample Teacher Prompts for Each Stage of Second Language Acquisition Stage Characteristics Approximate Time Frame Teacher Prompts Preproduction The student Has minimal comprehension. Does not verbalize. Nods "Yes" and "No." Draws and points. 0-6 months Show me ... Circle the ... Where is ...? Who has ...? Early Production The student Has limited comprehension Produces one- or two-word responses. Uses key words and familiar phrases. Uses present-tense verbs. 6 months-1 year Yes/no questions Either/or questions Who ...? What ...? How many ...? Speech Emergence The student Has good comprehension. Can produce simple sentences. Makes grammar and pronunciation errors. Frequently misunderstands jokes. 1-3 years Why ...? How ...? Explain ... Questions requiring phrase or short-sentence answers Intermediate Fluency The student Has excellent comprehension. Makes few grammatical errors. 3-5 years What would happen if ...? Why do you think ...? Questions requiring more than a sentence response Advanced Fluency The student has a near-native level of speech. 5-7 years Decide if ... Retell ... For Early Production students, questions that require a one-word response, such as yes/no and either/or questions, are acceptable. You also want to begin asking students at this stage questions that require a phrase or short sentence. Speech Emergence students should be asked to answer questions that require a short-sentence response. It is OK to sometimes ask these students questions requiring a multiple-sentence response, but it is not OK to ask them questions requiring a pointing or one-word response. How about Intermediate and Advanced Fluency students? It is OK to ask them questions that require a lot of verbal output, but it is not OK to ask them questions requiring minimal verbal output. You can use tiered questions to include all ELLs in whole-class activities or one on one to check comprehension or content learning. To accomplish this, you will need to know each student's stage of language acquisition. Classroom Example To improve her ability to ask tiered questions, a 1st grade teacher asks the school ESL teacher to demonstrate the strategy in her class during a discussion of The Three Little Pigs. For each stage of second language acquisition, the ESL teacher asks the following types of tiered questions: Preproduction: Ask questions that students can answer by pointing at pictures in the book ("Show me the wolf," "Where is the house?"). Early Production: Ask questions that students can answer with one or two words ("Did the brick house fall down?" "Who blew down the straw house?"). Speech Emergence: Ask "why" and "how" questions that students can answer with short sentences ("Explain why the third pig built his house out of bricks." "What does the wolf want?"). Intermediate Fluency: Ask "What would happen if ..." and "Why do you think ..." questions ("What would happen if the pigs outsmarted the wolf?" "Why could the wolf blow down the house made of sticks, but not the house made of bricks?") Advanced Fluency: Ask students to retell the story, including main plot elements but leaving out unnecessary details.

rhetorical devices

Literary techniques used to heighten the effectiveness of expression

Fused Sentence

Printer Fabulous! The Fused Sentence Recognize a fused sentence when you see one. A fused sentence, also called a run-on, occurs when a writer has connected two main clauses with no punctuation. A main clause makes a complete thought, so you should not find two of them smashed together in a single sentence. The error looks like this: main clause + Ø + main clause. Here is an example: Driving home from school, Brett vowed to protect the fragile ecosystem all the while the tires of his Cadillac Escalade flattened the toads hopping on the wet streets. The first main clause is Brett vowed to protect the fragile ecosystem, and the second is the tires of his Cadillac Escalade flattened the toads hopping on the wet streets. Notice that the two clauses run together with no punctuation. Know how to fix a fused sentence. Fixing a fused sentence is easy. All you have to do is pick one of the four available strategies. First, you can break the error into two separate sentences, like this: Driving home from school, Brett vowed to protect the fragile ecosystem. All the while, the tires of his Cadillac Escalade flattened the toads hopping on the wet streets. Another good option is to connect the two main clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction: Driving home from school, Brett vowed to protect the fragile ecosystem, yet all the while, the tires of his Cadillac Escalade flattened the toads hopping on the wet streets. You can also use a semicolon, a mark of punctuation as strong as a period: Driving home from school, Brett vowed to protect the fragile ecosystem; all the while, the tires of his Cadillac Escalade flattened the toads hopping on the wet streets. Your last option is to use a subordinate conjunction. This method reduces one of the two clauses to an incomplete thought: Driving home from school, Brett vowed to protect the fragile ecosystem as the tires of his Cadillac Escalade flattened the toads hopping on the wet streets.

complete sentence

Recognize a complete sentence when you see one. A complete sentence has three characteristics: First, it begins with a capital letter. In addition, it includes an end mark—either a period [ . ], question mark [ ? ], or exclamation point [ ! ]. Most importantly, the complete sentence must contain at least one main clause. A main clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. Check out these examples: The banana rotting at the bottom of Jimmy's book bag has soaked his biology notes with ooze. Did you notice the cricket swimming in your cup of tea? I cannot believe that you tried one of those disgusting chocolate-broccoli muffins! If a main clause exists in the sentence, you can attach whatever other sentence elements you need. Look at the additions to the main clause below. All of the additions keep the original main clause complete. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. Buzzing around the picnic table, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth, stinging the poor boy's tongue, which swelled up as big and as blue as an eggplant. Because it smelled the peach-flavored bubble gum, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth and tickled the poor boy's tonsils. Taking a wrong turn, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth, but it buzzed back out before Peter swallowed. Avoid an accidental fragment. Sometimes you might begin a group of words with a capital letter, then conclude with an end mark, but forget to insert a main clause anywhere in the mix. When this happens, you have written a fragment, a major error in writing. Read the examples that follow: Because hungry sharks flashed on the surface of the waves. No main clause = a fragment. Spilling the hot spaghetti sauce all over his new suede shoes. No main clause = a fragment. To buy nice jewelry for his greedy girlfriend Gloria. No main clause = a fragment. For example, a mailbox stuffed with bills, two dozen messages on the answering machine, an uppity cat, and a dead lawn. No main clause = a fragment. And peeked into the room, risking the wrath of Mrs. Mauzy, who has no patience for students walking into class late. No main clause = a fragment. Read the revisions below. You will see that adding a main clause completes the thought: Because hungry sharks flashed on the surface of the waves, Mike and Sarah decided to return their surfboards to the car. Leonardo grabbed the pot handle with his bare hands, spilling the hot spaghetti sauce all over his new suede shoes. Danny sold half of his comic book collection to buy nice jewelry for his greedy girlfriend Gloria. For example, April found a mailbox stuffed with bills, two dozen messages on the answering machine, an uppity cat, and a dead lawn. Sherry turned the doorknob and peeked into the room, risking the wrath of Mrs. Mauzy, who has no patience for students walking into class late.

dangling modifer

Recognize a dangling modifier when you see one. Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that add description. In clear, logical sentences, you will often find modifiers right next to—either in front of or behind—the target words they logically describe. Read this example: Horrified, Mom snatched the deviled eggs from Jack, whose fingers were covered in cat hair. Notice that horrified precedes Mom, its target, just as deviled sits right before eggs. Whose fingers were covered in cat hair follows Jack, its target. Sometimes, however, an inexperienced writer will include a modifier but forget the target. The modifier thus dangles because the missing target word leaves nothing for the modifier to describe. Dangling modifiers are errors. Their poor construction confuses readers. Look at the samples below: Hungry, the leftover pizza was devoured. Hungry is a single-word adjective. Notice that there is no one in the sentence for this modifier to describe. Rummaging in her giant handbag, the sunglasses escaped detection. Rummaging in her giant handbag is a participle phrase. In the current sentence, no word exists for this phrase to modify. Neither sunglasses nor detection has fingers to make rummaging possible! With a sigh of disappointment, the expensive dress was returned to the rack. With a sigh of disappointment is a string of prepositional phrases. If you look carefully, you do not find anyone in the sentence capable of feeling disappointed. Neither dress nor rack has emotions! Know how to fix a dangling modifier. Fixing a dangling modifier will require more than rearranging the words in the sentence. You will often need to add something new so that the modifier finally has a target word to describe: Hungry, we devoured the leftover pizza. Rummaging in her giant handbag, Frieda failed to find her sunglasses. With a sigh of disappointment, Charlene returned the expensive dress to the rack.

auxiliary verb

Recognize an auxiliary verb when you see one. Every sentence must have a verb. To depict doable activities, writers use action verbs. To describe conditions, writers choose linking verbs. Sometimes an action or condition occurs just once—bang!—and it's over. Nate stubbed his toe. He is miserable with pain. Other times, the activity or condition continues over a long stretch of time, happens predictably, or occurs in relationship to other events. In these instances, a single-word verb like stubbed or is cannot accurately describe what happened, so writers use multipart verb phrases to communicate what they mean. As many as four words can comprise a verb phrase. A main or base verb indicates the type of action or condition, and auxiliary—or helping—verbs convey the other nuances that writers want to express. Read these three examples: Sherylee smacked her lips as raspberry jelly dripped from the donut onto her white shirt. Sherylee is always dripping something. Since Sherylee is such a klutz, she should have been eating a cake donut, which would not have stained her shirt. In the first sentence, smacked and dripped, single-word verbs, describe the quick actions of both Sherylee and the raspberry jelly. Since Sherylee has a pattern of messiness, is dripping communicates the frequency of her clumsiness. The auxiliary verbs that comprise should have been eating and would have stained express not only time relationships but also evaluation of Sherylee's actions. Below are the auxiliary verbs. You can conjugate be, do, and have; the modal auxiliaries, however, never change form. Be Do Have am is are was were being been does do did has have had having Modal Auxiliaries [Never Change Form] can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would Understand the dual nature of be, do, and have. Be, do, and have are both stand-alone verbs and auxiliary verbs. When these verbs are auxiliary, you will find them teamed with other verbs to complete the verb phrase. Compare these sentences: Freddy is envious of Beatrice's steaming bowl of squid eyeball stew. Is = linking verb. Freddy is studying Beatrice's steaming bowl of squid eyeball stew with envy in his eyes. Is = auxiliary verb; studying = present participle completing the verb phrase. We did our homework for Mrs. Long. Did = action verb. We're not slackers! We did prepare our homework for Mrs. Long. Did = auxiliary verb; prepare = main verb completing the verb phrase. Selena has twelve orange goldfish in her aquarium. Has = action verb. Selena has bought a catfish to help keep the tank clean. Has = auxiliary verb; bought = past participle completing the verb phrase. Form progressive tenses with the auxiliary verb be. All progressive tenses use a form of be. Present progressive follows this pattern: am, is, or are + present participle Use the present progressive tense to convey an action or condition happening right now or frequently. I am baking chocolate-broccoli muffins today. Am = auxiliary verb; baking = present participle completing the verb phrase. Alex is sitting at the kitchen table, anticipating his first bite. Is = auxiliary verb; sitting = present participle completing the verb phrase. Alex must wait a while longer because the muffins are cooling by the window. Are = auxiliary verb; cooling = present participle completing the verb phrase. Impatient Alex is always waiting to taste whatever I cook. Is = auxiliary verb; waiting = present participle completing the verb phrase. Past progressive follows this pattern: was or were + present participle Use the past progressive tense to show either 1) an action or condition that continued in the past or 2) an action or condition interrupted by another. Naomi was hoping for an A in her organic chemistry class. Was = auxiliary verb; hoping = present participle completing the verb phrase. Unfortunately, Naomi's lab reports were missing the nutritional data on chocolate-broccoli muffins. Were = auxiliary verb; missing = present participle completing the verb phrase. While Naomi was obsessing about her grade, Jason shared the data that she needed. Was = auxiliary verb; obsessing = present participle completing the verb phrase. Future progressive looks like this: will + be + present participle Use the future progressive tense to indicate an action that will continue in the future. I will be growing broccoli in the backyard this spring. Will, be = auxiliary verbs; growing = present participle completing the verb phrase. Soon, Alex will be eating organic chocolate-broccoli muffins! Will, be = auxiliary verbs; eating = present participle completing the verb phrase. Form passive voice with be. You can make any transitive verb—an action verb that can take a direct object—passive with the auxiliary verb be. Active voice looks like this: subject + verb + direct object. Here are some samples: We licked our lips. Frank devoured a bacon double cheeseburger. Everyone envied his enjoyment. Passive voice makes these changes: direct object as subject + form of be + past participle + by + subject as object of the preposition. Now read these revisions: Our lips were licked by us. The double bacon cheeseburger was being devoured by Frank. His enjoyment was envied by everyone. Notice how wordy and clunky passive voice is! Now you know why English teachers tell you to avoid it! Form perfect tenses with have. All perfect tenses use a form of have. Present perfect follows this pattern: has or have + past participle Use the present perfect tense to convey an action or condition that began in the past but continues [or is finished] in the present. Marge has bought earplugs to drown out her husband's snoring. Has = auxiliary verb; bought = past participle completing the verb phrase. The earplugs have saved Marge's marriage to George. Have = auxiliary verb; saved = past participle completing the verb phrase. Past perfect follows this pattern: had + past participle Use the past perfect tense to show that one action in the past occurred before another. Because Marge had purchased the earplugs, she no longer fantasized about smothering George with a pillow. Had = auxiliary verb; purchased = past participle completing the verb phrase. Future perfect follows this pattern: will + have + past participle Use the future perfect tense to indicate that an action will be finished in the future. This Sunday, Marge will have gotten an entire week of uninterrupted sleep. Will, have = auxiliary verbs; gotten = past participle completing the verb phrase. Form emphatic tenses with do. When you use a form of do as an auxiliary verb, you form the emphatic tense. This tense is useful for asking questions or emphasizing an action. The patterns look like these: form of do + main verb form of do + subject + main verb ... ? I did not eat your leftover pizza! Did = auxiliary verb; eat = main verb completing the verb phrase. Do you always accuse the first person you see? Do = auxiliary verb; accuse = main verb completing the verb phrase. Doesn't the evidence point to Samuel, who still has a bit of black olive stuck to his front tooth? Does = auxiliary verb; point = main verb completing the verb phrase. Understand the job of modal auxiliary verbs. Modal auxiliary verbs never change form. You cannot add an ed, ing, or s ending to these words. Can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would have only one form. You can use modal auxiliary verbs in these patterns: modal + main verb modal + be + present participle modal + have + past participle With modal auxiliaries, you can indicate necessity or obligation: To lose her orange glow, Yvonne should eat fewer carrots. John must remember his wife's birthday this year. If Cecilia wants a nice lawn, she ought to be raking the leaves. Or you can show possibility: Fred might share his calculus homework if you offer him a slice of pizza. Ann could have run the half marathon if she had started to train four months ago. Modal auxiliaries also show willingness or ability: Nicole will babysit your pet iguana for a reasonable fee. Jason can pass chemistry this semester if he stops spending his study time at the arcade.

Bildungsroman

This is a very popular form of storytelling whereby the author bases the plot on the overall growth of the central character throughout the timeline of the story. As the story progresses, the subject undergoes noticeable mental, physical, social, emotional, moral, and often spiritual advancement and strengthening before the readers' eyes. It has often been seen that the protagonist begins with views, aims and dreams that are in contrast to the other character's in the story and then fights his or her way through to achieve them. Example: Scarlet O'Hara in Gone With the Wind experiences immense personal growth as she learns the value of friends and hard work under duress, without compromising her own dreams.

40 Grammar Mistakes

Top 40 Grammar Pet Peeves August 5th, 2009 | Mark Pennington, MA Reading Specialist Goto comments Leave a comment Grammar is an essential tool for success in school, work, and life. We are judged, sometimes quite severely, by the words we use and the way we use them in our speaking and writing. Our spoken and written words can betray us. They reflect our background, education, and ability to communicate. For example, many years ago, the principal walked into my room while my student teacher was delivering a lesson. After a few minutes, the principal signaled me to step outside. "I will never hire that young man," he said. Shocked, I asked him why. "On the board, he has a dangling modifier and he ended a sentence with a preposition." Sounds quite harsh, doesn't it? Not every educated adult attaches the same level of importance regarding the proper use of grammar as does that principal. However, many do. Following are the Top 40 Grammar Pet Peeves that irritate most Americans with tips to help you avoid these common grammatical errors. Also, make sure to check out the Top 40 Pronunciation Pet Peeves and the Top 40 Vocabulary Pet Peeves. Find out everything you mispronounce and the words you misuse before "You-Know-Who" points them out to you. 1. Dangling Modifiers Incorrect-Tossed high into the sky, the dog caught the Frisbee. Correct-The dog caught the Frisbee, which had been tossed high into the sky. Tip: Keep modifiers close to the words that they describe to avoid dangling modifiers. 2. Modals Incorrect-I should of known that they could of gone yesterday. Correct-I should have known that they could have gone yesterday. Tip: The modals would, could, should, must, might, may are never combined with of. 3. Modifiers Incorrect-That student is not feeling good. Correct-That student is not feeling well. Tip: Don't use adjectives, e.g., good, in place of adverbs, e.g., well. Usually follow "_ing" with well, not good. 4. Comparative Modifiers (one or two syllables) Incorrect-I picked the smallest piece of the two to be graciouser and because it was more easy to reach. Correct- I picked the smaller piece of the two to be more gracious and because it was easier to reach. Tip: Use "_er" for one or two syllable modifiers or more for two syllable modifiers, if more sounds better. 5. Comparative Modifiers (three or more syllables) Incorrect-Each new song was wonderfuller than the old ones. Correct-Each new song was more wonderful than the old ones. Tip: Use more (less) for a three-syllable or longer modifier to compare two things. 6. Superlative Modifiers Incorrect-Oswald is the more hyperactive of the three boys, but runs least quicker. Correct-Oswald is the most hyperactive of the three boys, but runs least quickly. Tip: Use most (least) for a three-syllable or longer modifier to compare three or more things. Always use most or least for adverbs ending in "_ly." 7. Subjunctive cases (moods) Incorrect-If I was a rich man, I could buy what I need. Correct-If I were a rich man, I could buy what I need. Tip: Use the subjunctive to communicate a doubt, a wish, or a guess. 8. Padding Incorrect-Also, never, never repeat words or phrases, and avoid using very interesting, super nice words that contribute little to a sentence. Correct-Never repeat words or phrases, and avoid using words that contribute little to a sentence. Tip: Focus on brevity in writing. When in doubt, leave it out. 9. Preposition Placement Incorrect-Prepositions are not good to end sentences with. Correct-Do not end sentences with prepositions. Tip: A preposition is a word that shows some relationship or position between a common noun, a proper noun, or a pronoun and its object. The preposition is always part of a phrase and comes before its object. The preposition asks "What?" and the object provides the answer. Ending sentences with prepositions eliminates their objects, so avoid these constructions whenever possible. 10. Parallel Structure Incorrect-Swimming, to play tennis, and basketball are popular sports at the high school. Correct-Swimming, tennis, and basketball are popular sports at the high school. Tip: The term parallelism refers to a repeated grammatical construction of a word, a phrase, or a clause. Especially keep verb forms parallel within the same sentence. 11. Split Infinitives Incorrect-It is a mistake to ever split an infinitive. Correct-It is always a mistake to split an infinitive. Tip: An infinitive has a to + the base form of a verb. Placing a word between the to and the base form of the verb can create confusion. If tempted to split the infinitive, brainstorm for better verbs. 12. Double Negatives Incorrect-Never use no double negatives. Correct-Don't use double negatives. Tip: A double negative can cancel each other out and create an unintended positive. For example, "I don't really not like you" may prolong, rather than end, a relationship. 13. Noun-Verb Agreements (numbers) Incorrect-The calculations indicates that there will be an economic downturn soon. Correct-The calculations indicate that there will be an economic downturn soon. Tip: If the noun is plural (ends in an s, the verb that acts upon that noun usually does not end in an s. 14. Verbing Nouns Incorrect-Grammar is negatively impacting my ability to write. Correct-Grammar has a negative impact on my ability to write. Tip: Don't make nouns into verbs. Also, avoid stringing nouns together, such as in "Top Grammar Pet Peeves." However, no one would search for "Top Grammatical Pet Peeves." Pronoun Pests 15. Subject Case Pronouns (used as appositives) Incorrect-Everyone came earlier than her. Correct-Everyone came earlier than she. Tip: Use the subject case pronoun if the pronoun is part of an appositive, such as after than or as. An appositive is a noun or pronoun placed next to another noun or pronoun to identify or explain it. Re-order the sentence to check if the pronoun sounds right, e.g., "She came earlier than everyone." 16. Subject Case Pronouns (compound subjects) Incorrect-Her and Muffy play video games. Correct-She and Muffy play video games. Tip: Drop other nouns or pronouns when there is a compound subject (two or more subjects), and check if the remaining pronoun sounds right, e.g., "Her plays video games" sounds bad while "She plays video games" sounds good. 17. Subject Case Pronouns (pronoun order) Incorrect-I and Zelda enjoy the beach. Correct-Zelda and I enjoy the beach. Tip: Remember that English is a polite language; the first person pronouns (I, me, ours, mine) are always placed last when combined with other nouns or pronouns. 18. Subject Case Pronouns (serving as predicate nominatives) Incorrect-The students who got into trouble are them. Correct- The students who got into trouble are they. Tip: A predicate nominative follows a "to be" verb (is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been) and identifies or refers to the subject. Re-order the sentence to check if the pronoun sounds right, e.g., "They are the students who got into trouble." 19. Object Case Pronouns (serving as objects of prepositions) Incorrect-The fly buzzed between you and I. Correct- The fly buzzed between you and me. Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is an object of a preposition. A preposition shows some relationship or position between the preposition and its object (a proper noun, a common noun, or a pronoun). The preposition asks "What?" and the object provides the answer. 20. Object Case Pronouns (serving as direct objects) Incorrect- The challenge excited we. Correct-The challenge excited us. Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is the direct object. The direct object receives the action of the verb and answers "What?" or "Who?" 21. Object Case Pronouns (serving as indirect objects) Incorrect- Robert gave they a king-size candy bar. Correct- Robert gave them a king-size candy bar. Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is an indirect object of a verb. The indirect object is placed between a verb and its direct object. It answers "To What?" "To Whom," " For What?" or "For Whom?" 22. Object Case Pronouns (serving as appositives) Incorrect-The teacher yelled at two students, Zippy and I. Correct-The teacher yelled at two students, Zippy and me. Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the direct object is described by an appositive phrase (a phrase that identifies or explains another noun or pronoun placed next to it). 23. Object Case Pronouns (connected to infinitives) Incorrect-I want we to give the speech. Correct-I want us to give the speech. Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is connected to an infinitive. An infinitive has a to + the base form of a verb. 24. Gender Pronouns Incorrect-Everyone has their own problems or Everyone has his/her own problems. Correct-Everyone has his own problems (Yes, English is a masculine-based language) or better... All people have their own problems. Tip: To be inclusive (and politically correct), make pronoun references plural. Avoid the wordy and confusing "his or hers for him and her." 25. Reflexive Pronouns Incorrect-The party was for Bob and myself, and I allowed me the privilege of attending the celebration. Correct-The party was for Bob and me, and I allowed myself the privilege of attending the celebration. Tip: Don't use reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself(ves), himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves) in place of object case pronouns. Reflexives refer to the subject. An intensive pronoun intensifies an action, e.g., "I want to do it myself." 26. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to ambiguous references) Incorrect-When Bobby asked for help, they asked why. Problem—Who are the they? Correct-When Bobby asked for help, his friends asked why. Tip: An antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers. Make sure antecedents are specific. Otherwise, the pronoun reference may be confusing. 27. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to the objects of prepositions) Incorrect-In Twain's The Celebrated Frog of Calaveras County, he uses political humor. Problem—Who, or what, is he? Correct-In Twain's The Celebrated Frog of Calaveras County, the author uses political humor. Tip: Don't have a pronoun refer to the object of a prepositional phrase, e.g., "of Calaveras County." 28. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to this, that, these, those, it, its) Incorrect-He made an egg, put the dog food in its bowl, and put this on his toast to eat. Problem—What is this? Whose is his? Correct-He made an egg and put it on his toast. Then, he put the dog food in its bowl. Tip: Make sure that the singular pronouns this and that and the plural pronouns these and those specifically refer to what is intended. Keep these pronouns close to their references. 29. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to possessives) Incorrect-In San Diego's famous zoo, they treat their zoo-keepers well. Problem—Who are the they and their? Correct- In San Diego's famous zoo, the animals treat their zoo-keepers well. Tip: Don't have a pronoun refer to a possessive antecedent. A possessive is a common noun, proper noun, or pronoun that shows ownership. 30. The This, That, These, Those Pronouns (serving as demonstrative adjectives) Incorrect-I like these over there. Correct-I like those over there. Tip: Use this and these for objects within reach; use that and those for objects not within reach. 31. The Who Pronoun Incorrect-Whom did it, and why? Correct-Who did it, and why? Tip: The pronoun who is in the subject (nominative) case. The who takes the role of the subject. Try substituting he for who and rephrase, if necessary. If it sounds right, use the who, e.g. "Him did it" sounds bad while "He did it" sounds good. 32. The Whom Pronoun Incorrect-I like who you gave the award, but to who does this letter concern? Correct-I like whom you gave the award, but to whom does this letter concern? Tip: The pronoun whom is in the objective case. In other words, it is takes the place of the direct object, the indirect object of the verb, or the object of the preposition. Try substituting him for whom and rephrase, if necessary. If it sounds right, use whom. "I like he" and "to he does this letter concern" sound bad while "I like him" and "to him does this letter concern" sound good. 33. The Who Pronoun (serving at the start of relative clauses) Incorrect-The man which showed me the car was friendly. Correct-The man who showed me the car was friendly. Tip: When beginning a relative clause, use who to refer to specific people. 34. The That Pronoun (serving at the start of relative clauses) Incorrect-The movie which we watched was entertaining. Correct-The movie that we watched was entertaining. Tip: The pronoun that can refer to unspecific, or general, people or things. Use the pronoun that when the clause is needed to understand or restrict the meaning of the rest of the sentence. 35. The Which Pronoun (serving at the start of relative clauses) Incorrect-A dog, which is compliant, is easy to train. Correct-A Golden Retriever, which is compliant, is easy to train. Tip: The pronoun which can only refer to specific things. Use the pronoun which in clauses that provide additional, but not necessary information to the rest of the sentence. 36. Indefinite Pronouns (general singular) Incorrect-Everyone are ready for lunch. Correct-Everyone is ready for lunch. Tip: An indefinite singular pronoun does not refer to a definite noun. The following indefinite pronouns are singular: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, nothing, no one, one, somebody, someone, and something. Look at the second part of the compound word, e.g. something, to determine singular or plural for many of these indefinite pronouns. 37. Indefinite Pronouns (general plural) Incorrect-Several gives him advice. Correct-Several give him advice. Tip: An indefinite plural pronoun does not refer to definite nouns. The following indefinite pronouns are plural: both, few, many, and several. Indefinite plural pronouns are usually not compound words. 38. Indefinite Pronouns (singular determining quantity or measurement) Incorrect-More of the food were given to the homeless. The word clue is food. Correct-More of the food was given to the homeless. Tip: Indefinite pronouns that express quantity or measurement may be singular or plural depending upon the surrounding word clues. Pay special attention to the object of a preposition word clue connecting to these pronouns. Singular Indefinite Pronouns: all the food, any of this, half of it, more of that, most of it, none of that, other one, some child 39. Indefinite Pronouns (plural determining quantity or measurement) Incorrect-More boys seems to be playing sports these days. The word clue is boys. Correct-More boys seem to be playing sports these days. Tip: Indefinite pronouns that express quantity or measurement may be singular or plural depending upon the surrounding word clues. Pay special attention to the object of a preposition word clue connecting to these pronouns. Plural Indefinite Pronouns: all girls, any of these, half of those, more boys, most friends, none of those, other friends, some of them 40. Possessive Pronouns Incorrect-Bilbo's faking won't help his success as much as him planning. Correct-Bilbo's faking won't help his success as much as his planning.

Synesthesia

While the term ______literally refers to a medical condition wherein one or many of the sensory modalities become joint to one another, in literature it refers to the depiction of a strong connection, link or bond between the different senses. Characters in literature are sometimes described to be the conflation of the senses. Example: The Sound of Blue by Hollu Payne which portrays ______with respect to the Romantic ideal.

Ekphrastic

____ refers to a form of writing, mostly poetry, wherein the author describes another work of art, usually visual. It is used to convey the deeper symbolism of the corporeal art form by means of a separate medium. It has often been found that ____ writing is rhetorical in nature and symbolic of a greater meaning. Example: A photograph of an empty landscape can convey desolation, abandon and loss. Similarly, one can convey the same sentiments and concepts by using phrases such as 'an empty doorway' or 'a childless nursery'.

Authorial Intrusion

_____ is an interesting literary device wherein the author penning the story, poem or prose steps away from the text and speaks out to the reader. ______establishes a one to one relationship between the writer and the reader where the latter is no longer a secondary player or an indirect audience to the progress of the story but is the main subject of the author's attention. Example: In many olden novels, especially in suspense novels, the protagonist would move away from the stream of the story and speak out to the reader. This technique was often used to reveal some crucial elements of the story to the reader even though the protagonist might remain mystified within the story for the time being.

methods of assessing reading progress

checklist, rubric, running record, informal reading inventory, diagnosis of errors,

Hubris

in this day and age, is another way of saying overly arrogant. You can tell the difference of hubris and just regular arrogance or pride by the fact that the character has seemed to allow reality slip away from them. The character portraying hubris, also commonly referred to as hybris, may have just gained a huge amount of power and the false belief that they are "untouchable". This term hubris used to have a slightly different meaning and was a very negative subject back in ancient Greek. It used to be closely related to a crime in Athens. In writing and literature hubris is generally considered a "tragic flaw" and it is saved for the protagonist. The reason for this is because at the end of the story you should be able to see that it is this flaw that brings the "bad guy" down. Example: A classic example of hubris is featured in Shakespeare's play Macbeth. Macbeth, the protagonist, overfilled with ambition and arrogance, allows his hubris to think you would be able to kill the valiant Duncan without penalty so he can claim the throne of Scotland for himself. Obviously murder is highly frowned upon, so this eventually leads to Macbeth's demise as well.

subordinating conjunctions

introduces the dependent clause connects 2 clauses that are not equal or the same type (running a marathon is tough BECAUSE of the taxation on your body) if, although, as, when, because, since, though, wh en, whenever, after, unless, while, whereas, even though

Iambic u /

mistTAKE (unstressed/stressed)

Trochaic / u

AFter (stressed/unstressed)

Cacophony

A_____ in literature refers to the use of words and phrases that imply strong, harsh sounds within the phrase. These words have jarring and dissonant sounds that create a disturbing, objectionable atmosphere. Example: His fingers rapped and pounded the door, and his foot thumped against the yellowing wood

Aphorism

An _____is a concise statement that is made in a matter of fact tone to state a principle or an opinion that is generally understood to be a universal truth. ____are often adages, wise sayings and maxims aimed at imparting sense and wisdom. It is to be noted that aphorisms are usually witty and curt and often have an underlying tone of authority to them. Example: Upon seeing the shoddy work done by the employee the boss told him to "either shape up or ship out".

Bibliomancy

As the very name itself suggests, this kind of literary device finds its roots in biblical origins. This term refers to the practice of basing a plot happening or event and anticipating the results it will have on a faction of the Bible. It involves a random selection process wherein the biblical passage is chosen as a founding stone for basing the outcome of the writing. In an overall context, not limited to just literature, _____refers to foretelling the future by turning to random portions of the Bible for guidance. Example: The Vedas serve as a tool for Bibliomancy to the Hindus while Muslims rely on the Koran.

Characterization

In literature refers to a step-by-step process wherein a character of a story is brought to notice and then detailed upon in front of the reader. ___ is a sort of initiation wherein the reader is introduced to the character. The initial step is to introduce the character with a marked emergence. After the arrival his behavior is discussed. This is followed by an insight into his thought-process. Then comes the part where the character voices his opinions or converses with others in the story. The last and finalizing part is when others in the plot respond to the character's presence. Example: Michael Corleone was not jus' a mafiaso, but a family man. A man who walked the knife's edge to preserve his sanity.

Faulty Parallelism

In literature, the term 'is used to refer to the practice placing together similarly structure related phrases, words or clauses. Parallelism involves placing sentence items in a parallel grammatical format wherein nouns are listed together, specific verb forms are listed together and the suchlike. When one fails to follow this parallel structure, it results in _____ The failure to maintain a balance in grammatical forms is known as faulty parallelism wherein similar grammatical forms receive dissimilar/unequal weight. Example: On the TV show The Simpsons, lead character Bart Simpson says, "they are laughing, not with me".

Foil

In the popular book series, Harry Potter, the character of Hogwarts principal Albus Dumbledore, who portrays 'good', is constantly shown to believe in the power of true love (of all forms and types) and is portrayed as a strong, benevolent and positive character while the antagonist Lord Voldemort, who depicts the evil and 'bad' in the series is constantly shown to mock and disbelieve the sentiment of love and think of it as a foolish indulgence, a trait that is finally his undoing.

Conflict

It is a literary device used for expressing a resistance the protagonist of the story finds in achieving his aims/ dreams. ___ is a discord that can have external aggressors or can even arise from within the self. It occurs when the subject is battling his inner discord, may be at odds with his surroundings and lastly, may be pitted against others in the story. Example: John tried hard to convince himself that his Hollywood dreams were worth the struggle but his parents, and his inner voice of reason, failed to agree.

Euphony

The literary device _____refers to the use of phrases and words that are noted for possessing an extensive degree of notable loveliness or melody in the sound they create. The use of______ is predominant in literary prose and poetry, where poetic devices such as alliterations, rhymes and assonace are used to create pleasant sounds. Euphony is the opposite of cacophony, which refers to the creation of unpleasant and harsh sounds by using certain words/ phrases together. This literary devices is based on the use and manipulation of phonetics in literature. Example: It has been said that the phrase "cellar door" is reportedly the most pleasant sounding phrase in the English language. The phrase is said to depict the highest degree of euphony, and is said to be especially notable when spoken in the British accent.

Chiasmus

_____is a figure of speech containing two phrases that are parallel but inverted to each other. Example: You can take the patriot out of the country but you cannot take the country out of the patriot.

complex sentence

an independent and dependent clause (contains sub and verb but does not express a complete thought) Because I do not feel well, I will not be attending the concert.

Archetype

An ____ is a reference to a concept, a person or an object that has served as a prototype of its kind and is the original idea that has come to be used over and over again. ____ are literary devices that employ the use of a famous concept, person or object to convey a wealth of meaning. Archetypes are immediately identifiable and even though they run the risk of being overused, they are still the best examples of their kind. Example: Romeo and Juliet are an archetype of eternal love and a star-crossed love story.

Bruner

LASS lang aquis sup system (family)

Krashen's Theory of 2nd language acquisition

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis. The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'. (Veja o texto ao lado e também outra página em português sobre Acquisition/Learning). The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule. It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance. Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor' The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition. The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.. Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

Literary Schools and Movements

Medieval (500-1500) This movement took place during the Middle Ages, also referred to as the "Dark Ages." Old English, a primarily Germanic language was in a constant state of flux due to the varied tribes invading and settling England. It is not until William the Conqueror wins the Battle of Hastings in 1066 that the kingdom is united and the Angelo-Saxon dialect merges with the French dialect of its conquerors that Middle English is born. An important development in literature during this era was the acceptance of works written in the vernacular (native) languages, rather than Latin. Popular genres included Elegy, Romance, and Epic poetry and Religious, Miracle, and Mortality plays. Renaissance (1350-1600) A term meaning rebirth. The rediscovery of classic literature in this period renewed that human existence was not just painful preparation for an afterlife, but that it had interest and value in itself. This idea is called Humanism. The return to favor of the pagan classics stimulated the philosophy of secularism, the appreciation of wordly pleasures, and above all intensified the assertion of personal independence and the individual expression. Popular literary forms included poetry: the ballad, the pastoral, the sonnet, the metaphysical, as well as dramatic works. Neoclassicism (1660-1789) This period included neoclassicism, or discussing and judging a literary work in terms of principles derived from admired qualities in the classics of Greek and Roman literature, including form, objectivity, emotional restraint, and lack of eccentricity. They believed that human nature was universal and that mankind was responsible for the instruction of his fellow man. Neoclassicists valued imitation, reason, logic, order, and society over the individual. Sharp and brilliant wit focused on people in their social context, make this perhaps the world's greatest age of comedy and satire. Another popular form is the essay. Romanticism (1790-1850) A movement in art and literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in revolt against neoclassicism (revival of artistic ideals from Greece and Rome). Characteristics include subjectivity, spontaneity, freedom from rules, the beliefs that imagination is superior to reason, and a devotion to beauty. Romantics also valued emotion, nature, and placed individual over society. Contains a variety of genres, but poetry is perhaps the most commonly associated genre with romantic literature. Transcendentalism (1836-1860) This period dealt with the ideal that something in human beings transcended human nature: a spark of divinity. Great emphasis is placed on individualism, conscience as a guide to behavior, and intuition in the discovery of truth and artistic inspiration. Victorian Literature (1830-1914) This period received its name from the reign of Queen Victoria of England. Period includes the Industrial Revolution, which prompted literature on social problems. New scientific theories from Charles Darwin raised religious and philosophical doubts. The Great Age of the English novel, essay, and poem. Realism (1860-1890) Realism is broadly defined as "the faithful representation of reality." It is a literary technique where one is uniquely capable of reflecting the ordiary life of the average person. This movement examined the conduct and psychology of the middle-class. Naturalism Movement in France, America, and England during the late-nineteenth century and early-twentieth centuries that emphasizes biological and socioeconomic determinism (people's actions and events are determined by uncontrollable forces) in fiction and dramas. Naturalism portrays human beings as higher animals lacking free will, their lives determined by natural forces and of heredity and environment, and by basic drives over which they have no control and which they do not fully comprehend. Harlem Renaissance (1920-early 1930s) The flourishing of African-American creativity in New York City's Harlem. The movement also included artists and musicians. The movement came to an end with the onset of the Depression. Existentialism A philosophy that focuses on the individual human being's experience of, recognition of, and triumph over the meaningless of existence. Existentialism became especially popular in the 1940's after the horrors of World War II. This produced novels, plays, and philosophical writings

Foot

One foot (one iamb or one dactyl, etc.) - monometer 2 - dimeter 3 - trimeter 4 - tetrameter 5 - pentameter 6 - hexameter, A unit of rhythm or meter; the division in verse of a group of syllables, one of which is long or accented.

relative clause

Recognize a relative clause when you see one. A relative clause—also called an adjective or adjectival clause—will meet three requirements. First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one? The relative clause will follow one of these two patterns: relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb relative pronoun as subject + verb Here are some examples: Which Francine did not accept Which = relative pronoun; Francine = subject; did accept = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb]. Where George found Amazing Spider-Man #96 in fair condition Where = relative adverb; George = subject; found = verb. That dangled from the one clean bathroom towel That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; dangled = verb. Who continued to play video games until his eyes were blurry with fatigue Who = relative pronoun functioning as subject; played = verb. Avoid creating a sentence fragment. A relative clause does not express a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence. To avoid writing a fragment, you must connect each relative clause to a main clause. Read the examples below. Notice that the relative clause follows the word that it describes. To calm his angry girlfriend, Joey offered an apology which Francine did not accept. We tried our luck at the same flea market where George found Amazing Spider-Man #96 in fair condition. Michelle screamed when she saw the spider that dangled from the one clean bathroom towel. Brian said goodnight to his roommate Justin, who continued to play video games until his eyes were blurry with fatigue. Punctuate a relative clause correctly. Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. For each sentence, you will have to decide if the relative clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly. Essential clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example: The children who skateboard in the street are especially noisy in the early evening. Children is nonspecific. To know which ones we are talking about, we must have the information in the relative clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas. If, however, we eliminate children and choose more specific nouns instead, the relative clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision: Matthew and his sister Loretta, who skateboard in the street, are especially noisy in the early evening.

semi colon

Recognize a semicolon when you see one. The semicolon [ ; ] is a powerful mark of punctuation with three uses. The first appropriate use of the semicolon is to connect two related sentences. The pattern looks like this: complete sentence + ; + complete sentence. Here is an example: Grandma still rides her Harley motorcycle; her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars. A semicolon can also team up with a transition—often a conjunctive adverb—to connect two sentences close in meaning. The pattern looks like this: complete sentence + ; + transition + , + complete sentence. Check out this example: My father does not approve of his mother cruising around town on a Harley motorcycle; however, Grandma has never cared what anyone thinks. Finally, use the semicolon to avoid confusion when you have complicated lists of items. The pattern looks like this: item + , + more information + ; + item + , + more information + ; + and + item + , + more information Read the following example: On a Harley motorcycle, my grandmother and her poodle have traveled to Anchorage, Alaska; San Francisco, California; and Tijuana, Mexico. Keep these three things in mind when you use a semicolon: The two main clauses that the semicolon joins should be closely related in meaning. Don't capitalize the word that follows the semicolon unless that word is a proper noun, one that is always capitalized. Limit your use of semicolons; you should not scatter them wantonly throughout your writing. Semicolons are like glasses of champagne; save them for special occasions.

Anthropomorphism

This device can be understood to be the act of lending a human quality, emotion or ambition to a non-human object or being. This act of lending a human element to a non-human subject is often employed in order to endear the latter to the readers or audience and increase the level of relativity between the two while also lending character to the subject. Example: The raging storm brought with it howling winds and fierce lightning as the residents of the village looked up at the angry skies in alarm.

Caesura

This literary device involves creating a fracture of sorts within a sentence where the two separate parts are distinguishable from one another yet intrinsically linked to one another. The purpose of using a ______is to create a dramatic pause, which has a strong impact. The pause helps to add an emotional, often theatrical touch to the sentence and conveys a depth of sentiment in a short phrase. Example: Mozart- oh how your music makes me soar!

who and whom

Who" or "Whom"? So here we go. The words "who" and "whom" are both pronouns. I'll have a quick and dirty trick for you later, but first I want you to actually understand the right way to use these words. First, to know whether to use "who" or "whom," we need to talk about the difference between subjects and objects because you use "who" when you are referring to the subject of a clause and "whom" when you are referring to the object of a clause. I know: subject and object sound pretty abstract, but it's easy. If we think about people, the subject of the sentence is the person doing something, and the object of the sentence is having something done to them. If I step on Squiggly, then I am the subject and Squiggly is the object. Still having a hard time remembering? Here's my favorite mnemonic: If I say, "I love you," you are the object of my affection, and you is also the object of the sentence (because I am loving you, making me the subject and you the object). How's that? I love you. You are the object of my affection and my sentence. It's like a Valentine's Day card and grammar mnemonic all rolled into one. Pages - See more at: http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/who-versus-whom#sthash.8K5iMRdG.dpuf

Epithet

______ is a literary device that is used as a descriptive device. It is usually used to add to a person or place's regular name and attribute some special quality to the same. Epithets are remarkable in that they become a part of common parlance over time. These descriptive words and phrases can be used to enhance the persona of real and fictitious places, objects, persons and divinities. Example: "Alexander the Great" is the ____commonly used to refer to Alexander III of Macedon. The young king has come to be recognized by this epithet in all of history and popular culture owing to his spectacular achievements in creating one of the largest-ever historical empires.

Assonance

________refers to repetition of sounds produced by vowels within a sentence or phrase. In this regard assonance can be understood to be a kind of alliteration. What sets it apart from alliterations is that it is the repetition of only vowel sounds. ____ is the opposite of consonance, which implies repetitive usage of consonant sounds. Example: "A long song". (Where the 'o' sound is repeated in the last two words of the sentence.

Subject Verb Agreement

subject verb agreement Singular subjects require singular verbs and plural subjects require plural verbs. This rule is easy to grasp, but several situations can cause problems with subject-verb agreement. This comic, from Grammar Comics: Sentence Problems, explains the problem. The first problem occurs when words come between the subject and the verb: Incorrect: Pancakes with syrup sounds yummy. Syrup is closest to the verb, but the subject is actually pancakes. Since pancakes is plural, pancakes requires the plural form of the verb. Therefore, the sentence should be: Pancakes with syrup sound yummy. The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody, neither, either are singular and always require singular verbs. Everyone has to take the driving test. No one is allowed to skip it. Each is always singular and especially troublesome because a prepositional phrase can follow it. Each of my parents wear glasses. While and joins two words, nor and or do not combine. When using or and nor, the word closest to the subject determines whether or not the verb is singular or plural. Neither Sam nor his friends take geometry. Either my sisters or my dad is picking me up. Collective nouns like group, committee, or team, which imply more than one person, are actually singular. The group studies for the chemistry test. There are several other exceptions to the rules for subject-verb agreement, but these are the most common you will encounter.

Consonance

A special type of alliteration in which the repeated pattern of consonants is marked by changes in the intervening vowels--i.e., the final consonants of the stressed syllables match each other but the vowels differ. Opposite of assonance. Example: Sing sweet songs for suzy.

Active and Passive Voice

Active and Passive Voice July 19th, 2013 | Mark Pennington, MA Reading Specialist No comments active voicepassive voice In passive voice, the subject receives the action with the use of a passive verb. A passive verb combines a "to-be" verb with a past participle (_d, _ed, or _en ending). For example, is practiced, was doubted, had been eaten. In active voice the subject does the action. For example, "John ran to the post office." The two comics above, part of a set entitled Grammar Comics: Grammar and Usage, explain the difference between passive and active voice. Passive voice is one of the biggest grammar pet peeves out there. There is nothing grammatically wrong with passive voice, but in general active voice is preferable. The problem with passive voice is that your reader often has to figure out what is going on. For instance, in the sentence "The ball was thrown by Phil" the person who is doing the throwing is not revealed until the end. Using active voice helps clarify who or what is doing the action. However, there are certain cases where passive voice is effective. Consider this sentence: "Sally has been told frequently not to pick her nose." In this case, who don't need to know who told Sally; the emphasis in the sentence is on Sally. Also consider this recent classic example: "Mistakes were made." If there were a subject, we would know who made the mistakes. Passive voice absolves anyone from blame while admitting error. Also, lab reports are written in passive voice; no one actually does anything, things just get done. For example, "2 ml of the solution were poured into a beaker." So passive voice is acceptable to use in certain cases. However, unless you have a specific reason not to, stick with active voice in your writing.

Flashback

Flashback is a literary device wherein the writer/ author depicts the occurrence of specific events to the reader, which have taken place before the present time the narration is following, or events that have happened before the events that are currently being unfolded in the story. Flashback devices that are commonly used are past narratives by characters, depictions and references of dreams and memories and a sub-device known as authorial sovereignty wherein the author directly chooses to refer to a past occurrence by bringing it up in a straightforward manner. Flashback is used to create a background to the present situation, place or person. Example: Back in the day when Sarah was a young girl...

How to fix run on sentences

Learning how to fix run-on sentences can be challenging for writers of all levels. From beginning writers who don't have the conceptual grasp of a complete thought to more experience writers who get caught up in the mire of dependent clauses and phrases, here are a few workable strategies to revise these errors in sentence structure. Definition: A sentence run-on consists of two or more independent clauses connected together as if they were one sentence without the benefit of a conjunction or proper punctuation. An independent clause means that there is a subject and a connecting verb that express a complete thought. But first, let's begin with what constitutes a complete sentence. A Complete Sentence tells a complete thought. has both a subject and a predicate. has the voice drop down at the end of a statement and the voice go up at the end of a question (in English). Run-On Examples and Their Fixes 1. Separate the run-on into two or more sentences. Run-On Example: Luis told his brother he told his sister, too. The Fix-Luis told his brother. He told his sister, too. 2. Add a semi-colon between the clauses. Run-On Example: Mary let him have it, she knew what she was doing. The Fix-Mary let him have it; she knew what she was doing. 3. Add a comma, then a conjunction after the first independent clause. Run-On Example: I like her, she doesn't like me. The Fix-I like her, but she doesn't like me. 4. Add a subordinating conjunction to one of the clauses. Run-On Example: Max was injured, he was still the best. The Fix-Even though Max was injured, he was still the best. 5. Change the second clause to a phrase starting with an __ing word. Run-On Example: They went to school, they looked for him. The Fix-They went to school, looking for him. Find 42 sequenced writing strategy worksheets and quickly move students from simple three-word paragraphs to complex multi-paragraph essays. With 64 sentence revision lessons, additional remedial worksheets, writing fluency and skill lessons, posters, and editing resources, the teacher can differentiate instruction with no additional prep with Teaching Essay Strategies. Also, find whole-class diagnostic grammar and mechanics assessments, enabling 4th-12th grade teachers to differentiate instruction with 72 targeted worksheets in Teaching Grammar and Mechanics. The book has a full year of 15-minute sentence lifting lessons with standards-based mechanics, spelling, and grammar skills that teach all the conventions needed for successful writing.

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure will help improve the clarity and efficiency of your writing. All of the items in a series should use the same form, regardless of whether or not they are words, phrases, or clauses. This cartoon, from Grammar Comics: Sentence Problems, helps explain the various problems that can result with parallel structure. Incorrect: Chloe is cute, intelligent, and knows a lot of good jokes. Cute and intelligent are both adjectives. Knows is a verb. Therefore, to revise this sentence to improve the parallel structure you would write: Chloe is cute, intelligent, and funny. Or, you could do this: Chloe has a terrific smile, a well-developed intelligence, and a good sense of humor. But you don't want to do this: Incorrect: Chloe has a terrific smile, intelligence, and a good sense of humor. Notice that the only part of the series without an a is intelligence. If each of the other two parts begins with a, then the third part must as well. Avoid mixing verb forms as well: Incorrect: Chloe likes playing tennis, watching movies, or to ride her bike. Correct: Chloe likes to play tennis, to watch movies, or to ride her bike. Or: Chloe likes to play tennis, watch movies, or ride her bike. Be careful with long phrases as well: Incorrect: Mr. Hernandez told his students that they should do their homework, that they study for their vocabulary test, and to read some articles. Correct: Mr. Hernandez told his students that they should do their homework, study for their vocabulary test, and read some articles.

Teaching Reading

activate prior knowledge predict or ask questions visualize draw inferences synthesize information repair understanding confirm predictions use charts, diagrams, indexes reflection

Foreshadowing

The literary device foreshadowing refers to the use of indicative words/phrases and hints that set the stage for a story to unfold and give the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without revealing the story or spoiling the suspense. Foreshadowing is used to suggest an upcoming outcome to the story. Example: "He had no idea of the disastrous chain of events to follow". In this sentence, while the protagonist is clueless of further developments, the reader learns that something disastrous and problematic is about to happen to/for him.

Asyndeton

_____ refers to a practice in literature whereby the author purposely leaves out conjunctions in the sentence, while maintaining the grammatical accuracy of the phrase. _____as a literary tool helps in shortening up the implied meaning of the entire phrase and presenting it in a succinct form. This compact version helps in creating an immediate impact whereby the reader is instantly attuned to what the writer is trying to convey. Use of this literary device helps in creating a strong impact and such sentences have greater recall worth since the idea is presented in a nutshell. Example: 1. Read, Write, Learn. 2. Watch, Absorb, Understand. 3. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.

Doppelganger

The term is derived from the German language and literally translates into 'double walker'. It refers to a character in the story that is actually a counterfeit or a copy of a real/ genuine character. ______ of the main characters usually bear the ability to impersonate the original but have vastly different spirits and intentions. The doppelganger usually has a different appearance but an earthly soul and supernatural hoodwinking abilities that allow it to fool other unsuspecting characters. Example: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

ELL stages of language develoment

The two English Language Learners (ELLs) at the back of the class say very little. They and their teacher are engaged in a daily conspiracy or collaboration to maintain that academic silence. Naturally, the student wants to avoid the embarrassment of not speaking English or not speaking it very well. The teacher accommodates that fear, rarely calling on the student in class to spare him or her that awkwardness. But a student's silence in class is a treacherous slope. It's easy for the teacher to misconstrue it. Does the student understand anything that is being said? Is the student learning anything at all about the subject being taught? Jane D. Hill, a consultant for Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory (McREL)in Denver, says she is often struck by comments she hears from teachers after her workshops on teaching ELLs during which she reviews the 5 stages of language acquisition. The 5 stages of language acquisition are: Preproduction, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency and advanced fluency. English Language Learners are spread all across those 5 levels. However, if they are all silent in the classroom, the teacher does not know which ones are moving from the preproduction to the early production stage or the early production to the speech emergence stage. The teacher does not know just how much students are progressing. One teacher expressed great relief upon learning about the earliest stages of language acquisition, the silent stages. She told Jane she thought the ELL student in her class was so quiet because she just didn't like her. Another participant said he was an ELL who flew under the radar for his entire 4 years of high school because not one of his teachers ever asked him a question. Jane is an advocate of asking ELLs in the classroom tiered questions, questions suitable to the student's level of language acquisition. If students are in the preproduction stage, the teacher can ask them to point to an object in a picture or to nod their heads. If they are in the early production stage, they can answer a yes or no question or they can give a one-word answer. As they move into speech emergence, the teacher can ask a questions that require a phrase to answer. In later stages of language acquisition, the teacher can challenge the students with "what if" questions. If teachers want to engage their ELLs and check for their comprehension, they have to meet them at their level of verbal output. To challenge them or lift their progress, ask them questions suitable to the very next level of language acquisition, Jane says, but never go backwards.

Antithesis

This device is used when the writer employs two sentences of contrasting meanings in close proximity to one another. Whether they are words or phrases of the same sentence, an antithesis is used to create a stark contrast using two divergent elements that come together to create one uniform whole. This device plays on the complementary property of opposites to create one vivid picture. The purpose of using an antithesis in literature is to create a balance between opposite qualities and lend a greater insight into the subject. Example: When Neil Armstrong walked on the moon it might have been one small step for a man but it was one giant leap for mankind.

Connotation

are the associations people make with words that go being the literal or dictionary definition. Many words have ____that create emotions or feelings in the reader. Example: And once again, the autumn leaves were falling. This phrase uses 'autumn' to signify something coming to an end.

Hyperbaton

is a literary device wherein the author plays with the regular positioning of words and phrases and creates a differently structured sentence to convey the same meaning. It is said that by using a hyperbaton, words/ phrases overstep their conventional placements and result in a more complex and intriguing sentence structure. This literary device is used to add more depth and interest to the sentence structure. Example: "Alone he walked on the cold, lonely roads". This sentence is a variation of the more conventional, "He walked alone on the cold, lonely roads".

Chomsky's stages of language acquisition

prelinguistic holophrastic two word stage telegraphic stage (28 mos old) intermediate development stage adult stage LAD language acquisition device

compound sentence

2 independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction correlative conjunction or semi colon

Ancedote

A short verbal accounting of a funny, amusing, interesting event or incident. The story is usually a reminiscence from the teller's life but at best is a related story of fact, as opposed to a contrived work of fiction. The origin of the word anecdote comes from the Greek Byzantine period, A.D. 527 to 565 during the reign of emperor Justinian. In his court, Justinian had a historian named Procopius who was a gifted writer who wrote many witty, amusing and somewhat bawdy accounts of court life. Never intending for this stories to become public he entitled his writings as "Anecdota" which was Greek for unpublished and kept secret. After his secret writings did indeed become public and published, the term anecdote became commonly used for similar accounts. Example: Amusing anecdotes many times find their way into wedding receptions, family reunions and any other gathering of people who know each other well. Teachers and educators often tell classrooms of pupils anecdotes about famous people. The anecdotes are not always flattering, but are usually revealing of character and invariably amusing. Here is an example of an anecdote about Winston Churchill: Winston Churchill was very fond of his pet dog Rufus. He ate in the dining room with the family on a special cloth and was treated with utmost respect. When enjoying movies, Rufus had the best seat in the house; on Winston Churchill's lap. While watching "Oliver Twist," Churchill put his hands over Rufus' eyes during the scene where Bill Sike's intends to drown his dog. Churchill is believed to have said to Rufus: "don't look now, dear. I'll tell you about it later."

Allegory

A symbolism device where the meaning of a greater, often abstract, concept is conveyed with the aid of a more corporeal object or idea being used as an example. Usually a rhetoric device, an allegory suggests a meaning via metaphoric examples. Example: Faith is like a stony uphill climb: a single stumble might send you sprawling but belief and steadfastness will see you to the very top.

Denotation

_____ refers to the use of the dictionary definition or literal meaning of a word. Example: They made a house. In the above sentence, house is meant literally as in a building where a family lives. If the word "home" was used instead in the above sentence in place of "house", the meaning would not be so literal as there are many emotions associated with the word "home" beyond simply the structure where people live.

Reading strategies

Activating prior knowledge; predicting or asking questions; visualizing; drawing influences; determining important ideas; synthesizing information; repairing understanding; confirming; using parts of a book; reflecting, etc... Prior knowledge activation Thinking about connections between the text, real life experience, and the larger world. Readers pay more attention when they relate to the text. It is the process of reminding learners of things they already know relative to a new topic. Questioning This strategy keeps readers engaged. It clarifies understanding and makes meaning. It is at the heart of thoughtful reading. Visualizing Active readers create images based on the words they read in the text, which increases understanding. Drawing inferences Occurs when the readers take what they know, garner clues from the text and think ahead to make a judgment, discern a theme, or speculate about what is to come. Determining important ideas Thoughtful readers grasp essential ideas and important information when reading. Readers must differentiate between less important ideas and key ideas that are central to the meaning of the text. Synthesizing information Involves combining new information with existing knowledge to form an original idea or interpretation. Reviewing, sorting, and sifting important information can lead to new insights that change the way readers think. Repairing understanding If confusion disrupts meaning, readers need to stop and clarify their understanding. Readers use a variety of strategies to "fix up" comprehension when meaning goes awry. Confirming As students read and after they read, they can verify the predictions they originally made. There is no wrong answer. Determining whether a prediction is correct is a goal. Using parts of a book Students should use charts, diagrams, indexes, and the table of contents to improve understanding of the content Reflecting An important strategy is for students to think about what they have just read. This can be simply thinking or more formal, such as a discussion or writing in a journal. Semantics As students read they can guess at words they do not know by considering the rest of the passage. Syntax Students should learn to ask Does it make sense?, Does it sound right in the passage/sentence?, and Does it look right? Miscue analysis A way of acquiring insight into children's reading strategies by studying the mistakes they make when reading aloud. Story mapping Making graphic representations of stories that make clear the specific relationships of story elements. Venn diagrams Enables a reader to compare two characters, concepts, places, or things by placing specific criteria or critical attributes in the appropriate places on the diagram. Fishbone organizer Helps the reader illustrate cause and effect. Methods of assessing reading progress Daily observation, checklist, rubric, running record, informal reading inventory, diagnosis of errors Rubric Also known as a scoring guide. It is used as a set of guidelines for evaluating a student's work. Running record An assessment method that documents a child's reading as he or she reads aloud and allows the teacher to evaluate the reading level and track errors. Specific marks are made to indicate the types of errors. Training is required. Informal reading inventory Student reads aloud while teacher notes miscues. Student then answers comprehension questions. Then the student is timed while reading the passages silently and answering comprehension questions. Diagnosis of errors Figuring out why students make the reading mistakes they do. Is it because they read without regard for meaning or without regard for the visual appearance of the word? Guided Reading is small-group reading instruction designed to provide differentiated teaching that supports students in developing reading proficiency. The small group model allows children to be taught in a way that is intended to be more focused on their specific needs, accelerating their progress. Anticipation guide things that readers do initially to get them motivated about the book such as title, cover, pages, print size, etc. Helps struggling readers hook onto the Big Ideas of a text.

Adjective Clause

An adjective clause—also called an adjectival or relative clause—will meet three requirements: First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one? The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns: relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb relative pronoun as subject + verb Here are some examples: Whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie Whose = relative pronoun; eyes = subject; pleaded = verb. Why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie Why = relative adverb; Fred = subject; can stand = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb]. That bounced across the kitchen floor That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; bounced = verb.

Adverb Clause

An adverb clause will meet three requirements: First, it will contain a subject and verb. You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought. Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How? When? or Why? Read these examples: Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached. How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause. Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner. When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner, an adverb clause.

Teaching Vocabulary

How to Teach the Common Core Vocabulary Standards Weekly Instructional Plan: Vocabulary Acquisition and Use (L.4, 5, and 6) Day One Introduce two multiple meaning words and read their definitions out loud. Write two sentences with the multiple meaning words on the board/projector and ask students to identify the use of the words. Direct students to compose their own sentences, using context clues to show the meanings of the words. (L.4.a.) Introduce two Greek and Latin word parts that fit together to form one word. Tell students to write down this word. Ask students to brainstorm which words they know that include each of the word parts. Write their example words on the board. Direct students to guess the part of speech and definition of the word formed from the word parts and to write down their guesses next to their vocabulary word. (L.4.a.) Pass out dictionaries, display an online dictionary, or use other language resources. Teach students to use the guide words to find the word entry, if using a print dictionary. Read the primary definition of the word formed from the Greek and Latin word parts and compare to student guesses. Teach students the different between primary and secondary definitions and read the secondary definition to compare. Teach students the symbols used from syllable division, accents, and parts of speech. Direct students to divide their vocabulary word into syllables with slashes (/), mark the primary accent (´), write the abbreviated part of speech, and write the definition that best matches the Greek and Latin word parts. Write the answers on the board and tell students to edit their answers as necessary. (L.4.c.d.) List a grade-appropriate figure of speech on the board/projector and explain the literal image of the expression. Tell students to write down the figure of speech. Ask students for their explanations and interpretations of the figurative meaning of the expression. Validate the correct student responses or provide the correct meaning as necessary. Tell students to paraphrase the figurative meaning next to the figure of speech. (L.5.a.) Day Two Introduce two grade-level vocabulary words that have special denotative relationships and read their definitions out loud. Direct students to compose a compound sentence with a connecting transition word or phrase to define one word in terms of the other, using context clues. (L.5.b.) Introduce two grade-level words that have special connotative relationships and read their definitions out loud. Explain the difference between denotation (dictionary definition) and connotation (definition in context). Explain that words have different shades of meaning when used in different situations. Explain what a spectrum is, using a rainbow as an example. Direct students to draw a four-word spectrum in which they place the two vocabulary words in connotative relationship with two already-known words with related meanings. (L.5.c.) Introduce two academic language words and read their definitions out loud. Direct students to draw two vocabulary four-squares, one for each academic language word. Quadrants are labeled "Key Words," "Similar to...," "Different than...," and "Example." Tell students to analyze the meaning of the academic vocabulary words by completing each square. (L.6.0)

gerund phrase

Recognize a gerund phrase when you see one. A gerund phrase will begin with a gerund, an ing word, and will include other modifiers and/or objects. Gerund phrases always function as nouns, so they will be subjects, subject complements, or objects in the sentence. Read these examples: Eating ice cream on a windy day can be a messy experience if you have long, untamed hair. Eating ice cream on a windy day = subject of the verb can be. A more disastrous activity for long-haired people is blowing giant bubble gum bubbles with the car windows down. Blowing giant bubble gum bubbles with the car windows down = subject complement of the verb is. Wild food adventures require getting your hair cut to a short, safe length. Getting your hair cut to a short, safe length = direct object of the verb require. Don't mistake a gerund phrase for a present participle phrase. Gerund and present participle phrases are easy to confuse because they both begin with an ing word. The difference is that a gerund phrase will always function as a noun while a present participle phrase describes another word in the sentence. Check out these examples: Jamming too much clothing into a washing machine will result in disaster. Jamming too much clothing into a washing machine = gerund phrase, the subject of the verb will result. Jamming too much clothing into the washing machine, Aamir saved $1.25 but had to tolerate the curious stares of other laundry patrons as his machine bucked and rumbled with the heavy load. Jamming too much clothing into the washing machine = present participle phrase describing Aamir. Bernard hates buttering toast with a fork. Buttering toast with a fork = gerund phrase, the direct object of the verb hates. Buttering toast with a fork, Bernard vowed that he would finally wash the week's worth of dirty dishes piled in the sink. Buttering toast with a fork = present participle phrase describing Bernard. My dog's most annoying habit is hogging the middle of the bed. Hogging the middle of the bed = gerund phrase, the subject complement of the linking verb is. Last night I had to sleep on the couch because I found my dog Floyd hogging the middle of the bed. Hogging the middle of the bed = present participle phrase describing Floyd.

Verb Tenses

Progressive and Perfect Verb Tenses July 15th, 2013 | Mark Pennington, MA Reading Specialist No comments It can be difficult to remember all of the different verb tenses. Here is a brief run down on the perfect and progressive tenses as they relate to the present tense. These handouts, which come from Grammar Comics: Grammar and Usage, help explain the differences. present tense The present tense covers actions that are occurring right now: I drive to school every day. This sentence tells us that, currently, in the present, you are not making your way to school on foot, on a bike, on a boat, or on a camel. You drive there. present progressive tense The present progressive tense covers actions that are in progress: I am driving to school because I have get there early for choir practice. This sentence tells us the you are currently driving to school. You wouldn't tell us this when you have arrived in the parking lot because you are no longer driving. However you will use the progressive in other contexts as well: I am driving to school this year because I am tired of riding the bus. present progressive The present perfect tense is used for an action that has been completed (or "perfected") I have driven to school, so I know the best route. In this sentence the action is completed. Nothing implies that you are continuing to drive. Perhaps you had the car taken away for bad grades. In this sentence, it doesn't matter; at one point in your live you drive to school and that's the truth. present perfect progressive tense The present perfect progressive tense covers actions that you have done, are presently doing, and might do in the future. I have been driving to school for the past five years. It sounds like you had a little trouble passing classes if you've been driving to school that long, but be that as it may, this sentence tells us that you have driven to school before, are doing it now, and might do in the future. If you parents ground you, we are back to present perfect tense: I am not driving anywhere until my grades improve.

clause

Recognize a clause when you see one. Clauses come in four types: main [or independent], subordinate [or dependent], adjective [or relative], and noun. Every clause has at least a subject and a verb. Other characteristics will help you distinguish one type of clause from another. Main Clauses Every main clause will follow this pattern: subject + verb = complete thought. Here are some examples: Lazy students whine. Students = subject; whine = verb. Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter. Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs. My dog loves pizza crusts. Dog = subject; loves = verb. The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause. Otherwise, you have a fragment, a major error. Subordinate Clauses A subordinate clause will follow this pattern: subordinate conjunction + subject + verb = incomplete thought. Here are some examples: Whenever lazy students whine Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb. As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs. Because my dog loves pizza crusts Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb. The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand alone as complete sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate clause to a main clause. Generally, the punctuation looks like this: main clause + Ø + subordinate clause. subordinate clause + , + main clause. Check out these revisions to the subordinate clauses above: Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Russell throws chalk erasers at their heads. Anthony ran for the paper towels as cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter. Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman. Relative Clauses A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which, or that] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. The patterns look like these: relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb = incomplete thought. relative pronoun as subject + verb = incomplete thought. Here are some examples: Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb. Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews, drools = verbs. That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs. Who loves pizza crusts Who = relative pronoun; loves = verb. Like subordinate clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences. You must connect them to main clauses to finish the thought. Look at these revisions of the relative clauses above: The lazy students whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser soon learned to keep their complaints to themselves. My dog Floyd, who loves pizza crusts, eats them under the kitchen table, where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm. Anthony ran to get paper towels for the cola that had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter. Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. You have to decide if the relative clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly. Essential relative clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example: A dog that eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath. Dog is nonspecific. To know which dog we are talking about, we must have the information in the relative clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas. If, however, we revise dog and choose more specific words instead, the relative clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision: My dog Floyd, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath. Noun Clauses Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause. Look at this example: You really do not want to know the ingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew. Ingredients = noun. If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have a noun clause: You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew. What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause.

collective nouns

Recognize a collective noun when you see one. Nouns name people, places, and things. Collective nouns, a special class, name groups [things] composed of members [usually people]. Check out the chart below: army audience board cabinet class committee company corporation council department faculty family firm group jury majority minority navy public school senate society team troupe Use correct verbs and pronouns with collective nouns. Each noun from the list above is a single thing. That thing, however, is made up of more than one person. You cannot have a committee, team, or family of one; you need at least two people to compose the unit. Because people behave as both herd animals and solitary creatures, collective nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on context. In writing, this double status often causes agreement errors. How do you tell if a collective noun is singular or plural? What verbs and pronouns do you use with the collective noun? Here is the key: Imagine a flock of pigeons pecking at birdseed on the ground. Suddenly, a cat races out of the bushes. What do the pigeons do? They fly off as a unit in an attempt to escape the predator, wheeling through the sky in the same direction. People often behave in the same manner, doing one thing in unison with the other members of their group. When these people are part of a collective noun, that noun becomes singular and requires singular verbs and pronouns. As you read the following examples, notice that all members of the collective noun are doing the same thing at the same time: Every afternoon the baseball team follows its coach out to the hot field for practice. Team = singular; follows = a singular verb; its = a singular pronoun. All members of the team arrive at the same place at the same time. Today, Dr. Ribley's class takes its first 100-item exam. Class = singular; takes = a singular verb; its = a singular pronoun. All members of the class are testing at the same time. The jury agrees that the state prosecutors did not provide enough evidence, so its verdict is not guilty. Jury = singular; agrees = a singular verb; its = a singular pronoun. All members of the jury are thinking the same way. Now imagine three house cats in the living room. Are the cats doing the same thing at the same time? Not this group! One cat might be sleeping on top of the warm television. Another might be grooming on the sofa. A third animal might be perched on the windowsill, watching the world outside. There is one group of animals, but the members of that group are all doing their own thing. Members of collective nouns can behave in a similar fashion. When the members are acting as individuals, the collective noun is plural and requires plural verbs and pronouns. As you read these examples, notice that the members of the collective noun are not acting in unison: After the three-hour practice under the brutal sun, the team shower, change into their street clothes, and head to their air-conditioned homes. Team = plural; shower, change, head = plural verbs; their = a plural pronoun. The teammates are dressing into their individual outfits and leaving in different directions for their individual homes. After the long exam, the class start their research papers on famous mathematicians. Class = plural; start = a plural verb; their = a plural pronoun. The students are beginning their own research papers—in different places, at different times, on different mathematicians. The jury disagree about the guilt of the accused and have told the judge that they are hopelessly deadlocked. Jury = plural; disagree, have told = plural verbs; they = a plural pronoun. Not everyone on the jury is thinking the same way. Whenever you cannot decide if a collective noun is singular or plural, exercise your options as a writer. You have two ways that you can compose the sentence without causing an agreement error: 1) insert the word members after the collective noun [jury members, committee members, board members], or 2) use an entirely different word [players instead of team, students instead of class, soldiers instead of army]. Then you can use plural verbs and pronouns without worrying about making mistakes or sounding unnatural.

comma splice

Recognize a comma splice when you see one. A comma splice, also called a run-on, occurs when a writer has connected two main clauses with a comma alone. A main clause makes a complete thought, so you should not find a wimpy comma struggling to join two such powerful clauses. The problem looks like this: main clause + , + main clause. Here is an example: Fanning the slice of pizza with a napkin, Jolene waited for it to cool, she had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese sticks. The first main clause is Jolene waited for it to cool, and the second is she had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese sticks. Notice that the two clauses have only a comma connecting them. Know how to fix a comma splice. Fixing a comma splice is easy. All you have to do is pick one of the four available strategies. First, you can break the error into two separate sentences, like this: Fanning the slice of pizza with a napkin, Jolene waited for it to cool. She had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese sticks. Another good option is to connect the two main clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction: Fanning the slice of pizza with a napkin, Jolene waited for it to cool, for she had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese sticks. You can also use a semicolon, a mark of punctuation as powerful as a period: Fanning the slice of pizza with a napkin, Jolene waited for it to cool; she had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese sticks. Your last option is to use a subordinate conjunction. This method reduces one of the two clauses to an incomplete thought: Fanning the slice of pizza with a napkin, Jolene waited for it to cool since she had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese sticks.

conjunctive adverb

Recognize a conjunctive adverb when you see one. Conjunctions have one job, to connect. They join words, phrases, or clauses together to clarify what the writer is saying. Their presence provides smooth transitions from one idea to another. When the job of an adverb is to connect ideas, we call it a conjunctive adverb. Here is the list: accordingly also besides consequently conversely finally furthermore hence however indeed instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next nonetheless otherwise similarly still subsequently then therefore thus A conjunctive adverb can join two main clauses. In this situation, the conjunctive adverb behaves like a coordinating conjunction, connecting two complete ideas. Notice, however, that you need a semicolon, not a comma, to connect the two clauses: main clause + ; + conjunctive adverb + , + main clause. Read these examples: The dark skies and distant thunder dissuaded Clarice from her afternoon run; moreover, she had thirty calculus problems to solve for her morning class. Leon's apartment complex does not allow dogs over thirty pounds; otherwise, he would have bought the gangly Great Dane puppy playing in the pet store window. The cat ate a bowlful of tuna; then, to the squirrels' delight, the fat feline fell asleep in the rocking chair. A conjunctive adverb will also introduce, interrupt, or conclude a single main clause. In this situation, you will often need commas to separate the conjunctive adverb from the rest of the sentence. Check out these examples: At 10 a.m., Paul was supposed to be taking his biology midterm. Instead, he was flirting with the pretty waitress at the coffee house. Maria declined Jeff's third invitation to go out. This young man is determined, nevertheless, to take her to dinner one night soon. After mowing the yard in the hot sun, Pedro was too hungry to shower. He did wash his dusty hands, however. If the break is weak, do not use comma(s). Anna called to say her car would not start. Rafael will therefore have to walk to school. Weak interruption = no commas. The long noodles splashed tomato sauce all over the front of Brenda's shirt. Ordering fettuccine was a mistake indeed. Weak interruption = no comma.

correlative conjunction

Recognize a correlative conjunction when you see one. Either ... or, neither ... nor, and not only ... but also are all correlative conjunctions. They connect two equal grammatical items. If, for example, a noun follows either, then a noun will also follow or. Read these examples: In the fall, Phillip will either start classes at the community college as his mother wishes or join the Navy, his father's hope. Neither the potted ivy on the counter nor the dirty dishes in the sink have enjoyed water on their surfaces for the past week. Professor Wilson not only requires a 3,000-word research essay but also assigns a 500-word reaction paper every single week. When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about verb agreement. If you connect two subjects with a correlative conjunction, the second one must agree with the verb that follows. Every single evening either the horned owl or the squabbling cats wake Samantha with their racket. Every single evening either the squabbling cats or the horned owl wakes Samantha with its racket. When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about pronoun agreement. If you connect two antecedents with a correlative conjunction, the second one must agree with the pronoun that follows. Neither Yolanda nor the cousins expressed their disappointment when blind Aunt Sophie set down the plate of burnt hamburgers. Neither the cousins nor Yolanda expressed her disappointment when blind Aunt Sophie set down the plate of burnt hamburgers. When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about parallel structure. Either ... or, neither ... nor, and not only ... but also require special attention when you are proofreading for parallelism. Be sure that you have equal grammatical units after both parts of the conjunction. You can have two main clauses like this: Not only did Michael grill a steak for Tiffany, but he also prepared a hotdog for Rocket, her dog. Or you can shorten the sentence with two prepositional phrases: Michael grilled meat not only for Tiffany but also for Rocket, her dog. Or you can have two nouns as this version does: Michael grilled meat for not only Tiffany but also Rocket, her dog.

direct object

Recognize a direct object when you see one. A direct object will follow a transitive verb [a type of action verb]. Direct objects can be nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses. If you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct object—if one exists—is easy. Just remember this simple formula: subject + verb + what? or who? = direct object Here are examples of the formula in action: Zippy and Maurice played soccer with a grapefruit pulled from a backyard tree. Zippy, Maurice = subjects; played = verb. Zippy and Maurice played what? Soccer = direct object. Zippy accidentally kicked Maurice in the shin. Zippy = subject; kicked = verb. Zippy kicked who? Maurice = direct object. Sometimes direct objects are single words like soccer and Maurice; other times they are phrases or clauses. The formula nevertheless works the same. Sylina hates biting her fingernails. Sylina = subject; hates = verb. Sylina hates what? Biting her fingernails [a gerund phrase] = direct object. Even worse, Sylina hates when Mom lectures her about hand care. Sylina = subject; hates = verb. Sylina hates what? When Mom lectures her about hand care [a subordinate clause] = direct object. Direct objects can also follow verbals—infinitives, gerunds, and participles. Use this abbreviated version of the formula: verbal + what? or who? = direct object Here are some examples: To see magnified blood cells, Gus squinted into the microscope on the lab table. To see = infinitive. To see what? Blood cells = direct object. Gus bought contact lenses because he wanted to see the beautiful Miranda, his lab partner, more clearly. To see = infinitive. To see who? The beautiful Miranda = direct object. Dragging her seventy-five pound German shepherd through the door is Roseanne's least favorite part of going to the vet. Dragging = gerund. Dragging what? Her seventy-five pound German shepherd = direct object. Heaping his plate with fried chicken, Clyde winked at Delores, the cook. Heaping = participle. Heaping what? His plate = direct object. Don't mistake a direct object for a subject complement. Only action verbs can have direct objects. If the verb is linking, then the word that answers the what? or who? question is a subject complement. The space alien from the planet Zortek accidentally locked his keys in his space ship. Alien = subject; locked = action verb. The space alien locked what? His keys = direct object. The space alien was happy to find a spare key taped under the wing. Alien = subject; was = linking verb. The space alien was what? Happy = subject complement. Don't use subject pronouns as direct objects. The chart below contains subject and object pronouns. Because direct objects are objects, always use the objective form of the pronoun when you need a direct object. Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns I we you he, she, it they who me us you him, her, it them whom Check out these sample sentences: After I give my dog Oreo a scoop of peanut butter, she always kisses me with her sticky tongue. She = subject; kisses = verb. She kisses who? Me = direct object. Because Jo had skipped Mr. Duncan's class five times in a row, she ducked out of sight whenever she spotted him on campus. She = subject; spotted = verb. She spotted who? Him = direct object. Because David was always eating her food, Theresa sneaked corn chips and candy bars into her room and hid them in the clothes hamper. Theresa = subject; hid = verb. Theresa hid what? Them = direct object.

Gerund

Recognize a gerund when you see one. Every gerund, without exception, ends in ing. Gerunds are not, however, all that easy to identify. The problem is that all present participles also end in ing. What is the difference? Gerunds function as nouns. Thus, gerunds will be subjects, subject complements, direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. Present participles, on the other hand, complete progressive verbs or act as modifiers. Read these examples of gerunds: Since Francisco was five years old, swimming has been his passion. Swimming = subject of the verb has been. Francisco's first love is swimming. Swimming = subject complement of the verb is. Francisco enjoys swimming more than spending time with his girlfriend Diana. Swimming = direct object of the verb enjoys. Francisco gives swimming all of his energy and time. Swimming = indirect object of the verb gives. When Francisco wore dive fins to class, everyone knew that he was devoted to swimming. Swimming = object of the preposition to. These ing words are examples of present participles: One day last summer, Francisco and his coach were swimming at Daytona Beach. Swimming = present participle completing the past progressive verb were swimming. A Great White shark ate Francisco's swimming coach. Swimming = present participle modifying coach. Now Francisco practices his sport in safe swimming pools. Swimming = present participle modifying pools.

antecedent

Recognize an antecedent when you see one. The English language includes pronouns, such as she, it, or they. Pronouns are generic words that have little meaning on their own. If you hear a friend say, "She is beautiful," you know your friend is referring to a singular, feminine being or object, but with just the pronoun she, you don't know if the discussion concerns a woman, a cheetah, or an automobile. You cannot picture the she until you know the antecedent, which is the word that the pronoun refers to or replaces. Often, an antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause that you replace with one of these third-person personal pronouns: Third-Person Personal Pronouns he, him, his, himself she, her, hers, herself it, its, itself they, them, their, theirs, themselves Here are some examples: Adeline bit her lip. Adeline = antecedent; her = personal pronoun.

essential clause

Recognize an essential clause when you see one. An essential clause is a relative clause that limits a general, ambiguous noun. The essential clause tells the reader which one of many the writer means. Read these examples: The man who ordered another double anchovy pizza claims to have a pet dolphin in his backyard pool. Which man among the billions of human males on the planet? The one who ordered the double anchovy pizza! Freddie hopes to return to the city where he met a woman with haunting green eyes. Which of the many cities on the planet? The one where Freddie met a memorable woman! The student who needs an A on the final exam is copying statistics formulae on her bare ankle. Which of the many students in the class? The one who needs an A on the test! Note that the exact same clauses above—in sentences with minor alterations—can become nonessential. Read these versions: Mr. Hall, who ordered another double anchovy pizza, claims to have a pet dolphin in his backyard pool. Freddie hopes to return to Cairo, where he met a woman with haunting green eyes. Veronica, who needs an A on the final exam, is copying statistics formulae on her bare ankle. In place of ambiguous nouns like man, city, and student, we now have Mr. Hall, Cairo, and Veronica, specific proper nouns. The information in the relative clauses might be interesting, but it's not necessary, for we already know which man, which city, and which student. Because these clauses are now nonessential, they require commas to separate them from the rest of the sentence. A proper noun won't always signal that the relative clause is nonessential. In a passage of more than one sentence, you will sometimes find such a well-defined common noun that the relative clause is a mere accessory. Read this example: As we sped through the neighborhood, we spotted crows eating French fries tossed on the road. They did not fly to a tree as we expected. The birds, which never showed fear of the vehicle, watched as we swerved around them. The relative clause which never showed fear of the vehicle is nonessential since we know which birds. Thus the clause requires commas. Punctuate essential clauses correctly. Since an essential clause provides necessary limits on the vague noun it describes, use no punctuation to connect it. The car that Madeline purchased from a newspaper ad belches black smoke whenever she accelerates. The rats are nesting in the closet where Grandma hides her money. The waiter who served the salad did not notice the caterpillar nibbling a lettuce leaf. When the clause becomes decorative rather than defining—or nonessential—you will then need to separate it with commas: The ancient Buick, which Madeline purchased from a newspaper ad, belches black smoke whenever she accelerates. The rats are nesting in the master bedroom closet, where Grandma hides her money. Javier, who served the salad, did not notice the caterpillar nibbling a lettuce leaf.

items in a series

Recognize an item in a series when you see one. Items in a series occur whenever a sentence includes a list of two or more things. The items can be any type of grammatical unit, such as nouns, verbs, participles, infinitives, or subordinate clauses, to name a few. Read the examples that follow: To make her famous muffins, Paulette bought fresh broccoli, baker's chocolate, flour, sugar, and eggs. Broccoli, chocolate, flour, sugar and eggs = all nouns. After Chad clutched his heart, swooned, and fell to the floor, Mrs. Borglum nudged him with her foot, ordering him to the front of the class to make his speech. Clutched, swooned, and fell = all verbs. When Harold saw his girlfriend Gloria across the crowded airport, he sprinted toward her, leaping over luggage, colliding with travelers, and dodging potted palms. Leaping, colliding, and dodging = all present participles. Because Tara is hungry but broke, she hopes to spot Anthony in the cafeteria, flirt with him over a pizza, and then get the poor boy to pay for the meal. To spot, to flirt, and to get = all infinitives. My dog Floyd bolts under the bed whenever thunder booms, strangers knock on the door, or I reach for the flea shampoo. Whenever thunder booms, whenever strangers knock on the door, and whenever I reach for the flea shampoo = all subordinate clauses. Maintain parallel structure with items in a series. Items in a series should have parallel structure. You maintain parallel structure when you use equal grammatical units. If the first item is a noun, then the following items must also be nouns; if the first item is a subordinate clause, then so must the other items be. Nonparallel structure looks like this: Harry spent his afternoon Glub. , Glub. , and Neigh.. Harry spent his afternoon playing tennis, returning overdue library books, and then he ate a mushroom and pineapple pizza. Parallel structure, the correct way to list items in a series, looks like this: Harry spent his afternoon Glub. , Glub. , and Glub.. Harry spent his afternoon Neigh. , Neigh. , and Neigh.. Harry spent his afternoon playing tennis, returning overdue library books, and eating a mushroom and pineapple pizza. This afternoon, Harry played tennis, returned overdue library books, and ate a mushroom and pineapple pizza. Punctuate items in a series correctly. Whenever you have three or more items in a series, each item requires punctuation to separate it from the others. Depending on the complexity of the list, you can use either commas or semicolons. The most common pattern looks like this: item + , + item + , + and + item Here are some examples: To survive another boring art history lecture, you should drink a strong cup of coffee before class, empty sugar packets into your mouth when Dr. Lemon has his back turned, and sharpen a pencil to poke yourself in the thigh. Stephanie refuses to go water-skiing with us because she is afraid of getting sliced by the boat propeller, tangling with a snake, becoming an alligator's lunch, or having a brain-sucking amoeba crawl up her nose. Some handbooks will tell you that the comma before the last item in the series—the serial comma—is unnecessary. Although you do have the option of leaving it out, the editorial policy of many magazines, newspapers, and book companies is to use a comma before the coordinating conjunction. You will, as a result, notice its presence in many of the professional publications you read. Use semicolons to separate the items when they already include commas. The pattern looks like this: item + , + more information + ; + item + , + more information + ; + and + item + , + more information Check out these examples: My heroes are Batman, who combines brains and brawn; Captain Picard, who commands respect; and Wiley Coyote, who never gives up. What a day! Poor Veronica spent the morning cooking, cleaning, and washing; the afternoon running errands, grocery shopping, and studying; and this evening ironing, making lunches, and brushing the dog.

Amplification

Refers to a literary practice wherein the writer embellishes the sentence by adding more information to it in order to increase its worth and understandability. When a plain sentence is too abrupt and fails to convey the full implications desired, amplification comes into play when the writer adds more to the structure to give it more meaning. Example: Original sentence- The thesis paper was difficult. After amplification- The thesis paper was difficult: it required extensive research, data collection, sample surveys, interviews and a lot of fieldwork.

Run On Sentences

Run-on Sentences July 8th, 2013 | Mark Pennington, MA Reading Specialist No comments run on sentences Run-‐on sentences can be easy to fix, but hard to spot. The reason for the difficulty is that usually we can figure out what the writer intended to say. For example: I like to eat Henry likes to cook. Surely you could figure out what was meant in this sentence. But just for a second didn't you think the sentence said, "I like to eat Henry?" Then your brain unscrambled it. Your job is to make reading as clear and effortless and possible, and run-‐ons make extra work for your reader. To indentify a run-on, look for a place where a pause occurs but no punctuation is present to indicate that pause (it may help to read your writing out loud). However, be careful that you don't create another problem called a comma splice. A comma alone cannot be used to join two sentences together: Incorrect: I like to eat, Henry like to cook. There are three ways to fix run-ons and comma splices. The first would be to split the run-on or comma splice into two sentences by adding a period. I like to eat. Henry likes to cook. The second method involves adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction: for, and, not, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS). However, you need to ensure that you use the right conjunction for what you want to write. I like to eat, and Henry likes to cook. (Both of you enjoy doing different activities) I like to eat, but Henry likes to cook. (Henry likes cooking more than eating) I like to eat, so Henry likes to cook. (Henry cooks because you appreciate his food) You may also use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb: therefore, nevertheless, otherwise, etc. Just like with conjunctions, you need to select the appropriate conjunctive adverb that means precisely what you want. I like to eat; therefore, Henry likes to cook.

Parts of Speech

Students (and teachers) remember best when they associate the unknown with the known. Often we can learn the lyrics to a catchy song or beat much more quickly than if we read just the words alone. It's the association that helps us memorize and retain the information. Check out the Parts of Speech Song and memorize the key definitions of each part of speech. Examples follow each definition. The author of the Parts of Speech Song is Mark Pennington, author of Teaching Grammar and Mechanics and teacher of the best seventh graders in the universe. Parts of Speech Song A proper noun is capitalized and gives a name to a person, place, or thing. Ms. Doe-Thomas, Inn by the Lake, Statue of Liberty A common noun can have an article before an idea, person, place, or thing. (a, an, the) peace, uncle, school, rock A pronoun is used to take a noun's place in the subject, possessive, or object case. I, their, us An adjective modifies a noun with Which One, How Many, or What Kind. that bird, few students, dark chocolate A verb can mentally or physically act or states what a subject is to be. thought (past), speaks (present), will be (future) An adverb modifies an adjective, adverb, or verb with What Degree, How, Where, or When. less, carefully, there, later A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses to coordinate, correlate, or subordinate. nor, either-or, unless A preposition shows a relationship to an object at the end of a phrase. through the gate An interjection is a sentence fragment used to show emotion. Hey! Shame on you.

Epilogue

are an inherent part of any story or poem and are essential to the structure of any written form. The______ is an important literary tool that acts as the afterword once the last chapter is over. The purpose of an epilogue is to add a little insight to some interesting developments that happen once the major plot is over. _____ often act as a teaser trailer to any possible sequels that might be created later. Sometimes the epilogue is used to add a little bit about the life/future of the main characters after the story itself has unfolded and wrapped up. ______are an interesting faction because they can be written in a number of ways: sometimes the same narrative style as adopted in the story is continued while at other times one of the characters might take up the narrative or speak one-to-one with the audience. Example: In a remarkably contemporary moment at the end of The Tempest, Shakespeare's wizard Prospero addresses the audience directly, breaking down the boundaries of the play. He informs them that the play is over, his powers are gone, and thus his escape from the play's island setting depends on their applause--that they, in effect, get to decide his fate. This serves as a Epilogue for Shakespeare's tragi-comedy The Tempest.

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