Living world religion

Pharisee

A scribe didn't have to be a Pharisee, but most were. Apparently this party began with the scribes who copied the Scriptures. They became experts on the content and interpretation of the law. By the time of Roman occupation, they had become teachers. They belonged to a variety of schools (conservative schools such as Shamai and liberal schools of Hillel). Emphasized meticulous observance of the law in areas of life

The powers

*some see mana (impersonal spiritual force, so material objects contain power) as first stage in religious development. *Most traditional religions vernal at least two kinds of spirits: ancestors and nature spirits.

Christian missionary strategies

*tent making: have some other profession and using their physical presence as an opportunity to share the gospel. *cultural contextualization: if christianity is rejected it should be for its message, not for western culture frequently associated with it. Theres no reason why Christians can't dress in local style, worship on the floor in empty buildings, or pray five times a day. You have to be careful though not to compromise any essential christian beliefs or create the impression that you're muslim. *fulfilled muslim approach: Some have taken contextualization a step further by reasoning that since a Muslim is someone who submits to God and since christians submit to God, christians are muslims. This approach is clearly inappropriate. Christians cannot accept Muhammad as an authentic prophet. Any approach to Ilam needs to recognize the dignity and worth of Muslims as human beings and needs to try to separate the message of the gospel from cultural factors. Muslims, like all people, need the hope and assurance that is possible on through Jesus Christ.

the four schools

-Hanifite school: founded by Abu Hanifa an-numan ibn Thabit. Most liberal because it uses more inference and reasoning that the other three. Jurist focuses on finding analogous cases to the one with which he is concerned. -Shafiite school: founded by Muhammad Ibn Idrs ash-shari. rejects use of analogies, but looks for precedents. A sunna is acceptable only if it is derived directly from Muhammad himself and was supposedly passed on by him. -Malikite school: founded by Malix Ibn Anas. Thought most valuable info would come from those who were "Companions" of Muhammad, most notable the first four caliphs, and the first three generations of the citizens of Medina, where Muhammad lived for a decade. The viewpoint is that the people of Medina had longer uninterrupted occasion to take note of Muhammad as role model, and presumably they would not practice anything that was contrary to his intent. -Hanbalite school: founded by Ahmad bin Hanbal. smallest and most conservative. his overriding principle was to stick as close the Qur'an and sunna as possible and use less direct sources only if absolutely necessary.

Some proposed definitions of religion

1. Eugene nida: beliefs and practices associated with the supernatural. But natural v. supernatural a western distinction. 2.Robert Baird: religion is that which is of ultimate or supreme concern to individuals or groups EX: football 3. Nigosian: religion is an invention or creation of the human mind for regulating all human activity and this creative activity is a human necessity that satisfies the spiritual desires and needs inherent in human nature (Something people made up to feel better about themselves) 4.oxtoby and segal: Religion is a sense of power beyond the human EX: nuclear physics 5: young:religion is human transformation in response to perceived ultimacy 6.Voorst: Religion is a pattern of beliefs and practices that expresses and enacts what a community regards as sacred and ultimate about life. 7. Victoria Urubshurow: at this point it is still to practical to dispense with the world religion. Thus stuck with the word, one is advised to think of particular religions as dynamic cultural complexes, not as static monolithic entities 8.winfried corduan: a religion is a system of beliefs and practices that by means of its cultus directs a person toward a transcendence and, thus, provides meaning and coherence to a persons life.

10 most commonly recognized avatars of vishnu

1. Matsya, the fish: Implored the hero Manu to rescue him from predators and build large boat to escape flood. Thus, it could be said that Manu is the counterpart to Noah. 2. Kurma, the turtle: The nectar of immortality had been dissolved in the cosmic ocean of milk. Both devas (good gods) and asuras (evil lords) attempted to get it by drinking the milk. Vishnu, in the form of a turtle, allowed the mountains to rest on his back so that it could swivel. 3. Narasimha, the man-lion: someone wants to kill Vishnu, and Brahma gives him gift of invulnerability. Vishnu killed the guy. 5. Vamana, the dwarf: Bali, king of asuras, or evil demons, had acquired earth, heaven, and underworld. The devas were unhappy however. So at their request, Vishnu approached Bali in form of dwarf and asked that he may receive as much real estate as he could cross in three steps. Bali didn't think the dwarf could step far, but in three steps he covered earth, heaven, and the underworld, reclaiming the entire universe for the devas. 6. Parashurama, Rama with an ax: the ax was gift from Shiva, which this avatar was to use to eradicate every last male member of the Kshatriya caste from the face of the earth, reestablishing dominance of the Brahmin caste over the upstart caste of warriors and rulers. 7. Rama, the ideal king: Rama was able to defeat Ravana, bad guy, and preside over a millennium of peace and prosperity with Sita, his wife, by his side. He had the help of Hanuman, the monkey. 8. Krishna, the lover. had a think for milk maids and was married 7 times. The great passion of his life was Radha. Said that redemption is found in total submission to Krishna and by worshipping him through dancing and chanting. This movement, known as ISKCON, and is thus a legitimate for of Vaishnavite Hinduism. 9 Buddha, the founder of Buddhism: people would say yes Buddha is are teacher; after all he is an incarnation from God. But as Buddha he was deliberately teaching falsehood in order to call followers of the dharma back to truth. 10. Kalki, the coming one: He is messianic in nature and will come in the future. He will come with large army and conquer earth in downright apocalyptic warfare. For a brief time he will rule over a time of truth and bliss for the entire cosmos, but then the universe must be destroyed and recreated

The ten points

1. Oneness of humankind: The essential unity of humanity lies at the very core of Baha'i belief. 2. Independent investigation of truth: all humans should have equal access to truth 3. Common foundation of all religions: al genuine religions have their basis in a manifestation of God that is similar to Baha'ullahs own identity. He urged religions to leave their nonessential differences behind and to unite on the basis of their essential unity. 4. Essential harmony of science and religion: science, when based on reason, supports the truth of religion 5. Equality of men and women: 6. Elimination of prejudice of all kinds room for any prejudice-racial, political or religious 7. universal compulsory education: ignorance is the greatest threat to a unified, peaceful world. Consequently, he argued for compulsory education of all children. Believed fathers are responsible for education of children. 8. spiritual solution to the economic problem: As the people of the world attain a higher spiritual state, they will begin to abolish the extremes of wealth and poverty The poor will benefit materially, and the rich will benefit spiritually by not having their existence encumbered by their wealth. 9. Universal auxiliary language: Baha'ullah believed that in order for the unity of the human race to become functional, people must be able to communicate through a shared language. Thus he taught that the world should agree on one particular language as the universal langue of humanity. all people should learn two languages; their native tongue and the universal language 10. universal peace upheld by a world government: Baha'i is pacifistic, considering all armed conflict to be counterproductive. It's important to remember that Baha'ullah and Abdul were not promoting a secular world confederation. They believed that the problems of humanity are spiritual nature and can be solved only on a spiritual basis.

Two Jewish commonwealths

1. The first is reckoned from the time Moses received the law on Mount Sinai until the destruction of Judah and exile under the Babylonians. 2. The second begins with the rebuilding of the temple after the Babylonian exile and extends through the destruction of the temple by the Romans

Difference between theology and religious studies

1. Theology:study of religion based on ones own religious commitment, in order to promote it. 2. religious studies: academic study of religion that aims to understand all religious traditions objectively, in a religiously neutral way 3. Critique? It's our christian duty to understand perspectives of others, to treat them with dignity and their views with fairness

Settings and precursors

1. There were Muslim kings ruling predominantly Hindu provinces. Roughly at the time when sikhism began, Babur invade India and initiated the Mughal empire. Mughal conquered further areas that had been Hindu. 2. Second factor was that hostilities notwithstanding, this was a time of great creativity within both religions. Hindu new schools of Bhakti were arising and Islam witnessed a resurgence of Sufi mysticism. Kabir, dad muslim mom hindu, wanted a renewed vial faith. He became teacher of Sant Mat movement. Sant Mat preached the oneness of God, whose nature goes beyond the specific attributes ascribed to him by any one religion. also the equality of all humans regardless of caste. His view was that religious affiliations were of little consequence. Granth: holy book of sikhism.

Four noble truths

1. To live is to suffer (dukha): this is why reincarnation is negative. People do not see it as unlimited opportunities of self improvement but as unlimited suffering 2. suffering is caused by attachment (Tanha in Pali, Trisha in Sanskrit): we suffer because we get attached to this insubstantial world. we need to understand attachment here as grasping, craving or not willing to let go. 3. to eliminate suffering one must eliminate attachment. If suffering is caused by attachment, get rid of the attachment. Simply put, we suffer from poverty, poor healthy, etc, only as long as we consider having material goods, good health, etc. 4. one can eliminate attachment by following the noble eight fold path: 1. the right view, understanding the truths of existence. 2. the right intention, being willing to achieve enlightenment. 3. the right speech, saying all that is, and only what is, required. 4. the right action, doing all that is, and only what is, required. 5. the right livelihood, being a monk. 6. the right effort, directing ones energy properly. 7. the right mindfulness, meditation properly. 8. the right concentration, maintaining constant focus.

What do those four points signify?

1. When all of the firstborns of Egypt died while the plagues didn't tough the Hebrews, this instituted the first Passover feast. 2. When the pursuing army of Egypt drowned while the Hebrews made it through the Red Sea, this event became the Hebrew's defining moment in their self recognition as God's redeemed people. 3. The law that God gave them on Mount Sinai included: 1. Ten Commandments which was the foundation for God's relationship with people and for people's relationships with each other. 2. complex legal code for social relationships that covered criminal and civl matters. 3. instructions for building a portable sanctuary (tabernacle), which was to be the center place of worship; the tabernacles furnishings included ark of covenant (contain gin tablets of the law), incense altar, table for bread of the Presence and lamp stand. 4. professional priesthood drawn form the tribe of Levi. 5. complex system of sacrifices of animals and ag products, to be administered exclusively by priests. 6. code of ritual purity that included medical hygienic precautions, dietary rules and prohibitions of Canaanite religious practices. 4. golden calf that Aaron began to worship served as a fertility sample. This event foreshadowed the nine hundred year tension that would exist between monotheistic religion and paganism in Israelite culture

more about those three characterizations

1. devotion to God: whole nations was committed to keeping God's law and practicing the required temple sacrifice. 2. messianic expectation: Several people appeared in Palestine claiming to be Messiah. These Messiah figures tended to have a political orientation, their main purpose being to throw off Roman overlordship 3. party divisions: there were a number of political and religious parties that made their presences felt in all areas of life. The main parties were Sadducees, Pharisees, the Herodians, the Essenes and the Zealots.

overcoming ethical relativism

1. if the hijackers were locked into their cultural values to the extent that we westerners are, it would not be possible for us to discuss the issue, either among ourselves or with them. Once we say that their actions were excusable because of their cultural isolation, we are exempting ourselves from being subject to a similar isolation. Consequently, if we believe that it is legitimate to say that they could not have acted otherwise, we have made the assumption that we can pass judgment on these people in one direction. If that is possible, then it must be legitimate to come to the opposite conclusion that it would have been possible for them to have acted differently from the way they did. 2. Whether it is possible to see beyond the norms of our own culture and how easy that may be are two very different questions, and it evidently is not a very easy thing for many people around the globe to attempt, but that fact does not make it impossible. 3. The leadership of terrorist organizations we are dealing with here is well educated and globalized in their outlook. 4. All human beings have a conscience, and even if for many people it has been covered up by a lifetime of cultural conditioning, we still see people rise above their culture and call for changes in their peoples practices based on moral improvement. If forgiveness is our goal, we need to come to terms with the fact that we have been hurt. Muslim leaders are quick to pull out their lists of the moral evils of the Western world.

5 principles governing the legitimacy of resort to violence

1. physical violence my never be used to advance the cause of islam. An Islamic country may never initiate international conflict. An individual may never coerce another person to accept Islam 2. Islam should be propagated by means of rational appeal and persuasion only. 3. If another nation commits an act of aggression against an Islamic country, the Islamic country is justified in using military force to defend it. 4. if a non islamic country takes measures to repress the free exercise of Islam, including the propagation of Islam, those actions are tantamount to physical aggression against Islam or against a particular Islamic country 5. this applies to formerly Islamic territories that have been taken over by non muslim powers. once a country has come to belong to Dar-al-Islam (house of submission), it may never be allowed to revert to non muslim hands, since reversion would be construed as a form of aggression against Islam

where does religion come from

1. psychological 2. sociological/anthropological 3.critical theory 4.biological

hindu has to

1. regard the Vedas (early sacred writings) as divinely inspired and authoritative 2. accept the caste system 3. respect the veneration of the various levels of deities and spirits, including the protection of cows.

two problems when we talk about the truths of different religions from the perspective of christianity

1. the question of truth -is Christianity true? are other religions true? do other religions contain truth? 2. the necessity of christian belief vs. belief in other religions -does christianity save? do other religions save? do other religions

woritn out Hindu deities is hard

1. there are over 330 million 2. many gods go by different names 3. various gods are identified with each other in different parts of idea 4. the same myths may be recounted with different gods in the leading role. 5. the pantheon may expand as epic and national heroes become deified. Each male god is associated with a female deity, his shakty. Shakty means source of power.

under monotheism, we can draw three basic inferences

1. there is one decisive change; the move away from monotheism 2. there is no clear pattern in which this departure typically takes place; as monotheism was left behind ritual and magic increased. 3. once monotheism is abandoned, change usually continues to occur.

Paul

1. was comfortable re purposing non Christian philosophy to point to one true creator 2.he did not insult the "gods" to make a point for Christ 3.He knew religious background of his audience 4. believed faith in Christ was a matter of eternal life and death

Zen has made use of many methods, but four of them have become associated with this form of Buddhism

1. zazen meditation: constitutes a highly demanding process of physical and mental discipline. It literally means sitting meditation. sit cross legged position with straight back for hours on end. No single goal, moves to increasing stages of awareness over a lifetime. 2. mondos: stories involving conversations of great Zen masters of the past or accounts off ow they received enlightenment. 3. Koan: zen riddle. carry their answers within within their very formulation. 4. cultural activities: aesthetic expression in tea ceremony, calligraphy, martial arts, kaiku poetry, and rock gardens. Focus on capturing reality in its nondual state. Zen works to see reality just as it is given.

Five Pillars

1.confession (shahada) 2.Prayer (salat) 3. Fasting (sawm) 4. Almsgiving (zakat) 5. Pilgrimage (hajj)

In order to qualify as Hindu, a religion has to

1.regard the Vedas (early sacred writing) as divinely inspired and authoritative 2. accept the caste system, most crucial requirement 3. respect the veneration of the various levels of deities and spirits, including protection of cow

El Elyon

A generic term meaning "Most High God", which was used to refer to whatever deity was considered supreme in any particular culture.

early history of Soka Gakkai

A man named Tsunesabura Makiguchi was highly dissatisfied with Japanese education system of his day, so he and his followers founded the Society for the Creation of Values which was abbreviated into Soka Gakkai. Decided that best basis for the necessary values lay in the Buddhist school Nichiren Shoshu and the Lotus Sutra.

what is Judaism

A religion based on relationships: God's relationship with the human person, a person's relationship with God, people's individual relationships with each other, and the chosen people's relationship with other nations. All of these relationships are based on rules and traditions that are said to have originated with God.

The Wahhabi movement and the Taliban

Sunni Islam and Sufis had conflict due to a man called Muhammad Ibn And al-Wahhab. He believed Islam had become throughout adulterated, and it would take some radical actions to set things right again. Emphasized exclusive oneness of Allah (tawhid) and believed that many practices of his day constituted shirk (idolatry). Nobody really liked Wahhabi, but he was friends with Ibn Saud clan in exchange for his spiritual support, they pledged to propagate his teachings. Osama bin Laden had his roots in the Wahhabi Islam of Saudie Arabia and in a close relationship to the royal family since his family helped the kings establish infrastructures. After soviet withdrawal from trying to fix things in Afghanistan, a number of young men were studying Wahhabi Islam in Pakistan. These students designated themselves with the Pashto (students of the Quran), or Taliban. Although there would be serious conflict between Taliban and the mujahedin, Laden earned respect from both groups. Mujahedin gained more power but became corrupt and dangerous. Taliban rose against them protecting the innocent people and gained support and eventually replaced the mujahedin, with Mullah Omar Mohammed taking leadership of the country. Then the Taliban became just as violent. By this point Osama had cut ties with Wahhabi wand was following the movement called Qutibism.

Developments in Sunni Islam

Sunni leadership passed down through the tribe of Umayyads. their capital city was Damascus, and their Islamic empire included all of the Middle East. The Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasids who moved to Baghdad. The Abbasid dynasty, without ceasing to exist, gave way importance to the Shiite Fatimid kingdom, which had become established in Egypt. Thus, at that time there were three caliphs: the Abbasid caliph of Bagdad, the Umayyad caliph of Cordova, and the Fatimid Caliph of Cairo. The real political end of Abbasids, however, came with the Sleljuk Turks in the 11th century. In turn the Seljuks suffered the loss of Palestine during the Crusades, but the crusader state was then defeated by Saladin and the Sunni mamelukes, who carried the mantle of Islamic leadership for about 200 years. After the Mamelukes were pushed back to Egypt by the Mongols, the longest running Islamic dynasty came into being by way of the Ottoman Turks. The Ottoman Empire, finally collapsed.

the way of knowledge

The Brahmins had ownership of rituals, and held the destiny of millions of souls in their hands. with an elite group holding this power, it isn't surprising that an intellectual revolt against the priesthood took place in the sixth century. Therefore Brahminic ritualism was replaced with a belief system of mystical contemplation: instead of words without meaning (ritualism) it became meaning without words. These mystical beliefs were first recorded in a group of writings called the Upanishads, which literally means to sit down. they emphasize seeking a deeper spiritual reality. Brahman is God, conceptualized as an impersonal, all pervasive being. Its infinite, beyond all categories and beyond all human thought. Everything that is not Brahman is not truly real. It is called Maya, a ward that is related to the word magic. Maya encompasses all physical objects, including our bodies. Our feelings and emotions are Maya; so are our thoughts. Thus there does not seem to be anything trustworthy, for it is all Maya. Deep down, however, there is a reality that is not Maya. It is called Atman, sometimes translated as the "true Self". Atman is identical to Brahman. Thus in the farthest reaches of the soul, where the true Self resides, there is God. The only way to reach Atman-Brahman, is through a life of strict separation from the world and deep contemplation. The best thing is to leave regular environments and renounce all previous attachments. Liberation comes when we attain moksha, the release from samsara and all of Maya. At death the Atman-Brahman reality is fully recovered. The soul reenters Brahman as a drop of water coming back to the ocean. Nirvana, a state of supreme bliss, has be realized. Common people, preoccupied with necessities of life, do not have access to moksha and must wait until a further incarnation puts them in a position to reach it.

Hasidism

The Sabbatai Zevi fiasco left Judaism in turmoil. Eventually a certain order returned and the rise of East European Hasidism was the product of that new order. The central figure of this movement was Israel ben Eliezer, or Besht. Claimed God isn't found through studying and obeying law, but rather God is found in a person and is manifested through singing and dancing. He encouraged people to trade in their old black coats for the newest styles. The Hasidim traded in one set of obligatory cultural forms for an even more rigid code governing dress and other external aspects of life. This movement organized itself into various local communities named after villages. At the center of each community was the rebbe or zaddik who was believed to have supernatural powers.

The Ismailites

The Seveners. The sixth imam was Jafar al Zadiq, who became imam shortly after the Abbasid dynasty had displaced the Umayyads on the Sunni side. In order to overthrow the Umayyads, the Abbasids had recruited the Shiites for their cause, luring them with various promises, particularly that they could share power. However, once the Abbasid caliph was securely on the throne, the Shiites returned to their former state of being governed by Sunni authorities. It was up to Jafar to deal with the fall out. Once Jafar died, some say his oldest son, Ismail, became imam, and some say his Youngers son, Musa Kazim, became imam. There are three theories in particular that entered circulation: 1. Jafar just changed his mind. 2. Jafar once caught Ismail in a state of intoxication, which disqualified him from becoming imam. 3. Ismail was no longer alive by the time Jafar died. The leaders called themselves Fatimids because they claimed their descent was directly from the prophet Muhammad, by way of his daughter Fatima, who had been married to Ali. One of the imams died, al Hakim Bi Amr Allah, and the people had a high view of him. In fact they didn't know if he was a human or also God. He went on a horse ride and his horse came back covered in blood, but he was never found again. The Druze, is a group of people who think he is still alive and in occulation. This group is set apart in large by the way the interpret the Qur'an. Claim two levels of interpretation: the literal meaning and a mystical meaning (bati) which is available to only inner circle of the initiated.

Precursor: the Babi Religion

The Shiite Muslims believe that their last imam is still alive, but has gone into occultation. He communicated with the outside world through Gabs or Gates. According to may Imamites (largest group of Shiites "twelvers"), once the last Bar had died, the imam moved from the well he had been living in, to an inaccessible mountain where he has lived ever since. However, other Imamite Shiites believed that the line of Gabs had not ceased and that from time to time a new Bag would appear, conveying the messages of the imam to the world until the imam would himself return visibly as the Mahdi. Even though theoretically everyone was waiting for the Mahdi, Any claimant to that position would be created with a lot of suspicion because he would undermine the existing power structure. In 1844 a Persian man named Ali Muhammad asserted that he was the next Bab. His followers believed, in distinction to previous Gabs, that he was in fact eh Mahdi. He never claimed for himself that he was the Mahdi, however. the Babi movement was treated with hostility right form the start; It violated their belief in Muhammad's finality, not to mention their own leaders authority. It also would have demeaned the government since the Mahdi would be political ruler as well as the divine imam. Violence between the Babis and the government erupted, and many Bab were killed.

Osama bin Laden and al-Queda

The Taliban was supporting al-qaeda and hosting Osama. Osama had solid roots in Wahhabi Islam. Nevertheless, the ideology behind Osama is Qutbism.

greek occupation and the Hasmonean kingdom.

The benign overlordship of the Persians gave way to tyranny of Alexander the Great's successors, the Seleucids, who attempted to Hellenize the Jewish nation culturally and religiously. It went too far when Antiochus IV sacrificed a pig to Zeus on the altar of the temple in Jerusalem. The high priest, Mattathias, and his sons, instigated a successful revolt against Antiochus. they purified the temple and established a newly unified kingdom that lasted a hundred years. This kingdom, known as the Hasmonean kingdom after Hyrcanus's clan, was nearly as large as the kingdom of David.

state Shinto

The establishment of state shinto included three major decrees. First shinto was not a relation. it was expression of patriotism and all Japanese people were expected to honor this tradition. Second, all shinto shrines were in the custody of the state. Third, the head of the Japanese government was thriving emperor.

The Hijra and the calendar

The flight from Mecca is called Hijra, which means flight and is used as the beginning of the Islamic calendar, for at this point the independent muslim community, the umma, was born. Islamic dates are reckoned A.H, and hegirae. The Islamic calendar is a strict lunar calendar consisting of 12 months lasting twenty nine or thirty days each, depending on the actual sighting of the new moon at the outset of each month, with no adjustment made to remain consistent with the solar calendar.

who was the historical Buddha

The founder of the religion was prince Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. Refers to the historical Buddha and founder of the religion. as Shakyamuni "the wise ma of the Shakya tribe."He was proceeded by and will be succeeded by others who have attained the same Buddhahood and share the identical teaching.

The Qur'an

The highest authority. It is the heavenly version of a heavenly book, the umal-kitab (mother of all books). It is pretty much as it had been collated by Uthman, the third caliph. Some Shiites say hat Uthma did some deliberate tampering because the present Qur'an is devoid of any references of Ali. The Qur'an is about as long as the NT. 114 chapters called suras, with each sura being divided into verses (ayat). arranged from long suras to shorter ones. It begins with al-Fatiha, the opening sura, which is recited at all prayer times. School children are encouraged to memorize it.

the Way of Devotion

The inhabitants of southern India are known as Tamil, and they spread the idea that moksha can be found through a loving relationship to one god, not through the virtually impossible way of works, let alone the unattainable mysticism of the way of knowledge. This school of thought became known as Bhakti, which means loving attachment or devotion. Two ways to understand devotion: devotion of a person to the deity, or the diety's devotion to the person. Fundamental ida of this is that a person can be redeemed on the basis of a loving relationship with his or her special god or goddess. Bhakti is divided into three schools; Vaishnavite school recognizes Vishnu as highest god. Shaivite school worship Shiva as highest god, and the Shaktite gives primary allegiant to a goddess. Each male god is associated with a female deity, his shakti. It is necessary to realize that spiritual power in Hinduism is open depicted as sexual power. In addition to having a shakti, each god has certain symbolic representations and a riding animal, thereby making it possible to recognize their statues in a temple.

pilgrimage

The last month of the Islamic calendar, called al-hajj, is official period of pilgrimage. Muhammad originally decreed that followed prayed facing Jerusalem. After conflict in medina with Jews, he made Mecca the geographic focal point. When the caliph Umar built the first mosque in Jerusalem, it became known as al Aqsa, "the furthest", because it marked the farthest extent of the Muslim empire. The requirement to visit Mecca applies to both men and women. Nyone who is unable to make the pilgrimage may designate someone else to do it on their behalf. A man who has journeyed to Mecca receives honorary title, Hajji, and his accomplishment is recognized in different ways. The hajj has seven main components; arrival and preparation, tawaf (required act of walking around the Kaaba seven times), running between Marwa and Safa, the greater pilgrimage (go to foot of Mount of Mercy where Muhammad delivered last sermon and pray in presence of Allah), sacrifices at Mina, stoning the devil (take turns throwing stones at there pillars representing the devil, known as Iblis), the final tawaf (go back to Mecca and once more circle Kaaba seven times).

Ahimsa

The only way they can eat plants is if they were leftovers not saved for him but that were intended to be discarded. He is the supposedly not responsible for the killing of these life forms. Thus, he minimizes the amount of karma he accrues with this meal, but it still doesn't not come completely karma free. No human action does. What about organisms or bacteria you can't see with the visible eye? Mahavira was aware that it was impossible to avoid harming living beings. Thus, maintaining ahimsa is impossible. Once we have attained a state of purity, the subsequent secondary karma will no longer influence us. If he has achieved a negative balance of karma and thus has reached nirvana, he will be there eternally.

exile and restoration

The period of exile purged the nation of idolatry. The Persians under Cyrus conquered the Babylonians and allowed Jews to return to their land where they rebuilt the temple. in this time, there was lack of obedience to the law, intermarriage, and empty ritualism.

Diaspora

The period since the second Jewish commonwealth. AKA dispersion. some scholars say that Holocaust and the creation of the modern state of Israel have initiated a third commonwealth.

the oneness of God

Their is a recurring claim that Allah is actually a moon god, who has been equated by Muslims with the God of the Jews and Christians. Three lines of argument on this theory: 1. the derivation of the world Allah form the Sumerian/Semitic El-Elyon. 2. Evidence of worship of the moon god in pre Islamic Arabia. 3. the copious amount of lunar symbolism in contemporary Islam. El Elyon (means most high God) and refers to whatever deity is seen as the highest god for any culture. The Sumerian culture used El Elyon when referring to the moon god, whose proper name was Sin. Arabic word for God is Allah, which is also a generic term, not a proper name. Both Allah and El Elyon function in the same generic way. That being said, Muhammad specifically identified worship of the moon as idolatry (or shirk). So do muslims and christians worship the same God? In terms of historical origin, the answer is yes. in a theological description, the answer is no. In all forms of theism God is both transcendent (greater than world and not limited by it) and immanent (active in world). In Islam, by far the greater emphasis res to Allah's transcendence.

swaminarayan

Their new temple in Chicago is the biggest in the states. They are expected to perform ordinary practices of Hinduism on a rigid schedule. Keep men and women separate at the temple.

The Imamites

They accept 12 imams. make up majority of people in Iran and Iraq, but with a strong contrast. Thus, the ideal of being governed by an imam or his substitute has been implemented in Iran, but not in Iraq, the area where it originally formulated. Most of them ruled a long time, except for the 11th, Hasan al Askari. Thus, his young son, Muhammad al Muntazar, was faced with filling mans shoes. He wasn't seen very often, but showed up at crucial moments to assert himself. The Imamites believe he was in concealment, or occupation. He didn't want to be arrested, so he spent most of his time in voluntary hiding. He descended to the bottom of a well and lived there a long time. He only communicated with the outside world through four men. When the last "Bab" died, he moved to a car in the mountains, where he is living to this day. Throughout Islam, at the level of common people at least, we find a belief in the coming of a powerful reformer, who will set the world right just before the last judgment. He is called the Mahdi. The Shiites think Muhammad al Muntazar is the Mahdi. In the meantime, the people are being led by a stand in imam, but he doesn't have prophetic powers, but has the same degree of authority.

relating the gospel

They don't set out to convert you. They are trained to know why they don't believe in the trinity or in Christ God. First, God is one. Second, Christ cannot be God. Third, the Bible is demonstrably full of errors whereas the Quran is direct revelation from God. Fourth, instead of holding on to such absurd beliefs, it makes sense to accept the very simple faith of Islam: submit to the one God and keep his commandments. Christians need to know the fundamentals of their own faith, and how the three in one God head works. They also think worshiping a man as God is idolatry. But christians say that God is joined inextricably to the man Jesus. Christ is one person with two natures, human and divine. For conversation to continue, you need to focus on what christians actually believe, rather than focus on the falsehood of what the Muslim believes and the Quran expresses concerning Christianity. Muslims may think.. How much simpler, rational, to believe there is only one God with no further differentiations, and that the prophets were human beings and nothing more. But simplicity can hardly be the sole or even the primary criterion for truth, and human thoughts alone cannot decide what reality must be like. There is also some issue in the Bible. Since there are so many versions, they think there is error. There is only one Quran, but Uthman burned Quran variants, and if we had done that with the original bible, there would be a single version as well. The very existence of so many variant readings allows us to revoker what the original must have said with a great degree of confidence. The Quran's content spans a little more than twenty years, while the bible spans about 1500 years. This makes it much more difficult to interpret and correlate biblical info. The christians intent must be to show the Muslim 1. what the realities of the cross and salvation are, and 2. that the realities are graciously provided by God to give us salvation.

The Vedas

This includes the numerous expansions, such as the Brahmanas (further instructions for priests) Sutras (literally threads further instructions for all people) and the Upanishads (philosophical extensions of the Vedas). Vedas literally means knowledge. There are four Vedas: 1.Rig Veda: dated as early as 1500 b.c. compilations of 1028 prayerful hymns that are addressed to various gods (devas). 2. Yajur Veda: somewhat later collection that consists of mantras or short specific verses to be recited by priest in the context of their duties at sacrifices. 3. Sama Veda: contains songs or chants, again for use by priests. They refer articulator to ritual associated with soma, the sacred drink. 4. Atharva Veda is thought to be somewhat inferior. thus it is more associated with fold religion by common people.

In Judaism, why keep God's laws if keeping them won't get you into heaven?

This question implies that a desire for rewards and a fear of punishment are the only available motives for obeying rules. EX: in college, you should still obey your parents rules out of respect and love, not fear of punishment. Judaism doesn't revolve around a set of doctrines or a plan of salvation. Instead, it is a prescription for living. Essential question in this religion is what do you practice and what are you doing with your life? Not what do you believe. Being Jewish includes ethnic and cultural heritage as well as religious. So you couldn't practice the religion, but still be a jew.

Gobind Singh

Thought community could only survive by becoming completely militaristic. Established the Khalsa, a military order, which any Sikh could join. Men who joined were called Singh, which means lion, and women were called Kaur or princess. Khalsa was based on the philosophy that Sikh survival required a defiant attitude. Men dressed conspicuously with the five K's: mesh, longhair; kangha, wooden comb in hair; kachera, shorts; kara, steel bracelet; and kit-an, a sword or dagger on side.

Sikh worship

To seek full membership into Sikhism, one must be baptized; drinking a small amount of holy water received in the name of the gurus. Then you live a life devoted to God, not ritual. The Golden Temple at Amritsar is the central temple. It holds the original copy of the Adi Granth. A communal meal follows the chanting service in the temple. Langar, the communal kitchen, is in some ways the most telling part of Sikh community life.

Divisions in Jainism

Two main divisions within Jainism. The digambara believe that salvation can only be reached by discarding all physical attachments, including clothes. Digambara means "clad in the sky". The Shvetambara are "clad in white". They wear white robes. Most beliefs of these two groups are quite similar, but there are some significant differences. 1. have different writing they accept as holy. both agree there were 22 books called the Agamas. Because monks had a hard time surviving physically, they had not time or energy to make copies of the books. They prohibition against private owernship of books also played a role. So, the Shvetambaras believe that all but the last of these 22 books have survived, and so they accept as their canon what they consider to be the Agamas and a number of sutras and commentaries directly based on them. The Digambaras disagree and say Agamas were permanently lost. 2. Digambara like the detail that Mahavira went without cloth since they consider nakedness essential to attain salvation. However, the Shvetambaras counter that those were different times, and that in view of the loose morals of the day, it was essential to cover up ones body. 3. Goth groups agree that a women's body naturally induces sexual desire, which is impossible for men to resist. Therefore women can't walk around naked. Digambara texts are also l jelly to include observations concerning the deficiencies of the nature of women. However, the Shvetambara sect insists that, differences and potential hindrances notwithstanding, men and women are equally human at their core, and thus women are also able to attain salvation. Thus, the Shvetambaras ordain nuns as well as monks. 4. Shvetambaras include a women among the list of Mahavira's precursors. This is a person named Malli. The Digambaras accept the same individual, but say that Malli was a man.

conquest and judges in Judaism

Under Joshuas leadership the Israelites entered the land of Canaan, parceled out land to the twelve tribes, and lived for about 300 years with little central political or religious control. Decay into pagan forms was constant temptation. this period was marked by reoccurring cycles that consisted of 1. apostasy 2. bondage to a foreign power sent by God as judgment 3. crying out to God for deliverance, and 4. deliverance by a heroic figure who then ruled over them as judge for a time.

the divided kingdom

Under Solomon's son Rehoboam the kingdom split into a northern kingdom, Israel, and a southern kingdom, Judah. The northern kingdom didn't have a central worship structure, which was in Jerusalem. Prophets such as Elijah and Elisha, followed by Hosea, Jonah and Amos issued warnings from God. The warnings were unheeded, and Assyria destroyed the kingdom of Israel in 722 b.c. The southern kingdom alternately worshiped and rejected God. The kingdom of Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 b.c. and most of its people were deported to Babylon

1492 and Sabbatai Zevi

Unified Spain under christian control banned Jews from Spain. Ironically, a number of kabbalistic scholars had predicted that 1492 would be the great year of redemption. Many went to Europe. At this time there were two major groups of Jews: Sephardic and Ashkenazic. Sephardic Jews had Spanish roots and their culture was influenced by Islam. Ashkenazic had roots in northern and northeastern Europe. The expulsions from Spain led to a renewed messianic expectation. When Sabbatai Zevi became known in the 17th century, many thought he was the Messiah. He studied mystical literature and Zohar and believed he was the Messiah. suffered from bipolar disorder. Messianic fervor reached intensity when Sabbatai supposedly converted the Turkish sultan to Judaism. He was captured and invited to convert to Islam, and did w/out hesitation. The failed movement gave rise to repair and hopelessness. This disappointment stimulated two new movements; Hasidism and Reform Judaism.

three major gods

Vishnu: the Preserver Brahma: the creator Shiva: Auspicious one or Destroyer

The move to Spain and the middle ages

When Islam came to Persia, Jewish culture in Babylon ceded flourishing. Judaism next took root and grew in the Iberian Peninsula. Muslim leaders in Spain focused their attention of fighting Christian armies of Europe instead of Jewish minority at home. While they went through seasons of tolerance and persecution, Talmudic tradition continued to be expounded. Two most influential writers were Rashi (set standard for literal interpretation of scripture) and Rambam (wrote Guide for the Perplexed as an intellectual defense of Judaism).

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar

When Yogi had retreated to India, who took an assistant who became very distinguished in spirituality and management. A problem arouse when one of Maharishi Yogi's schools was closing, and the assistant went on a limb, left Yogi's organization, and managed to start his own mission. It was the Sri Sri. This guru is known for his attractive personality and number of alleged miracles. Mostly admired for his Art of Living seminars. There are three important aspects to his mission: 1. classes. known as seminars on the 'art of living". The word darshan is used to refer to the result of intense spiritual activity; it means vision. Taking control of how you breath. 2. satsang: in addition to seminars, he also holds mass meetings where he performs puja and speaks to thousands. 3. service: intentions are summarized with a 5-H program; health, hygiene, housing, human values, and harmony in diversity.

Medina

When the fled to medina they were received with open arms. In fact Muhammad was put in charge of the town. He said that Jews were not expected to become Muslim. Unfortunately this relationship broke down; the Islamic version is that some Jews tried to assassinate Muhammad. He immediately ordered the execution of hundreds of Jews, whether they had been involved or not. This violation led Muslims to believe they aren't obligated to keep covenants or treaties with non Muslims if they perceive bad Fatih on the part of the unbelievers. The Qur'an does not stipulate acts of violation, but only the expectation thereof as grounds for voiding a treaty.

Shiite Developments

While Sunni experienced political stability under the Umayyads, the Shiites had some trouble. Ali had two sons (Muhammads grandsons), Hasan and Husayn. The first son died of illness, probably poison. the second, Husayn, led a battle against Sunni Umayyads, but they deprived them of water then massacred them in their weakened condition. When Husayn's head was thrown over the city walls, his supporters put it on a lance and carried it in a procession of anguished mourning. The day he died continues to be commemorated, particularly in Iran and Iraq. Shiite mobs are easily moved to acts of revenge against all outsiders since they consider all non shiites as outsiders. They believe that there is a special line of succession through Ali and Husayn that continues. Each person in succession receives the ilm, a direct designation of succession from the predecessor, and the Nass, the supernatural spiritual knowledge to carry out the prophetic leadership. These successors are called imams, a term that carries different meanings in different contexts. Three main Shiite groups: The Fivers (Zaydites), the Seveners (Ismailites) and the Twelvers (Imamites)

The patriarchs of Judaism

While people were worshiping many gods, there were a few who still worshipped the one true God. EX: priest king of Salem, Melchizedek, who worshiped the high god called El Elyon, or God. Or Abram and Sarai, who migrated to Canaan and founded a clan that worshiped God alone. Through their son Isaac, and grandson Jacob, they migrated to Egypt because of famine in Canaan, and it grew into a nation of 12 tribes. This period of worship consisted of animal sacrifices that the head of the clan made on behalf of the clan.

Transcendental meditation

Yogi came to the West and established a large following for his technique of meditation. Worked along the following lines: a person attended a seminar in which one of the guru's teachers would promote all of the benefits of going through his style of mediation for twenty minutes twice a day. benefits where supposed to be physical as well as spiritual, leading eventually to cosmic bliss. This seemed like a good deal, propelling the movement forward. Told people it wasn't religious. People who agreed would come back for their spiritual bargain. It came out that it was purely Hindu in nature. Went to court and lost because it was found to be fraudulent in advertising itself as nonreligious. since then, it has drastically declined

Chan (Chinese) and Zen (Japanese)

Zen adherents wish to locate the origin of their approach at the very beginning of Buddhism. The essence of Zen: the realization of enlightenment apart form words and explanations. Mahakasyapa is considered to be the first patriarch of Zen. However, Bodhidharma, whom Zen counts as the 28 patriarch of their school, is really the first person under whom Zen became an independent school of Buddhism. Truths can only occur apart from words and writings. Bodihidharma stood silently holding a flower, until Mahakasyapa understood the message that the treasure of nirvana was entrusted to him. 1000 years after Mahakasyapa, an Indian prince in Brahmin caste (should've been in Kshatriya) became monk and took the name of Bodhidharma and traveled to china where he became the leader of the Shaolin temple. Shaolin literally means young forest. Primary reason for existence was for its monks to translate the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, and the emperor used it to banish undesirable monks, including Bodhidharma. While he was there, he taught a new art of meditation that made it one of the most respected temples. He also infused some physical energy into the lethargic resident of the temple. IT was a target from outlaws who would help themselves the valuables inside. To help them be healthier and have self defense, he initiated a program of techniques. Had reputation for their Kung Fu skills. Claims he discovered art of brewing tea to help himself and disciples stay awake during meditation. Two ways monks stay awake today: teacher hits you with a cudgel (small bat) and the other is a board sitting across your legs with a glass of tea on it. What stands in our way of enlightenment according to Zen, is our habit of dualistic thinking. It refers to thinking that consists of making distinctions.s

so you meet a Japanese who practices indigenous religion

a major difference, very generally, lies in American individualism v. Japanese communal orientation. one the one hand there is the communal aspect, defined by the value placed on being a loyal member of a group. on the other, there is the second, process oriented aspect that leads the Japanese person o make deliberate individual choices, namely, which group to become a part of. relating the gospel: Japanese communal orientation is offended by the individualistic way that the gospel is often presented. further, westerners tend to emphasize the root causes of the human predicament, namely, the Fall and each person's fallen condition. then they present the atonement as a direct solution. The Japanese look for plans of action and want to know first of all what to do. christianity must stop competing with non christian religions for adherents. the task of the church is to present the gospel, make it possible for people to make a decision for christ, and to nurture the new converts. God will provide the numbers.

gematria

according to this tradition, each letter of the Hebrew alphabet is assigned a certain number value. Therefore each word has a numerical equivalent and simple arithmetical analysis of important words can yield spiritual insights that would otherwise remain unknown.

the social setting

africans typically think of their intimate loyalties as extending to the whole village or compound. EX: "everyone in my village is my uncle or aunt." the tribal interest tends to take precedence over allegiance to the nation. first they have the community, then the individual.

pluralism

all religion are equally true. Rejects idea that Jesus is unique and suggests that God reveals himself in all religions and saves all people.

relating the gospel

almost always positive in tone and intellectually stimulating. Emphasizes inclusivity and advocacy of world peace. Baha'i sees itself as the culmination of many teachings, all which contain truth. Thus Baha'is apparently do not question the truth of Christian beliefs. Nevertheless, they don't accept all of what the NT declares as truth because, according to their interpretation, a literal acceptance of the truths taught in the various scriptures of the world would keep one from accepting the truths revealed by the subsequent Great Manifestations. Claims to inclusivity or not, Bahaullah certainly recognized a basic truth false distinction. Not everything can be true. After reading some of Baha'ullah's text, he manifests in declaring as false those interpretations of the Godpels that do not fit into his authorized sequence of prophets, but the unkind, deprecatory language he uses, which is not at all in keeping with the inclusivity that Baha'i frequently claims for itself. They only accept the beliefs of other religions insofar as they are refashioned to fit their scheme. If we pretend that everything was true or good, it would lead to the devaluation of human lives because it would allow us to overlook injustices and suffering. I wouldn't entrust the population of the planet to a group of individuals who can't maintain peace within their own family.

konkokyo

another new religion. Also part of the 13 authorized Shinto sects. emphasizes the need for mediation between humans and spirit world. Kawate Daijin was founder. Taught that Tenchi, the parent god of the universe, and human beings are mutually dependent on each other.

way of works

based on ritual and legal requirements of Hinduism. ritualistic emphasis of the Vedas

inclusivism

basic claims of christian faith are true, and Jesus is unique, but God reveals himself and through Christ, saves people through other relating as well. Anonymous christian: people who are saved but don't claim to be christian

sectarian shinto and the new religions

because Jpan had an uneasy time for religion in the nineteenth cent, a new group could avoid such trouble by identifying itself as a part of Shinto. This identification was rather contrived in some instances, but thirteen groups did relieve official approval as denominations of Shinto. There were then classified as belonging to "sectarian Shinto" view new religion as a sense of immaturity in that its umbilical for dto tis parent religion has not yet been cut decisively. Criteria for classifying a group among new religions: PG 435. despite their many differences, the Japanese new religions seem to follow a discernible pattern the includes six elements: one, new religions usually begin with one person, either man or woman. second, their doctrinal teachings of the movements tend to be highly simplistic and superficial. third, the goals offered by the religion are this worldly , as expressed by the constantly recurring phrase happiness, health and prosperity. south new religions tend to promote social egalitarianism. many founders are women. fifth, organizational structure is usually tight. sixth, new religions provide optimistic responses to negative situations.

Satya Sai Baba

began with a holy man and continued with current incarnation. Syncretism between Hinduism and Islam is not uncommon. Some claimed he headed them, though his reputation rests primarily on being able to materialize objects such as wrist watches and endless mounds of sacred ash.

Satya Sai Baba

began with an original holy man who lived around the beginning of the 20th century and continued with his supposed present incarnation. mesmerized followers with alleged miracles. His followers accept his claim that he is God, look to him for success, healing, and wisdom.

the life cycle.

birth and childhood: a childhood ritual eof passage is the seven five three festival which recognizes three year old.s. children receive a lot of overt attention in Japanese religious culture. puberty: Marriage: high point is when bride and groom exchange glasses of saki (Japanese rice wine) Death:

four universal rites of passage

birth, puberty, marriage, death

birth and early life of Muhammad

born in Mecca. The indigenous Arabian religion is a mixture of animism and polytheism. A highlight of any pilgrimage to Mecca was a visit to a cube shaped shrine (called the Kaaba which means cube) dedicated to the main god of this shrine, Hubal. During Muhammad's time, Arabia was the site of extensive cross cultural interaction. There was a Jewish community here professing monotheism. A minority of people, called the hand ,or "pious ones" devoted themselves exclusively to the worship of one God, Allah (moon god). Muhammad was born into a small Hashemite clan of the Quraish tribe. Orphaned and raised by uncle. He was illiterate and worked as a camel driver. Started working for a wealthy woman named Khadija, and they fell in love and married.

reincarnation

called samsara, which literally means wanderings or simply existence. Karma, in connection to reincarnation, came to mean the duty that becomes incumbent on a person due to his/her actions in a previous life. Karma teaches that whatever happens to people is the result of their personal actions in a previous existence. The goal of Hinduism became finding release from samsara. It meant Toal submission to the authority of the Brahmins (priests) for they alone held the key to such release. the word of release is moksha which is sometimes translated as redemption.

the life cycle

chapter one identified four rites of passage: birth, puberty, marriage, and death. Judaism takes these rites very seriously. Child is circumcised at 8 days and one they are thirteen they have a bar mitzvah that makes them accountable for keeping the law. Reform and Conservative congregations practice this for girls. Because nuclear family is so important, culture, religion, and weddings are huge. The groom smashes a glass under his foot symbolizing the destruction of Jerusalem or dispel demons from new home. Short time between death and funeral. Read from psalms at funeral expressing hope in future resurrection

Pure Lan schools

closely related to the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha. Dhyani belive in hierarchy of Buddhas, with the one on hthe very top frequently called Vairocana. Underneath him were four Buddhas, each one being associated with some of the lower order Dhyani Buddhas. Each of them governs one of the four quadrants of the universe: Amogasiddha for the north, Akshobya for the east, Ratnasambhave for the south, and Amitabha for the west. Statues are often arranged in triads, where the more important one is flanked by two other. Focuses on Amitabha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, whogovernst the western quadrant of the universe. To create a paradise took enormous mental power. It had already become a common practice to invoke Amitabha with the mantra "I bow down to worship AMitabha" What makes the Pure Land so desirable is it makes it easier for a person to find their way to nirvana. The key is that attaining nirvana directly means relying on self powers whereas Amitbha made other power available. Honen took it to Japan. What distinguished SHinran from Honen was the important question of the motivation for chanting the Nembutsu. Honen said an individual had to repeat the Nembutsu in order to earn access to the Pure. Land. Shinran said people did to have to earn entry at all; amida (shortened name of Amitabha by Honen) had already done it all.

Historically, Sikhism arose out of an attempt to

create harmony between Islam and HIndu, but Sikhs don't see it that way. They think their gurus received original revelation

life cycle

cultivates numerous rights of passage. promote several methods of insuring that pregnant woman and unborn child are protected from negative spiritual influences. The birth of a child: priest makes sure there are no knots in cords in the house so the umbilical cod may not get tangled by imitative magic. Dedicate one month old babies to goddess of children, Periachi. The book of Manu divides HIndu life into four stages: initiation is beginning of the first phase of a student. marriage is the beginning of the second stage of life. then the book suggests that man should be disgusted with physical life and material gain and be ready to move out of that cyle. step four is the point of comet renunciation.

way of devotion

developed in spurts. this phase focusses on devotion to ones own god within a pantheon of available deities. The Tamil people, some who were poets, spread the idea that moksha can be found through a loving relationship to one god, not through the virtually impossible way of works, let alone the unattainable mysticism of the way of knowledge. This school of thought became known as Bhakti, which means loving attachment or detains. two ways of understanding devotion: the devotion of a person to a deity, or the deity's devotion to the person. The fundamental idea of Bhakti is that a person can be redeemed on the basis of a loving relationship with his or her special god or goddess. Goes back as far as to the Bhagavad-Gita, a poem: Arjuna and his brothers are about to lead their army against their enemies, some of whom are their cousins. Arjuna feels torn about what will happen to his karma because of these actions of killing so many people. He's about to turn away when Krishna, his chariot driver tells him that he should perform his caste duty as a member of the Kshatriya class. Krishna counsels him to attach himself solely to Krishna because devotion to Kirshna alone is necessary to reach moksha. The idea that total devotion to one god is sufficient for salvation eventually became the cornerstone of Bhakti Hinduism.

Vaishnavism

devotion to Vishnu constitues one of the three main branches of Bhakti Hinduism. These followers of Vishnu look to his incarnations for their salvation. recognized by vertical decoration on their foreheads known as the tilaka. Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife, is known as the goddess of wealth and beauty. in the Trimurti, Vishnu is known as the Preserver, but to his followers he is simply God, frequently called Ram. avatars are biological incarnations of the god. Vishnu is most concerned with maintaining the dharma, the true ways of the gods.

relating to the gospel

do not ask a jew to defend what you may find unacceptable in Judaism. In the past, persecution and coerced conversion have gone hand in hand. Thus many jewish people are offended by attempts at evangelism. Jews need to know that they need a Messiah, and they need to know about Jesus, who is the Messiah. Because Judaism is as much a part of the Western world as Christianity, it is easy to find shared aspects of life. We need to remember that a Jewish person needs to find Jesus Christ as Savior, not because the temple is gone and there are no more sacrifices, but because he or she is a sinful human who is alienated from God. But accepting Christ does not alter jewish identity. When a jew accepts the Messiah Jesus, he becomes a "completed" jew, for he has found in his life and spirit the fulfillment o f he promises made by God to our forefathers.

Th three other vows.

dont steal: A Jain monk should never take anything that was not given, and then, only insofar as the item is necessary for existence. Prevents monks from owning property. Abstinence: conquer sexual desire, came to mean that the monks should suppress all carnal inclinations. Detachment: sweeping prohibition of anything that the monk could allow himself to get attached to, including his family, his Boyd, his personal identity or even his own name. Thus a monk leads a life of self mortification. Persistent practice leads to the release of one's soul. The one who attains this is called an arhat, a "holy man". Those who have reached this take final step and starve themselves to death while meditating under a tree. This process is called itvara, and it is something that monks prepare for many years in advance, and that is expected only of the very holiest of the holy men.

Hanukkah

festival commemorating the purification of the temple by the Maccabees. Story goes that priest had enough oil for only one day, although the ceremony lasts eight days. Thus Hanukkah is a celebration to reenact this ceremony. time of family togetherness and fun.

tips to evangelism

first of all, the evangelist must discern the gospel message in its biblical setting. second, the evangelist must make sure that nothing in his or her culture obscures or supplants the gospel message. third, the evangelist has to convey the message in a way that the gospel is intelligible to the receptors culture and in such way that the receptor can also trace his or her understanding of the gospel back to the biblical message itself

Biblical writings

first step to establishing rabbinic Judaism was to form a clear consensus of what constituted holy Scripture. This matter was taken up by rabbis in Yavneh. After a long debate they certified the writings that had been treated as Scripture in Palestinian Judaism all along; none of the other competing books (Apocrypha) made the list. Thus the books recognized as Jewish Scripture are identical to the Christian OT, the only difference being their arrangement. The Hebrew canon was arranged into three divisions: torah, prophets and writings.

caste system

first three castes are considered twice born. the lower caste exists to serve the upper three. two groups outside the caste system: tribal groups and members of other religions, and Dalits, the outcastes or untouchables. More of them then top three castes combines. Ghandi referred to them as "harijan" or children of God, thereby invoking a sort of blessing on them, but he did nothing to improve their status and encouraged them to rejoice in their status.

Laypeople have three basic obligations

first, they must keep the five precepts. second, laypeople must support the bikhus. provide them with food, clothing, and any other material necessities. Buddha is usually shown sitting cross legged with his left hand open on his lap and his right hand directed toward the earth. Only a Buddha can hold his hands in this position (mudra). Shakyamuni became one of the 25 buddhas, all of whom came to teach the same way of enlightenment. There is an idea that there is another Buddha already in the last stages of preparation to come to earth. His name is Maitreya; his still a bodhisattva, Buddha in the making. when he comes, he will usher in a golden age of enlightenment for all.

Guru Nanak

founded sikhism as a religion. came to realize that the true God transcends established religious distinctions. guru refers to a spiritual teacher and frequently implies high standing, but in sikhism the guru is considered the very embodiment of God who teaches with divine infallibility. "gu" means darkness and "ru" means light. There's a story that two muslims challenged his belief of the artificiality of religious distinctions by asking him to join their prayer session. While they bowed and prayed, he stood standing to pray. They accused him of not having prayed with them as he had promised. Nanak replied that he knew their thoughts during the prayer, and that poster had nothing to do with who's thoughts were truly focused on God. Once he died, people didn't know what to do with his body because Muslims and Hindus have different rituals, but he had left pr death instructions. They placed a sheet over his body and covered it with flowers with former hindus on his right and former muslims on his left. Then they left it alone overnight with the agreement that whoever's powers would still be fresh the next day could dispose of his Boyd. When they came back, all the flowers were still fresh, but his body was gone.

general and special revelation

general: the divine disclosure to all persons at all times and places by which on comes to know what God is and what he is like. What we may learn about God by observing the universe around us. Special: God's self revelation through history as recorded in scripture and embodied in Jesus

Tiandai/Tendai school

generally known as the rationalist school of Buddhism. Chih-i, a Chinese monk, organized it formally. The original Tendai was based on the Lotus Sutra, Saisho (brought it to Japan) incorporated some additional beliefs and practices of an esoteric (magical) nature. Three major components: superiority of Lotus Sutra, the unity of reality and universal salvation. Emphasized mediation.

diet

halal(permitted) roots. eating pork or products of pork is forbidden. forbids drinking wine which is interpreted as prohibiting all intoxicating drinks

Shinto

identified as Japanese national religion for two reasons. firsts it is based on Japans indigenous mythology and second, it was incorporated into the Japanese nation state and is headed by the emperor. Shinto means "way of the gods". gods are known as Kami. defines itself as a practical way of relating to the spirit world with really not much more specificity than if we said religion.

some similarities within the subjective theories

identify certain basic religious elements that constitute an important aspect of what it means to be human, such as feelings, thoughts or symbols. these reside primarily below the level of conscious awareness. when they are brought to consciousness, they are expressed in terms of religious beliefs. they claim that since subjective elements exist in our minds, and since religion can be explained on the basis of their existence, we have all that we need to understand religion. Thus we can conclude that religion is rooted in subjectivity.

Purim

in Feb or March. in the Bible, it was instituted as a celebration of events recorded in book of Esther. Purim means "lots" which is derived form the idea that the date of the genocide had been determined by the casting of lots. tends to be social even with music and dancing and reading of Esther

cultus

in religion, it is the external features that have meaning and would be unnecessary in other contexts. Ex: Protestants sit in benches, sing songs, pray with their eyes closed etc. These items aren't meant to be obligatory or an exhaustive description, but they are typical for Protestants Christian cultus

taboo

in religion, the untouchability is the essence of taboo. Ex: the ark of the covenant was untouchable, not because of moral impurity, but because of the nature of the object. To violate taboo is to invite drastic consequences.

reincarnation

in the west reincarnation is seen as reason for optimism: there is always another life to attain what you could not do in this one. It is important to understand that in Indian thought reincarnations is a highly negative concept. It is a burden, because to live is to suffer; and having multiple lives means going through multiple lifetimes of suffering. its called samsara, which literally means wanderings or simply existence. the idea is that the actions in one life produce the fruits of karma, which then determine ones duties in the next life. Karma teaches that whatever happens to people is the result of their personal actions in a previous existence. Thus it is best for all people to live strictly within the rules of their caste, whether in comfort or tony, and merit a better incarnation. Thus the goal of Hinduism became finding release from samsara. to do this means total submission to the authority of the Brahmins, for they alone held the key to such release.

a religious culture left without strong guidance will tend to

increased ritual and magic

the ancestors

instead of being called ancestor, the better term would be living/dead. An unmarried or childless person, though technically non ones ancestry, is still eligible to be a living/dead. the spirit world is visualized in different ways, but usually pictured as a spiritual counterpart to the physical world, complete with relationships. Once everyone who had direct knowledge of a person has passed on, the ancestor loses contact with the earth. ZULU ancestors live under the kraal (circular arrangement of huts). protect social order. Male ancestors are more important than female. YORUBA also pay close attention to their ancestors. some ancestors importance goes beyond the immediate family. KIKUYU every ceremony contains references to ancestors. on level of the extended family, the clan. visits from ancestors bring outward courtesy and formality, but inward anxiety for the person being visited. instead of worshipping, the spirits are more respected

way of knowledge

is the ascetic and mystical path that arose around 500 b.c. aka Vedantic or Upanishadic. mystical beliefs were first recorded in a group of writings called the Upanishads, which means to sit down, reflecting the idea of a pupil sitting at his masters feet. They supplement the Vedas, hence the name Vedanta. the Upanishads articulate a number of differing perspectives, but the one that is best known expresses the philosophy that there is only one true reality, Brahman. Brahman is God, conceptualized as an impersonal, all pervasive being. Brahman is infinite, it is all there is. Everything that isn't Brahman, isn't actually real. It is called Maya, a word that is related to the word magic. Everything that we experience or think about rationally belongs to Maya. Maya encompasses all physical objects, including our bodies. Thus there does not seem to be anything trustworthy, for tis all Maya. Deep inside the human soul, however, is a reality that is not Maya. It is called Atman. It has reality apart form Maya's deceptions, for Atman is identical with Brahman. thus in the farthest reaches of the soul, where the true Self resides, there is God. You must transcend the world of experience, which is only Maya, and uncover ones identity as Atman-Brahman. This can only be attained through al life of strict separation from the world and deep contemplation. You must adopt a life of complete hermit, a sannyasin, seeking our true identity apart form the world. Liberation comes as we attain moksha, the release from samsara and all of Maya.

Manu

is the name of a mythical ancestors off umanity. in this book a group of riches (wise, semi-define figures themeselves) consult Manu concerning the divine will for human beings. In response, Manue presents the privileges and obligations that come with the caste system. The justification most frequently brought up for the caste system is that it merely represents "division of labor"

great luminary

its not really clear what this is. It could be the idea of unity; it could also be God or even oh's Great Emanation. In any event, Baha'ullah made it clear that such world unity could not be achieved without a certain amount of personal restrictions beings placed on all humans. In short, the world peace that Baha'ullah envisioned was a peace based on the principles of God, as annunciated by him, in which all rulers of the world would cooperate with him and maintain standing armies in order to maintain standing armies in order to squelch anyones attempt to break that peace.

Shaivism

largest number of Hindus recognize Shiva as the highest god. He is represented in many ways. Most common depiction of Shiva is as a point, conical, nonhuman form, clearly a phallic representation. It is called the lingam (which literally means sign, and here is sign of being male) It is frequently surrounded by a yoni, the representation of a female womb. He is pictured as being married to a goddess named PRavati. She is worshiped for exclusive devotion to Shiva. They had two sons. One was Ganesha, easily the most recognizable go do fHinduism because he has the head of an elephant. Shiva found Parvati being affectionate with a young man, and in a fit of jealousy, cut off his head. He realized too late that it was Ganesha, and he vowed to present Ganesha with the first head he came across as a replacement. He is worshiped as the remover of obstacles. The younger son is Kartikeya, a god of war.

rituals and magic

magic is essentially a subset of ritual, the key difference being that magic is directed more immediately toward the spiritual powers. Magic can be intended for good. If a culture's religion has developed to have a group of people carrying out rituals, we would probably refer to them as priests. if there is just one individual, we call them healers or shamans. A healer manipulates the power of the spirits externally with his techniques. A shaman allows himself to be possessed by one or more spirits, and then emits the power of the spirits out of himself.

book of Manu and the caste system

manu is name of a mythical ancestor of humanity. In this book a group of rishis (wise semi divine figures themselves) consult Manu concerning the divine will for human beings. It presents the privileges and obligations that come with the case system.

Veda gods

many gods worshiped with fire sacrifices. Underlying the collection of deities is the impersonal governing principle called Rita. The entire universe are subject to its rules. Vishnu was a minor god in the Vedas, possibly also associated with the sun. Eventually, after Vedic times, VISHNU emerged as one of the three highest gods and became known as "the preserver". He was joined in his supremacy by two other gods who only play minor roles in the Rig Veda. BRAHMA, the Creator and Rudra, the capricious go, who performed the role of trickster. some people thought they could ward off some of his more destructive actions by giving him a flattering name, so they called him SHIVA, the Auspicious One.

So you meet a Jain

may be hard to recognize since they call themselves Hindu. Because of their reputation for punctiliousness and honestly, they are often trusted as bookkeepers and accountants. Two clear points of distinction between Christian virtues of alleviating suffering and treating the created world with respect, on the one hand, and the Jainism notion of life sacredness of life on the other. First, Jainism reject the Creator of life and gives life itself absolute worth. Jains believe that there is nothing of nighter value than life itself. The biblical belief places all of life in God's hands. An absolute reverence for life that forbids ever taking any life becomes idolatrous because it usurps the absoluteness that belongs to God alone. The second point may sound paradoxical: by biblical standards, ahimsa devalues human life. Jainism lowers the value of a human being to no more than a blade of grass, a cockroach or a chicken. In the Bible, human beings alone are created in the image of God. A third Christian response to Jainism can focus on the burdensome nature of Jian beliefs. If a monk struggles to make even a small amount of spiritual progress, how can a layperson be expected to? Christians need to show that the problem with human existence is that people are alienated from their proper relationship with God, not that people have accumulated karma as a result of violating certain principles.

Baha'i Teachings

monotheistic faith. Baha'ullah taught there is one God, the eternal Creator, who is essentially unknowable. God has manifested himself from time to term through prophets, Babs, namely, gateways to God. They are direct manifestations of God, not just spokesmen for God. Babs are divine. Baha'ullah recognized 9 Babs; Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Baba and Baha'ullah. The Babs' messages superseded each other. Baha'ullah contended that all prophets of God taught the same message, but on the other hand, each new prophet did so with greater clarity. Baha'i emphasizes both personal devotion and social action, but social action has received far more external attention. The principles of Baha'i stem from the writings of Baha'ullah and their interpretations by Abdul Baha. They are arranged in a collection of ten points

haggadah

narratives and illustrations in Talmud (Gemara)

liminality

neither in an earlier stage nor having arrived in a new one. Ex: the time between Fred teaching at a school and the official acknowledgment of his retirement. In order to be a member of a traditional society one has to fit one of the roles established by that society.

Aum Shinrikyo

new religion was founded by Chizuo Matsumoto. his teachings began to focus on an impending world apocalypse, which only his members would survive. When a number of his followers left the group, his attitude became oppressive, and his hostility towards the government increased. started to look more like militias than a mediation society.

Soka Gakkai

new religion. Tsunesaburo Makiguchi was initial founder. the organization was revived under the leadership of Josei Today. propagated it with the radical techniques known as shakubuku. speaks on behalf of peace and nuclear disarmament. headquarters are at the foot of Mount Fuji.

Seicho No Ie

new religion. considered to be allied with this Western movement, not only in resemblance but actually as a result of direct influence. Taniguchi Masaharu founded it in his quest for religion insight. He taught that all humans are children of God, whom he called Buddha.

Critique?

no evidence to prove this -different stages co-exist in some belief systems. EX: animists who believe in Creator God -much evidence of monotheism, van in primitive cultures -tendency to move in opposite direction: when people abandon monotheism, go toward animism and magic.

so you meet a muslim.. what you might expect

not all muslims are terrorists. Be prepared to receive a slant on international politics that may differ drastically from what you are used to hearing. Two issues may come up in extended social or vocational contacts. One is diet. Keeping times of prayer is important, and we don't gain anything by it inconvenient for them to abide by them.

ancient historical origins.

not much clarity about the history. Speculated that it was governed by matriarchies. Until there is more evidence, we can leave the hypothesis of shamanistic matriarchies to the side. Japan became unified under one emperor of the Yamato clan. The emperor legitimated his claim to the throne by asserting he had descended from Amaterasu, the sun goddess. people came to Japan from Korea and China bringing advanced culture. Japanese adopted the Chinese way of writing and philosophy of religion. The confucian system, which emphasized filial Piet and chains of authority, appealed to Japanese because it undergirded already existing practices. Buddhism provided comprehensive worldview and a system of clearly ordered celestial beings.

Forms

objects that don't contribute directly to their pure function, such as decorations on pottery or curved ends of hunting bows.

sociological/anthropological

people invented religion to fulfill their perceived social needs Ex: Plato's noble lie

four main patterns to classify truth and salvation in religions other than their own

pluralism, inclusivism, exclusivism, universalism

critical theory

post colonial study of religion that recognizes inherent biases in western approaches, especially with regard to cultural imperialism

contextualization

process by which the evangelist tries to situate the message int he receptors culture.

schools of kabbalah

produced many mystical works. The most famous of the mystical treaties was called Zohar, which literally means book of splendor, but is often referred to as book of lights. Descries the universe in its relation to the being and glory of God. One aspect of it that has intrigued Jews and Gentiles is numerological mysticism, gematria.

Zealots

promoted the independence of Jews from Romans. carried out terrorist activities against Romans and at times against Jews who cooperated with Romans. These attacks eventually led to full-blown war and destruction of the temple, the city of Jerusalem and the annihilation of its walls.

where did religion come from

psychological sociological/anthropological critical theory biological

Har Kishen

put an end to a smallpox epidemic that was sweeping through Delhi and the surrounding countryside.

fasting

received first revelations during month of Ramadan. fast during daylight hours from food and sexual relations. There are exceptions for children, military, or the ill. On the first day they celebrate Eid al-Fitr with a special service in mosque.

folk religion

religion of the common people as they try to find participation away from intense training in practice and scripture. consists of the lived, everyday practice of religion by common laypersons

what is the most primitive form of religion?

religion that is characterized by very little complexity, which reduces all spiritual reality to some fairly simple ideas

Har Gobind

replaced beads with a sword belt and mounts a throne holding two swords that symbolized political and spiritual authority respectively. protects the physical existence of his community

the kami

resists definition because it refers to a broad range of divine powers. generally it means divine or sacred. can also refer to impersonal spiritual force. particularly associated with distinctive natural phenomena. Kami are connected to evergreen tees, for obvious economic reasons, rice fields.

Shaktism

school of Bhakti in which the goddess has become the principal object of worship. When we refer to worship of the Bhakti, the identity of the goddess is usually either Durga or Kali. Durga is typically seen in a conquering pose. Kali's is intentionally gruesome. Both Durga and Kali are traditionally given animal blood as worship offerings. Several hundred years ago, a cult named the Thagis presented Kali with human sacrifices. The cult was prohibited by Birtis, but is where English got word thug from.

Shaktism

school of Bhakti in which the goddess has become the principle object of worship. When we refer to worship of the Bhakti, the identity of the goddess is usually either Durga (usually conquering) or Kali (goddess of violence and cruelty). The celebration of Shakti's union with Shiva has given rise to its emulation in worship rituals, both symbolically and physically. Known also as Tantrism, the ritual emphasizes the spiritual energy released through the fusion of opposites. The process of discovering their new deities is endless, supposedly there are 330 million. It seems there is nothing that hasn't been personified and deified. Many temples have a collection of statues called "The Nine Planets". In addition, j living and recently deceased humans, such as Gandhi, are recognized as gods.

Zen recognizes five levels of understanding

see pg 336

Passover

seven or eight day depending on specific tradition. there major components: unleavened bread, the Passover lamb and retelling of the story (thus the main celebration-the Seder- is often called the Passover Haggadah). because sacrifices ceased with second commonwealth, the sacrificial lamb is no longer part of the celebration.

development and further succession

severed from his domestic roots, Baha'ullah began to preach a faith for the world. Although he was technically imprisoned for most of the rest of his life, Baha'ullah was able to exert much influence through his books, letters and personal interviews. He was recognized by his followers as the "great manifestation" namely the ultimate prophet. When he died, he had clearly designated his son Abbas Effendi as his successor. He took the title Abdul Baha, "servant of Glory" and proclaimed himself the sole authorized interpreter of Baha'ullah's writings. Abdul's half brother, Muhammad Ali, was designated by Baha'ullah to succeed Abdul should the contingency arise. Abdul denied the claim, and once again Baha'i was beset by brotherly friction. Those who disagreed with Muhammad Ali's de facto leadership became designated as "covenant breakers". Abdul persevered and carried the movement on. Before he died, he appointed his grandson, Shoghi Effendi, to be the next leader. Shoghi received the title of "The Guardian" because he made sure that as Baha'i spread, it would not be altered in the process. Translated most of Baha'ullah's writings into English.

domestic Shinto

shinto is mainly practiced in the home. each traditional home contains a kamidana, a shrine designated for the venation of the kami. or the will have the Buddhist counterpart, the butsudan. devout families will have both. the same are usually guardian spirits of a particular location. Amida is the figure most frequently represented.

hierophany

symbols that represent a manifestation of the holy. Ex: water symbolizes spiritual purification, sacred buildings provide links to a spiritual dimension, etc.

intro to African traditional religion

the elements these cultures hold loosely in common: 1. a community orientation that centers on ones village or the tribe 2. a philosophy of life that focuses on this worldly concerns and present spiritual agencies 3. the recognition and worship of a high god 4. the importance attached to relationships with the ancestors 5. the frequent recourse to rituals and magic. 6. witchcraft as a common explanation of evil events. 7. the importance attached to age grades and rites of passage.

biological

the evolution of religion 1. assumes people move from: -low(power/control) to high religion(truth/ultimate meaning) -tribal to national to universal religion EX: OT Yahweh to El to God -magic to philosophy. magic concerned with power; philosophy with explanations 2. the typical story line goes like this: -humans sensed mana (a spiritual force in the world) and designed the magic needed to manipulate it. -then, personified those spiritual forces as ancestors (animism) then elevated departed spirits to god like status and personified abstract principles like justice or love. this magic changed to worship (polytheism) -believing in many gods, but groups only worshiped one and the many, the unity and diversity around them (henotheism) -then one won out (monotheism)

empirical

the fact of diversity

transcendence

the feature of religion that directs us beyond the mundane or earthly realm. It can come to us through supernatural agencies or through metaphysical principles Ex: the greatest good

Teachings of Buddha

the key to salvation is to let go of all attachments. The problem with life, according to Gautama: first, the world that we experience is utterly impermanent. in fact, what we know of the world is only our consciousness of it, and thus it is our consciousness that is forever changing. This is the doctrine of dependent origination, the ultimate case of bootstrapping. The second part of the problem is that there is no one who could hold on to anything, even if there were something permanent. We live under the illusion that there is a real self who lives over and over again through the cycles of samsara (reincarnation). The Buddha taught that there is only anatman, the non self. The thing we call self is merely a bundle of perceptions with nothing to tie the bundle together and on one beyond the bundle who perceives the perceptions. Until we realize that we are not substantial entities and that we are not helping ourselves by staking our imagined existence on a world that is constantly in flux, suffering is bound to result. Salvation, then, consists of relate from the cycle of reincarnation by realizing that there is no cycle of reincarnations. There must be a nirvana because otherwise there would be no place to which we could escape from this limited world. Ashin Titilla descries it as a mental state that a person can attain in this life, once he/she is freed of all conditions that have enslaved his/her will. The absorption into nirvana entails the disappearance of all suffering. Gautama distilled these ideas into the four noble truths

Hinduism began

with the division of the Aryan peoples who migrated into the Indian subcontinent while others moved into the Iranian plateau. Their settlements started in the northwestern corner of India, Indus Valley, which already contained thriving civilization. First, the demise of Indus Valley was largely du to rivers drying up. Second, Aryans, whose main occupation was to herd cattle, migrated into India and took over some of this recently abandoned area. Hindutva movement denies that there ever was a movement, let alone an invasion, and they assert that the Indus Valley civilization was simply an learner version of their own so that there was no conquest and not even a pop shift.

So you meet a Baha'i: what you might expect

young religion. Attracts people who are interested in matters of religion aren want to solve the world social problems. Although Baha'i does not do evangelism, Baha'is encourage the active exploration of religious issues. Not existed long enough to give rise to a genuine folk version of the religion.

Truth telling

A vow never to mislead anyone with speech. Jain teachers held that truth always depends on ones perspective. Hence they suggested that in formal assertions all statements should be modified by the word syadvada, which means "maybe" or "somehow". This modification helps decrease the chance of accidentally saying something wrong. While it depends on the perspective of the person, a Jain monk is supposed to include all perspectives if he attempts to make a dogmatic statement. Ex: the pot. The Jain logician argues that if he did not qualify his statements with syadvada and did not allow for all possible points of view, he could be saying something false, that is to say, something that contradicts reality. He is in fact trying to exclude all possibilities for contradictions, and thus he is protecting both logic in vernal and the law of contradiction in particular

Prophets

According to Islam, God disclosed his will through prophet. A prophet (nabi) is also considered an apostle (rasul) if he provides a book for his community to live by. Most prophets mentioned in Qur'an are Biblical figures such as Adam Noah Abraham David and Jesus. Why is this? Traditions Islam says that prophets taught the message Muhammad taught. But subsequently people tampered with the writings they left behind and distorted the truth of the original message. Muhammad had great respect for Jesus. however, tow points are nonnegotiable in Islam: Jesus is not God and Christ did not die on the cross. They think it unthinkable that God would allow one of his messengers to die a death of shame and torture. For them, the line of human leaders will only be completed when Mahdi appears.

The Tirthankaras

According to Jain thought, Mahavira was not the only person to attain enlightenment and become a teacher for the world. There were 23 similar beings before him who carried out the same task. these persons , who were all humans at one time, are called the Tirthankaras which literally means "ford finders". Function as role models for people seeking enlightenment. According to Jain cosmology, the world revolves between an ascending time period, in which everything slowly improves, and a descending one, in which life gets increasingly worse. Jainism believes that the world is now in a descending phase and eventually the cosmos will start improving. The descent is composed of 6 stages.

Conservative Judaism

Adheres to the law while adapting to contemporary culture. smallest branch of Judaism

The Caliphate and the Shia

After Muhammad died, the looks for a successor, called "caliph" in Arabic. Since he had no living sons, his son in law, Ali ben Talib, was a obvious choice. Ali claimed the Muhammad had endowed him with his designation (ilm) and spiritual knowledge (Nass), so that Ali would also be able to directly speak to God. he ended up not liking the confidence of many people, who saw him as a hothead and unreliable. A general consensus (sunna) established that Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father in law, would be the caliph. Ali's followers were disgruntled, and at that moment the seeds of a permanent split were born. The Arabic word of this splinter group was Shia, and thus we have the origins of the Sunnis (majority) and Shiites (minority). This process happened twice more, ending with Uthman, who was the first of many caliphs from the sub tribe of the Quraish called the Umayyads. Umar was poisoned, and Uthman was stabbed. Uthman didn't enjoy politics, but he did collect all of Muhammads revelations and issued the authoritative edition of the Qur'an. The Kharijites, which means dissenters, were a group that arose and pressed their claims and interpretations of the situation. They said that the caliph should be the one who shows the greatest amount of devotion to God, even if they were lowliest slaves. They emphasized that a Muslim who compromises his faith is no better than an unbeliever.

the Talmud

After Romans destroyed Jerusalem, Jewish people spread out throughout the world. Babylon was the great center of Jewish life under the revived Persian kingdom. Because Jewish religion was so similar to Persians, they let them live and even thrive in their midst. Mishnah+Gemara=Talmud. Two versions of Talmud: Palestinian and Babylonian. Organized into fifty five tractates of uneven length. A tractate contains many subsections. Begins with passage from Torah, then discussion from Mishnah (small space), and then Gemara (Largest part). The Talmud is the authoritative source of Jewish law and tradition.

Rise of Rabbinic Judaism

After destruction of temple, Sadducees went out of business. Zealots made a last stand at Herod's old fortress, which ended with mass suicide of people on the eve of being captured by the Romans. Herodians or Essenes never enjoyed much popular support and disappeared after the war. The Pharisees were the only remaining party and were in an ideal position to assume leadership of Judaism. The new rabbinic Judaism emphasized obedience to the law. To this day the main focus of Judaism is on observing the law, not on personal belief.

God

All African tribes recognize the supreme God. Here, God is thought to be 1. associated with the sky, 2. all powerful, 3. all knowing, 4. eternal, 5. spirit without physical body, 6. a person, 7. good though he can be unpredictable, 8. creator of the world, and 9. provider. KIKUYU call God "Ngai" and he is creator and provider. he shouldn't be bothered with petty requests; never approached directly by individuals. He manifests himself in various celestial phenomena like sun, moon, etc. only worshiped in times of great distress. ZULU is unclear what they call God. Some say Inkosi Yezulu or Unkunlukulu. may be approached only in dire situations. may be approached by an individual supplicant, though not purely alone. His worship and requests are mediated by someone who specializes in relating to God. This person, known as the haven herd, also controls the weather. Becoming a heaven herd requires a specific call from god, like almost being struck by lightening. So if someone dies from that, they are considered to belong to God. MAASAI call God Engage, which means rain and sky. they particularly thank God for giving them cattle. invoke God on a daily basis as well as on special occasions. My refer to Engage by two colors: black when he is seen as good and benevolent, and red, when he is angry. Usually in the masculine gender, but may be referred to as feminine. YORUBA call God Olorun meaning owner of the sky, and many orisa. God is synonymous with supreme God. Olurun is the source of all power, but he is distant and has no direct relationship with he world. He supplied the power and instruction for creation to the god Orisa-nla, who then carried out the task. Olurun is never worshiped directly; Orisa-nla is worshiped as the supreme god.

the decree of God

Allah is sovereign; all that Allah wills will come to pass, and what he doesn't won't happen. Its intent is to proclaims the sovereignty of god; its effect has been to promote at least the appearance of determinism. This creates apathy. Since all that happens is decree of God, there is no reason to try to change anything.

Mahayana Buddhism

Allowed people to attain salvation in ways other than becoming a monk. Gave rise to four significant innovations, the first is a fundamental change in understanding the nature of the universe: the world doesnt exist. Ultimately northern exists; it is all sunyata, the Void. Different Mahayan schools took different approaches to understanding relationship of anatman to sunyata. At the risk of oversimplification, there were to options, The Madhyamika (middle way) and the Yogacara (meditation and exercise. Madhyamika holds that ultimately nothing is real, but it appears real because thats the nature of things. Yogacara agrees that ultimately nothing is real, but we make it appear real to us because we create a projection of our won minds. Second innovation: multiplication of divine beings. They fall into three categories: Manushi, Dhyani, and bodhisattvas. Manushi; achieved enlightenment on earth. Dhyani: transcendental Buddhas, are Buddhas who attained enlightenment in heaven. Bodhisattvas: in Mahayan, theoretically, any human being can become a bodhisattva through commitment and compassion. one example of a bodhisattva was Avalokitesvara. Third innovation of Mahayan is the proliferation of further scriptures, such s the Lotus Sutra or the Heart Sutra, in addition to, or in place of, the original Tripitaka. fourth innovation: development of many schools.

Swaminaryan

An 11 year old boy named Ghanshyam set out on a journey of 7000 miles in 7 years all over India. He finally settled in the sate of Gujarat, where he found a guru with satisfactory answers and studied under him. His guru gave him honorific names, including Narayan Muni: Narayan is another name for Vishnu; muni means wise man. Members of the group are expected to undergo certain requirements that go beyond the ordinary practices of Hinduism. men and women separate in temple.

Orthodox Judaism

At the heart of Judaism is the belief in one God. Jews are the chosen people, so they have more privileges and responsibility. Dress in regular street clothes. must also wear fringes (shirts with these fringes are called tzitzit), side curls (Leviticus forbids cutting off the hair that grows on side of head), and head covering for both sexes (an observant Jewish man always keeps head covered. under his hat he wears a yarmulke or kippah). Homes are identified as Jewish by the mezuzah, a small object installed on the doorpost of each room. Contains small copy of Deuteronomy, referred to as shame. Anyone entering or leaving a room greets it by touching it and then kissing their fingers Dietary restriction are the laws of kashrut. Based on rules defined in Leviticus. there are clean and unclean things to eat. Animals must be killed quickly and blood drained immediately. Because exodus warns against boiling a baby goat in its moms milk, jews don't eat dairy and meat in the same meal. Kosher foods tend to be healthy because they are pure and have fewer additives than other foods. pray three times a day. begins by putting on the tallit, a large, fringed prayer shawl, followed by putting on the tefillin. The tefillin is a little black box containing four prayer scripture passages. Its tied on the head with a leather strap and on the left hand with leather straps that are wrapped around the arm seven times and fingers three times. As they pray, men sway symbolizing severance as well as moving between two centers: Torah and world. the synagogue is a house of worship and much more. House of prayer, study, education, social life, and arts. usually consists of the ark, the bema, and the menorah. ark holds Torah scrolls. bema is a raised platform on which the service is conducted. menorah is a seven branched candelabra which is lit at beginning of service.

neo kharijites

Besides the Sunnis and Shiites, a small and militant group made itself felt for a short time, just long enough to leave a lasting legacy. These were the Kharijites who killed Ali after they came to believe that he had compromised his calling. Muslims who didn't accept Kharijite standards were no longer Muslims, but hypocrites or an apostates, which was worse than being an infidel and subject to same treatment as infidels: refusing the chance to repent, they should be killed. Nowadays they are called Muslim Fundamentalists which is an inappropriate term: 1. it has no basis in reality. Essentially it has become a pejorative term applied by more liberal people to those who are more rigid in their beliefs and practices than they are themselves 2. it is offensive to those who are authentically christian fundamentalists. No matter how conservative their theology they would be appalled at the idea of carrying out acts of warfare or terrorism for the sake of Christ.

The ascendancy of conservatism: asharism and hanbalism

Cant expect Islam to frame their new religion around old culture since they are adding in people from so many other cultures. Thus, there was the movement of the Mutazilites, who attempted to make a rational case (Kalam) for Islam. They believed that the Quran was created by God and that human beings had free will, rather than all of their actions being predetermined by God. The Asharites went against them and eventually had the declared heretics. The Asharite movement got support from the fourth school, the most conservative one, founded by Ahmad bin Hanbal. His goal was to end deliberations as soon as it was possible to attain a fiqh, rather than extend his search after he had found a conclusion. These are his five principles: 1. Quran and sunna are suffiecnt in many cases, and only if they should not answer the questions with enough clarity should one not look any further. 2. if there is a ruling by one of the companions, it trumps any later traditions. 3. if the companions had differing opinions, prefer the one that is closest to Quran. 4. if the first three principles don't lead to resolution, use a Hadith. 5. as last resort, analogy is permissible. Simultaneously, Islam gave rise to mystical tradition, called Sufism. At the heart of Sufi teaching is the mystical quest for a direct experience of Allah, possibly even to merge ones soul with him.

Return visit to Mecca and death

Continued to grow. Eventually they become strong enough to capture Mecca. Muhammad removed all idols and cleansed the Kaaba of all statues in a special ceremony. He retained Mecca as the center for pilgrimage and maintained some of the external sites, such as the Kaaba and the well of Zamzam, as holy places. By the time he died in A.D. 632, he was the religious and political head of much of the Arabian peninsula

The Indeterminate Variable: Secular Judaism

Cultural and religious practices develop ones Jewish identity. Many Jews arent religious, but they affirm their identity as Jews, follow Jewish traditions, and contribute generously to the Jewish community. It's essential to recognize that the relationship between the religious and secular worlds of Judaism is seen as complementary, not antagonistic.

Vaishnavism

Devotion to Vishnu constitutes one of the three main branches of Bhakti Hinduism. He has ten popular avatars.

Simhat Torah

Directly after Sukkoth comes the day of celebration of the Torah, Simhat Torah. In synagogues the entire Torah is read in the course of a year, and this day the cycle is completed with the last few verses of Deuteronomy and first few verses of Genesis. Take Torah out of the ark and carry them around synagogue seven times kissing and dancing with them.

the state of Israel: a third commonwealth?

During 19th century Jewish families began to migrate to Palestine. Theodor Herzl, an Austrian Jew who coined the therm Zionism, realized that jews would never be free from persecution s long as they existed as a minority in in a non jewish community. They needed a homeland of their own.Under the stability of British rule, many Jews emigrated to Palestine. Inevitably, serious conflict between Jews and Arabs developed. After the Holocaust, world opinion moved toward favoring the establishment of a Jewish state. the state of Israel was established with the overwhelming sanction of the UN. Even w/out a temple in Jerusalem, Judaism again has a geographic center and a political identity.

Egypt and Sinai with Judaism

During the 400 years the Hebrews spent in Egypt, much of it as slaves, most of them forgot about God and adopted pagan religions practices. Moses reintroduced them to God. When he led them out of Egypt, he reestablished them as a monotheistic faith. several events crucial to later history of Judaism: 1. ten plagues. 2. Israelites crossing Red Sea. 3. giving the law at Mount Sinai. 4. golden calf incident.

merkavah

Early Jewish mysticism from Hebrew word chariot because God's throne was sometimes pictured as a celestial chariot. even though this word doesn't appear in that context, the conjunction of the image with the verse has created that label. The goal of this kind of spirituality was to raise the should through various levels of heaven until you see God at the third one. As Merkavah mysticism developed, the ascent of the should was increasingly pictured as a very dangerous enterprise.

the kojiki

Emperor ordered an official named Yasumaro to collect all available information concerning the kami and the ancient origins of Japan. he produced a coherent narrative called the Kojiki (record of ancient matters). He also wrote the Nihongi, which incorporates a narrative that predates the Kojiki. They are not considered divine authoritative revelation. It is a narrative that endorses political and religious practices by deriving them from mythological times of the gods.

Yemenite Jews (other jewish groups)

Existed in isolation iin sourer part of Arabian peninsula for many years. Wear blue and white stripes and are short. Experienced a drastic initiation into modern technological society when they were transported en Masse to Israel

The Sunna and Hadiths

For any issues that are left undefined by the Qur'an, the prophets life and informal sayings are ultimate authority. These traditions are called hadiths. As sunna (here it means census) the hadiths point to Muhammad's actual life as indications of how Muslims should act. when in doubt, do as Muhammad did.

Angad Dev

He had been a Hindu devotee of Durga. Devised alphabet for Punjabi, language spoken in that region. Emperor Human paid him a visit for spiritual advice but was annoyed when he had to wait because the guru was in a meditative trance. The guru reproved him for his haughty attitude, but also told the emperor what he needed to know. He also composed hymns to form a collection

The life of Buddha

He was birthed painlessly, and as soon as he exited the womb, he stood up ad proclaimed his exaltation. It was predicted he would become great king or monk. Married Yasodhara and gave birth to a boy, Rahula. Was protected from outside world, but grew increasingly curious. His dad decided to let him out, but his dad hid the evidence of the four elements that could induce Siddhartha to religion. The gods were interested in Sidd becoming a religious leader, so they took the forms of the four banished influences, and he saw successively an old man on verge of death, man with disfiguring disease, funeral procession and holy monk displaying the serenity of a life of renunciation. He was troubled deeply, and decided to leave his wife, son, and palace and embarked on a pursuit of spiritual enlightenment through a life of austerity. He deprived himself of all human comforts. He would inflict torture on himself. He decided to let his entire pursuit end in death or success. The gods, knowing he was close to a critical moment rejoiced, except for Mara, the destructive god. Wasunthara, the earth goddess, squeezed her hair and it caused a flood that washed away Mara and his minions. Siddhartha had now become a Buddha, literally an "awakened one". The fig tree he had been sitting under was known as the "bodi tree" or the tree of enlightenment. Then he decided to teach what had been revealed to him. Died by eating a spoiled piece of pork someone offered him. He gave one last sermon, the topic being how to die. His physical body remained on earth, but his true spiritual body, the dharma body, entered nirvana.

Muhammad's wives

He was completely devoted to his first wife, but after she died he found solace in a number of wives, around 12. Non muslims are quick to point out that Muhammad gave himself an exception to the rule that a man should not have more than four wives. While we find it appalling about Muhammad's marriage to Aisha (married her at 5 and consummated marriage at 9), it was part of the culture. It doesn't make it right, but sometimes an entire culture needs to be changed, not just one person. His followers understood why he didn't have to follow the four wife thing for two reasons: 1. as a prophet Muhammad enjoyed special standing. 2. it was pragmatic and possible contributed to the good of the community. Because of war, it often left many woman as widows. There was one wife, however, that caused people to raise their eyebrows. He adopted a slave as his son (Zayd Ibn Haritah) and gave to him a widow named Zaynab. They didn't get along, got divorced, and then Muhammad married her. There were two issues with this. For one Zaynab was Muhammad's paternal cousin, so he shouldn't have been allowed to marry her. But if she had been a maternal cousin, it would have been acceptable in that culture. second, its just wrong for a father to marry his son's wife, even if he was adopted. He received the solution from God that said 1. once a matter had been decided by the messenger of God, it was wrong to second guess his judgment and 2. contrary to Muhammad's own intentions at first, a supposedly adopted son could never really have the same standing as a biological son. This is still part of Islamic law, so if a natural disaster comes, it leaves many children orphaned and Muslims won't adopt them; nor do the authorities of Islam governed countries allow couples of other religions to adopt such children.

daily rituals

Hindu men pray three times a day. Deities must be washed, dressed, and decorated. Women perform important religious services on behalf of the family. their main role in traditional patterns focuses on domestic activities, primarily through bearing and rearing children.

Aryan origins

Hinduism began with division of the Aryan peoples who migrated into Indian subcontinent, while others moved onto the Iranian plateau. Their settlements started in the NW corner of India, the Indus Valley, which already contained a thriving civilization. First, it appears that the demise of the Indus Valley cutler was largely due to the fact that a number of smaller rivers were drying up, thus residents had no choice but to abandon their locations. Second, around this time, the Aryans, whose main occupation was cattle herding, migrated to India and took over some f this recently abandoned area. Thus, the Hindutva movement denies that there ever was an Aryan immigration, let alone an invasion, and they assert that the Indus Valley civilization was simply an earlier version of their own, so that there was no conquest and not even a population shift. SO they are quick to identify objects form early Indus culture with later HIndu deities. In short, with or without military conquest, the Indo-European Aryans moved into the South Asian subcontinent, and their culture displaced much of the older Indus Valley culture

life of Mahavira

His name means "great man". When the time came, he entered the womb of a Brahmin woman named Devananda, who married Rishabadhatta, a Brahmin man. Devananda received 14 symbolic dreams indicating her son would be a great Brahmin. Vajra, king of the gods, thought he should be born in the womb of a Kshatriya woman named Tisala. the divine switched their fetus'. Then Tisala had 14 visions in her dreams. He knew for a long time that he'd leave his life of luxury to become a monk. In the meantime, he got married and had daughter. wore no clothes and sought no shelter. committed to never harm any living being, wither animal or plant. Wore veil to keep from swallowing bugs. In his 13th year o f his ascetic practice, he finally reached enlightenment called kaivalya. From this point on he was a jina "conqueror"; the term Jain literally means "one who follows the conqueror". thus, true Jainism, like early Buddhism, begins with monks who undertook the necessary renunciation and retreated to the forest as monks.

Thervada Buddhism

His work spread and after his death, a conclave of his followers, the First Counsel, took place. Early writings were collected under the name of Tripitaka, literally the Three Baskets. Frequently referred to as Pali Canon. The Second Counsel followed about a 100 years later. seeds of division began to sprout. Differences had to do both with the philosophical underpinnings of Buddhist thought and the amount of discipline a monk should live under. Some wanted more strict rules of r monks, other less discipline. Eventually, another 200 years, those who defended stricter discipline split away from those who were less strict. This division led to two main branches of Buddhism, Theravada (little raft) and Mahayana. Theravada is derived from an expression meaning "tradition of the elders". Remain relatively true to Pali Canon and centered on monks. Mahayan, called (the big raft), because it accommodated large number of people, including the laity. Today Theravada is prominent in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Theravada is a religion of and for monks, or bikhus. They are the only ones that can achieve nirvana. The laity's primary job is to support the monks. When bikhus meditate, they first must become fully aware of their bodies and what they are doing. Then they need to recognize that everything, including the body, is temporary and will become annihilated. They are encouraged to meditate at cemeteries. a bike who has attained full realization does not become a Buddha, but an arhat, or holy man. The goal for laypeople in Theravada is to lead a good life in order to store up sufficient merit for a better incarnation. On all important religious occasions laypeople recite the creed of Theravada, known as the Three Refuges or Three Jewels: I seek refuge in the Buddha; I seek refuge in the dharma (the way taught by Buddha); I seek refuge in the sangha (order of the bikhus).

modesty in dress

In middle eastern cultures robes and veils have been designated as proper Islamic dress for women called purdah. Qur'an counsels that a woman dress in public in such a way that she doesn't call attention to her physical beauty. Men shouldn't expose skin above knee or elbow. Head covering is a permanent part of dress in many islamic cullers. At home, a woman can be much freer about how she dresses

rites of passage

In order to be considered rite of passage, the celebration has to 1. mark a significant change in a persons identity in society, 2. be considered essential to the change, that is, without the ceremony the change has not taken place, and 3. include a phase of liminality during which they are neither in the preceding nor the reluctant stage, but is a nonentity within the person's society. Before the birth ceremony takes place, many children may not be considered fully alive, and in many traditional cultures, the ritual may be delayed from anywhere from a few days to a year. The purpose of funerals tends to be threefold in this religion: 1. to make sure that the deceased is truly dead will remain dead and not harm the living. 2. to process the deceased into the appropriate status as ancestor, and 3. to bring the community together, to reaffirm its unity in the face of the loss of one of its members and to reenter life on a renewed basis.

Angels and spirits

Islam recognizes three other archangels besides Gabriel, and a large hosts of angles. There are also many evil spirits (the jinn) that are led by the devil. Folk Islam tends to be animistic. Many Islamic teachers are working to raise all Muslims out of animism.

Provisions for laypeople

Jainism appealed to people who had no intention of becoming monks by providing a way out of the domination of the Brahmins and the caste system. Laypeople cannot attain liberation, but they can purge sufficient karma from their souls to achieve an incarnation in which the final goal is achieved. They must observe softened versions of the five vows. They also have an additional seven more vows making a total of 12: 6. avoiding temptation by limiting travel 7. limiting the number of items that are used on a daily basis 8. guarding against avoidable evils 9. reserving specific times for meditation 10. holding to special periods of self denial 11. spending occasional days as monks 12 giving alms in support of the monks Jainism is hostile to the idea of a supreme God who created the world, usually referred to by the generic name Ishvara. Fairly early in its development Jainism reincorporated the common Hindu gods as fellow occupants of the universe, along with animals, ghosts and demons. The gods are more powerful than humans, gut aren't any help with finding enlightenment.

Mahavira's teachings

Jainism believes neither in one universal world should nor in the all encompassing impermanence, let alone emptiness, as many schools of Buddhism do. It recognizes an infinitude of beings, each with its distinct experiences. All of these individual souls are considered jiva, which means life or should. All living things are included in this list, from blades of grass to human beings to gods. there is also ajiva which is non life or dead matter. lives can dwell in rocks and dirt and air however. Thus, Jainism teaches that there are rock bodies, etc, that are not directly visible to us, but are nonetheless divas as much as the human soul. Left to themselves, souls would float up and exist forever in pure bliss, or nirvana. Unfortunately souls have become contaminated. ajiva holds down the jivas, like a rock holding down a balloon of helium. This ajiva has to be purged in order for the jivas to rise. the little chunks of ajiva are known as karma matter. the amount of karma matter accumulated or removed in one lifetime determines the level of rebirth for the soul in the next lie. The entire process of working toward salvation is summarized with the triple gems of Jainism: right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. Its entirely a matter of self reliance.

So you meet a Jew.. what you might expect.

Jews are as much a part of your American culture as you are. Remember that Jews keep kosher (food laws). Keep the Sabbath. Keep holidays. Wear required articles of clothing. If there is any one concept that might be applicable to most Jewish people, from Hasidim to secular Jews, is the notion of heritage. Being Jewish involves being endowed with a heritage, both culturally and religiously.Being Jewish isn't a choice, but a tradition one is born into.

ritual and magic

KIKUYU land sale ritual. The kikuyu tribe instigated a revolt against their British colonial overlords. One thing that triggered the rebellion was the supposed ownership of land. now there are rituals to sell and buy land KIKUYU healing. Negative use of magic is called witchcraft.

founded by

Mahavira, similar story to that of Siddhartha Gautama, founder of Budhims

marriage and the status of women

Man may have up to four wives. divorce is simple but not taken lightly; it is the lowest level of permitted actions. All you have to do is say "I divorce you" three times in public. Before the third statement, there should be a waiting period of three months. the Qur'an gives women specific property rights and legal rights. In case of divorce, the man could not send the woman out penniless. Women were allowed to receive inheritances. That was then. The Muslim response to secular women's liberation is, Look what liberation got you! Their so called equality has resulted in rampant immorality and broken families. The restrictions are actually guidelines that emancipate women to be women. Ultimately, women are inferior to men.

Herodians

Mentioned in NT w/out explanation. Either a political party favoring the monarchy of the Herodian family, or, a religious group that had been favored particularly by the Herodian dynasty.

judgement

Muslims borrowed descriptions from other faiths, particularly Zoroastrian apocalyptic myths. On the appointed day, the trumpet will sound and a general resurrection will follow. The living/dead will appear before God and be confronted with deeds done in this life. All persons will be given a book in which their deeds have been recorded. The wicked will receive book in left hand , and the goal in their right. So, a christian or Jew who sincerely lives by al the right obligations may enter heaven. Allah is considered to be most gracious and merciful. Islam focuses on heaven as reward and hell as punishment.

Kabbalah

Mysticism has been a part of Judaism from the later years of the second jewish commonwealth, and possibly before. Kabbalah, associated with Jewish mysticism, simply means tradition. Constitutes the notion of attaining an unmediated link to the Absolute. In Judaism this idea translates into Devekuth. Thanks to a remarkable association of words that are actually not there, early Jewish mysticism has been called merkamah mysticism.

holidays and festivals

New Years day: January first. emphasizes purification. Spring festivals and the soybean festival: feb third. head of house throws a roasted soybeans through the door outside of the house. Drives off demons Doll festival: centers around girls receiving and displaying their doll collections. Formally mandated spiritual rituals. Flower festival: April eighth is observed as Buddha's bday. also the day rice kami descend form the mountains. boys day: used to be restricted to male offspring but now its children day. great purification:halfway through the year its time to renew the purification made on New Years day. there may be special tea ceremonies. star festival: two people fell in love, but once they got married they neglected their duties. because of this. the girl's father banished them to opposite sides of the Milky Way. but once a year on this day they get to meet up. consequently, this day the celebration of love and romance. festival of the dead: middle of august. period marked by intense provision for the ancestor spirits and it brings the entire family together. fall festivals: once again, special ceremony for tutelary kami; thee may be a mountain pilgrimage and harvest festival.

P L Kyodon

New religion. P and L stand for perfect liberty. Tokuharus son, Miki Tokuchicka, became known as the founder. proclaims that life is art. all people are responsible for treating their lives as words of art in progress and so must choose and implement all options carefully.

Nichiren Shoshu and Soka Gakkai

Nichiren seen his early life in Tendai Buddhism and believed the Lotus Sutra was the final and only falid teaching. He saw that Tendai had observed other ideas and had strayed from the Lotus Sutra.

The Black Muslim Movement: Radicalism on the Wane

Not too long ago there was a black muslim movement. At the start of the automobile industry, it enticed numerous people of all ethnicities to migrate from poverty from south to Michigan to Detroit. There were less jobs than people, so the blacks had to compete with the whites. Racism rained and the kkk found an eager base of new membership. There was one guy named Elijah Poole, who converted and changed his name to Elijah Muhammad. He was impressed with Wali Farrad and recognized him as an incarnation of Allah and allowed himself the position of Muhammad the prophet. When Fard disappeared, Elijah interpreted it as a Shiite imam going into occultation. Fard wrote the Lost and Found Nation of Islam, whose basic premise is that Africans need to live up to their calling as prominent Muslims. People in this group weren't allowed to join military, so the movement wound up with its own military arm, called the Fruit of Islam, for internal use only. Malcolm X went to Mecca and saw that all races were praying in peace together, and he spread the idea that all races are equal and can live peacefully under God. He was assassinated shortly after.

West African divinities

Olorun has been practically displaced by Orisa-nla. In fact, the Yoruba have hundreds of such subordinate deities, called the orisa. It is said that Orisa-nla actually didn't finish creation because he got drunk on the job, so it was finished out by other orisa. the word "god" is used to describe orisas, so YORUBA is often seen as polytheistic. Other scholars say that orisas are divinities, making them something less than gods. This would maintain that ATR is monotheistic.

So you meet a sikh

On one hand, they have a highly militaristic image and on the other hand there is the image of the community peacefully settling around the Adi Granth in the temple. There is a third image as well, of Sikhs losing contact with their religious and cultural roots and embracing the contemporary secular world. Christianity, in contrast to Sikhism, provides hope: the assurance of personal eternal life and the consummation of history at Christ's second coming. Sikhism does not deny all truth to non Sikh beliefs that are expressions of devotion to God, but it maintains that full salvation can only be found through devotion to Sat Nam, as represented by Guru Nanak and his successors.

The Mishnah

Once the canon had been agreed on, the time had come to collect in writing the many different interpretations of the law that had accrued over the centuries. As Jews were being dispersed, they needed a permanent record of rabbinic interpretations. It is divided into six categories: 1.seeds, containing laws on ag and prayer. 2. feasts, laws concerning holy days and the writing of scrolls. 3. Women, laws concerning marriage and other vows. 4. damages, civil and criminal laws as well as prohibitions concerning idolatry. 5. holy matters, sacrifices and laws for the temple. 6. purities, ritual cleanliness and purification. In detail that appears not to leave the least little contingency untouched, the Mishnah speaks to these issues. Ex: law of Moses says no yeast in passover. Mishnah answers questions like what do you do if you arent certain whether something is Leven etc. there are sometimes when rabbis had slightly different. the bulk consists of different authorities and frequently no final determinations.

Muhammad's early revelations and ministry

One day he was meditating in a cave known as the Mount of Light. The angel Gabriel came and told him to recite a book. This was strange to him since he was illiterate. The angel challenged him, and Muhammad acknowledged the unsurpassable greatness of God and memorized the scripture presented to him for the heavenly book, and then recited it to others. This became the first five verses of Qur'an (which means recitation).His message encompassed three main points: 1. There is one God; 2. human beings are obligated to submit to God's will; 3. there will be a day of judgement when all people will be assessed on whether or not they have obeyed God. His followers referred to their belief as Islam, which means submission to God. They came to be identified as Muslims, or those who submit to God. His group grew so large they threatened the business system, and they started being persecuted. His wife and unable were influential in politics, so they were able to protect him. They eventually died, so Muhammad and his followers fled to Medina

Osama and Saudi Arabia

Osama's target of hostility was the house of Saud. The "princes" owned a lot of land and they took advantage of the people's money. There are no political parties or elections; the parliament is appointed by the king. Saddam Hussein, president of Iraq, invaded Kuwait and claimed to have annexed it to Iraq. Saudi Arabia did not want more of Iraq closer to them that it already was. So the invited the US to set up in Saudi Arabia as a staging area to prepare for an eventual move to oust Saddam's forces. Osama perceived a serious religious implication in the presence of US troops. In his view, when American troops set foot on Arabian sands, they desecrated the region that houses Mecca and Medina. Islamic leaders did not speak up against Osama, because killing a civilian without good reason is tantamount to killing all of humanity.

The sharia

Qur'an and the hadiths must be interpreted correctly in order to obtain the correct application. In the process of struggling through various issues, the concept of sharia, or Islamic law, developed. So if I were an Islamic jurist and I needed to solve a legal problem, first I would have to be a judge at a trial, where everyone involved could state their case. Then I would have to consult the Qur'an and sunna (that is the Hadiths that provide Muhammads example). The weight I give to the writings will depend on which four schools I belong to. To make sense of their relationship I might have to make reference to any prior consensus (ijma) and possibly analogies (qiyas). The outcome of my reading is my legal opinion (fiqh), which I may then apply by issuing a fatwa, which is a decree or judgment.

almsgiving

Qur'an commands all believers to practice regular charity, but does not specify procedures. In the sharia, this annual giving to poor called the zakat. The basic principle for this cash assessment in one fortieth of any net profit. all possessions, real estate, jewelry, livestock, and so. on are assessed.

four vedas

RIG veda: compilation of 1028 prayerful humans addressed to various gods (devas). Yajur Veda: consists of mantras.. short specific verses to be recited by priests in the context of their duties at sacrifices. Sama Veda: contains songs or chants by priest. refer particularly to the ritual associated with soma, the sacred drink. Atharva Veda: somewhat inferior. consists of magical spells and incantations.

Karaite Jews (other jewish group)

Rejected the Talmud. Claimed the only valid authority in Judaism was the Torah and thus denied the legacy of rabbinic interpretation.

what is the difference between religion and spirituality?

Religion also involves some external features, no matter how small, which have meaning only for the sake of the religious belief and would be unnecessary in other contexts

actions fall into three catagories

*fard: actions that are obligatory, such as five pillars *haram: actions that are expressly prohibited, such as idolatry *halal: actions that are permitted.

the Roman occupation

Romans extended their empire into Middle East and installed rulers over the jews, most notable Hared the Great. He tried to please the Jews by undertaking an extensive renewal project of the temple. After he died, relations between Romans and Jews deteriorated until there was a war. Jewish life during Roman occupation (time of Jesus) was characterized by 1. devotion to God 2. messianic expectation and 3. party divisions.

Hindu Temple Worship

Happens in home or temple. Believe that the god will continue to reside in the statue as long as he or she is properly cared for. Each temple is dedicated to one particular god or goddess. The deity is housed in a special sanctuary of the temple, the garbagriha. Worship of the gods is called puja, meaning sacrifice. Music, or sound in general, is important for puja. believe the essence of Brahman can be captured in the mystic syllable om, which has no meaning.

Jain temple worship

Have beauty and intricacy. usually white. Statues of Tirthankaras are kept in a segregated area at the front of temple. the statues are almost identical. May contain implements called aksata puja for devotional design making. Kernals of rice are left out only tables. swastikas are represent the energy of the universe with its four arms standing for the four types of souls: animals, narks (low spirits), devs (gods) and humans. The three dots stand for three paths towards enlightenment. The crescent represents liberation, and the topmost dot indicates nirvana. Main act of worships consists of anointing or decorating the statues of the Tirthankaras. In order to enter the most sacred area, the worshiper must be wrapped in a veil the overs the face completely.

Arjan Dev

He finished the building projects begun by Ram Das at Amritsar. he also collected all of the hymns that has been written by previous gurus as well as their ideological predecessors, such as Kabir, and added a number of his own. This became known as the holy book, Granth "book". He was boiled to death by Akbar's son, Jahangir, and died.

reform judaism

Mendelssohn was the main leader of this movement. Most fundamentally, the Reform movement doesn't see traditional forms as authoritative; Talmud isn't considered standard of Judaism. Not looking for a messiah. at first opposed the creation of separate homeland for Jews, but after Holocaust, Reform Jews became ardent supporters of the state of Israel. Refer to their meeting places as temples. Accommodates to contemporary culture

devekuth

having a direct vision of God

what unites Hindu practice is a set of three obligations, the three debts:

debts to the rishis (ancient recorders of the Vedas), debts to the gods, and debts to the ancestors.

Tegh Bahadur

emperor Aurangzeb was still trying to convert people to Islam, even resorting to murder to do it. Nonmuslims asked Tegh to speak to the emperor on their behalf and when he did the emperor gave him three options. He took the third and was beheaded

three different pluralisms in a pluralistic world

empirical cherished philosophical

Sukkoth

five days after Yom Kippur is the Feast of Booths, called sukkoth. This was originally from the Torah to commemorate Israel's wandering in the wilderness. For a week everyone was to live in temporary shelter to remember God's guidance and protections. Now the practice is to build a booth with a frame of poles to which are added at least three walls and roof made of leaves and straw. During the seen days of the festival, families eat their meals in their booths.

Amar Das

formalized the organization of the Sikh community by establishing subdivisions and collecting a tax on behalf of the community. Thus, the practice of pilgrimages came into existence during his time.

The myth

it begins with the time of primordial chaos, when yin and yang wee intermixed, thus giving us the paradox of ordered chaos. Out of this original ooze emerged a number of kami in pairs, some of which were male and female. In the Nihongi the first kami emerging from the chaos arises out of a reed shoot and is called Kuni-toko-tahchi-no-Mikoto. In the Nihongi, he is invested with special dignity. the seventh generation of emerging kami created the Japanese islands. Inzanagi and Izanami were the two kamis who did this. They came down to one of the islands they created to do a marriage ceremony, and it is symbolic of women being beneath men. she gave birth to many children, some monsters, others good, and one day she had a fire baby and it burned her to death.

three phases of hinduism

known as the "ways" 1. the way of works (karma marga): based on ritual and legal requirements and is administered by professional priesthood, the Brahmins. 2. the way of knowledge (jnana marga): ascetic and mystical path that arose around 500 b.c. from the names of scripture associated with it, it is aka vedantic Hinduism. 3. the way of devotion (Bhakti marga): focuses on devotion to ones own god within a pantheon of available deities.

Essenes

left mainstream Judaism. not mentioned in NT, but are described by Josephus (who doesn't mention Herodians). Particularly favored by Herod, who had an interest in not reviving the Hasmonean dynasty. lived communally and observed the law even more punctiliously than Parisees. Believed they were the only remaining true Israelites and that God would vindicate them.

ritual

like magic, both attempt to manipulate the spiritual and physical world, but ritual consists of actions that are repeated over and over again. They are performed in order to achieve some result. in order to get that result, rituals must be done correctly

original monotheism

locates the beginnings of religion in God. There are two other sources that can provide evidence for an original monotheism: early scriptures of religions with roots in the ancient world and the anthropological method, the very mens by which scholars had attempted to demonstrate an evolution of religion.

Chapter 9 HINDUISM:

means the religion of India

Omoto

new religion founded by Deguchi nao. she was a peasant girl who made a way for her self as a seer. taught spiritual and political world unity. All religions are one, and eventually a world government will come that rules in peace and universal brotherhood.

Sekai Kyuseikyo

new religion known as the church of world messianity. founder was Okada Mokichi. his followers attempt to contribute to this cause by natural farming, the creation and appreciation of beauty and jorei, a manual technique of channeling the divine light from person to person.

ramakrishna mission

ramakrishna was a priest of the goddess Kali at a large temple on the banks of the Ganges. Ramakrishna became dissatisfied with his own spiritual experiences, and he spent time in mediation whenever he could. Eventually he achieved union with Kali in Meditative trance. not wishing to limit himself arbitrarily, he continued his spiritual experimentation by becoming one with the impersonal Brahman as well as with Jesus and Allah. Thus Ramakrishna believed that all religions were one, and that he was a manifestations of the one God. Got followers who thought he and his wife were avatars. Got himself a disciple called Swami Vevekananda. Vive was a great hit and his influence was instrumental in establishing societies in league with the Ramakrishna Mission all over the world.

cherished

the good things about diversity

philosophical

the idea that all belief systems are equally valid

Halakic

the legal exposition literature in Talmud (Mishnah)

two different interpretations of the spread of Islam

the popular one that Islam spread by violence alone and the Islamic construal that the spread of Islam was primarily peaceful, although defended in accordance with the rules of jihad. Those who reject Islam must pay tributes in collaboration with other sectors to support their state

The sabbath

the sabbath is sacred to them. Feelings of closeness and uniqueness are epitomized in this practice. begins with sunset on Friday evening. There may be a service Friday evening and Saturday morning and then the rest of Saturday is devoted to familial east. Ends at sunset on Saturday with a beautiful service called havdalah, the official farewell to sabbath. spice jar is passed around, a braided candle is lit, and everyone prays for return of Elijah.

Yom Kippur

the tenth day of Tishri is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. Originally it was day where high priest offered annual sacrifice for sin. In rabbinic Judaism Yom Kippur has become day of personal repentance.

are subjective approaches correct?

they don't help since everything that they point to as cause (feelings, subconscious feelings) may in fact be the effect of religious reality (god or actual experience). They may be true, but they don't prove their isn't a God. They can help us understand human nature and the human side of religion, but they don't help explain the origin of religion.

As cultures improve their material standing

they moved away from original monotheism but were likely to show a vestige of the monotheism that they had once held before they departed into one of the supposedly earlier stages according to revolutionary theory

totem

think of a fairly large tribal group and divide it into a number of clans. In the context of totemism a clan is usually referred to as a phratry. Each phratry sees itself as being related to a particular animal. It all comes down to the story that goes with each totem, without which the pictures a mere hints at best, mute at worst. Totemism prevents inbreeding. People must marry someone outside of their phratry. it also assures food distribution among all members of the tribe by forbidding members of a clan to eat its them animal. many descriptions of totemism refer to a totem feast. this is alleged to be a special occasion when phratry members may partake of their animal.

Cultural history

to identify a chronological sequence among prehistorical culture

Torah, prophets, and writings

torah- consists of the teachings or law. includes five books revealed by Moses: first five of OT. prophets- divided into early prophets: Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, and the later prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Twelve (minor prophets from Hosea to Malacki). writings- all other books: Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1-2 Chronicles

animism

visualizes spiritual forces in terms of personal spirits. most animistic societies recognize at least two types of spirits; nature and ancestor spirits. nature spirits tend to have personality. They inhabit animals, plants, rocks, etc. ancestor spirits are departed family members. They can go and come unseen, their knowledge is limited, and they detest being surprised. So if you want to get married, you better ask your ancestors because this is a matter affecting the whole family. Divination goes along with this because it is a way to consult the spirits. Because spirits aren't all powerful, they can be hard to control. With doctors may be experts at getting spirits to cooperate.

ramakrishna mission

was a priest of the goddess Kali at a large temple on the banks of Ganges river. He became one with the impersonal Brahman as well as with Jesus and Allah. Thus he believed that he had shown experientially that all religions are one and that he was a manifestation of God. Pleaded for universals tolerance and acceptance, although listeners were annoyed by his obvious purpose of subsuming all religions under a Vedantic pattern of philosophy. Has also established hospitals and educational systems.

three major phases or "ways" of hinduism

way of works way of knowledge way of devotion

Jain monks five vows

1. Ahimsa: not harming any living being 2. Truth telling: making sure that what one says is not only true but cannot be misconstrued 3. Abstaining form theft: thereby prohibiting a monk from owning any property 4. Abstinence: which includes eradicating all fleshly desires 5. Detachment: divorcing oneself form the entire universe, including ones own identity

The struggle for succession

Before the Bab died, he put into writing who his successor would be; Mirza Yahya, a young man of a noble family who had shown great devotion to the Bab. He took on name Subh-i-Azal, which means dawn of eternity and his followers were known as Azalis. Yahya's half brother, Husayn Ali, was passed over in the succession, even though a good case could have been made that Husayn was the more qualified of the two. In 1863 Husayn Ali declared publicly that he was the intended successor to the Bab and furthermore, that he was "He Whom God Shall Manifest." He took on name Baha'ullah-the glory of god- and his follower became known as the Baha'is. A three sided conflict erupted with the Azalis opposing the Baha'is, and the government apposing both.

Brahma and Sarasvati

Brahma is creator. was infatuated with Sarasvati. He would stare at her and she would move. Overtime she moved, he grew another head. Shiva walks in and is outraged by Brahmas behavior and opens his third eye, which emitted a death ray that disintegrated one of Brahma's heads.

Brahma and Sarasvati

Brahma is represented with a four faced head, each face looking in a different direction. Brahma originally had one head. He was greatly infatuated with Sarasvati, his cousin who should've been off limits, and was staring at her with a look of deep devotion. Srasvati felt uncomfortable so she moved out of his line of site. But when she did he grew another head. Every time she moved, he grew another head until there were five. Shiva walked up and was outraged, so he opened his third eye, which emitted a date ray and disintegrated one of Brahma's heads.

four main casts

Brahmins: priests and scholars Kshatriyas: warriors and rulers Vaishyas: Merchants and landowners Shudras: workers on behalf of the above Dalits: untouchables, unclean occupations. Castes are inflexible. It is not possible to switch castes or marry outside ones case. Even though it is forbidden y law today to discriminate on the basis of caste, the reality is that in India everyone knows where he or she fits into the system. Two groups outside caste system: tribal groups and members of other religions, and Dalits.

subsequent history

By the time Gobind Singh died, the British were in India and the time of British rule over them started.

Qutibism

Came from writings of Sayyid Qutb, and Osama was his disciple. Qutb researched American system of education by visiting US, and he was appalled by Western culture and how Islam existed in the world. He called for a restoration as summarized in his book Milestones; milestones are steps needed to restore true Islam and bring whole world under governance of Islam. Muslims agree that before Muhammad established Islam the world was in a state of jahiliyyah-darkness. Thus the first step in converting people to islam is to provide an environment in which they are free to evaluate their religious thought.

Har Rai

Dara, the emperor at the time, believed it his mission to convert all people to Islam, but exempted the Sikhs from this requirement out of respect for Har Rai. Har Rai trusted him so much that he sent his older sun to the emperors court. His son distorted things which could have been uncomplimentary of islam. When Har Rai heard this, he disowned his son.

Confession

Fundamental confession of islam: there is no God but God, and Muhammad is the apostle of God. The second part, "Muhammad rash Allah" commits the Muslim to undivided allegiance to god's commandments. Muhammad is rasul, the apostle who speaks God's message. All that is necessary to become a Muslim is to repeat the confession and mean it. It doesn't guarantee salvation, but its the first step. The first thing they speak to a newborn baby, and the last thing they say to someone dying, is this confession. Thus it encompasses all of Muslim's life

The Lotus Sutra

Fundamental teaching is the supremacy of the Lotus Sutra. It never quite gets around to stating what its central teaching is, leaving the individual to fill in the void. It emphasizes the notion of upaya, variously translated as skillful means, expedient means, or skillfulness. First, Buddha taught to elitist doctrines of Theravada; then toward the end of his ministry he seems to have reversed himself and proclaimed a message that reaches out to everyone, essentially overriding his earlier doctrine.

The early period of Judaism

Hebrew scripture began with God creating the universe. Cain killed Able, and then Seth was born. Then the flood and tower of Babel. After flood, God issued more specific moral obligations. Tower of Babel people challenge God instead of worshiping him. He makes people speak different languages and scatters them all over the world. Thereby the biblical story accounts for the fact of different cultures and different religions associated with them. Not much detail in this period beyond a recognition of God, sacrifices, and moral obligations

henotheism

In this stage people recognize many different gods as real, but worship only one. It may have social basis (particular tribe or family), geographical basis (domain in one region), and individual (individual may devote himself to worship one god exclusively.

problems with evolutionary models

It has never been observed. We have no record of any culture moving precisely from a manlike beginning to a monotheistic culmination.

Shaivism

Largest number of Hindus recognize Shiva as the highest god. The most common depiction of Shiva is as pointed, conical, nonhuman form, clearly a phallic representation. Married Parvati. They had two sons, but mythology isn't entirely clear as to the older sons' parentage, Ganesha. He is most recognizable god of Hinduism because he has head of elephant. In th mythology, Shiva found Parvati being affectionate with a young man, and in a fit of rage cut off his head. Turned out to be Ganesha. Vowed to replace the head with first head he came across, which happened to be an elephant. He's always first god worshiped in temple service and his riding animal is a rat. The other son, Kartikeya, is god of war .

Vedas

Literally means knowledge. four sacred scriptures that came out of the early Aryan culture. When Hindus use it, the also include the numerous expansions, such as the Brahmanas (further instructions for priests), Sutras (literally threads further instructions for all people), and the Upanishads (philosophical extensions of the Vedas)

Falasha Jews (other jewish group)

Lived deep in Ethiopia believing they were the only Jews in the world. They lived according to traditions that they had preserved from the earliest times of the second commonwealth. The world heard of them in 1980 when the government of Israel employed a massive airlift to rescue them from famine in Ethiopia.

Magic

Magic involves some for of manipulation or some action by the human being. its goal oriented. Success or failure (say in helping a child recover from an illness or have a prosperous life) depends on doing it right.

Transcendental meditation

Maharishi Yogi came to west and established a large following for his technique of meditation. Beatles liked him. A person attended a seminar in which one of the guru's teachers would promote all of the benefits of going through his style of meditation for twenty minutes twice a dya. These benefits were supposed to be spiritual and physical. Not entirely honest in how it presented itself: said nonreligious.

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar.

Maharishi Yogi got an assistant: Sri Sri. When one of Yogi's schools was about to close, his assistant left Yogi's organization, managed to maintain the school and started his own mission. This guru is well known for his attractive personality and any number of alleged miracles. Three aspects to his mission: 1. Classes: seminars on the art of living: take life as it comes and don't worry. The key is in a technique called Sudarshan Krya. the word darshan is commonly used to refer to the result of intense spiritual activity; it means Vision. Take control of how you breathe known as pranayama. 2. Satsang: mass meetings where he often preforms puja and speaks to crowds of thousands 3. Service: true joyful living manifests itself in service to the world and other humans. His intentions are summarized with 5H program: health, hygiene, housing, human values, and harmony in diversity.

rites of passage

Most have puberty rites of passage. The YORUBA are one of the extremely rare who don't do this. Believe highly in divination. Mothers visit diviner to learn child's future. they have arranged marriages. divination is also important in death since the cause of death is usually some form of magic that must be identified. MASSAI practice more than four, and each includes a cow. boys and girls are circumcised. when boys are circumcised, they dress as girls until they are healed. then they become warriors and do whatever they want. then they become junior elder and can get married.

festivals and holidays

Some festivals are associated with physical demands. Divali is the festival of lights.

monotheism

People realize there is only one God.

Books

Prophets who were also apostles left books for their people. thus jews and christians have their holy books just as muslims have the Qur'an. The groups are known as "people of the book". Upon paying their tax (the jizya), christians and Jews are supposed to be allowed to practice their religion and lead an unencumbered life. They were not full citizens, but they were not a persecuted minority either. Muhammad also left room for people of the book to enter heaven. often times it went unfulfilled in practce

Sadducees

Priest didn't have to be a Sadducee, but most were. The high priest, who was a sadducee, was part of the Sanhedrin, or the Jew's highest judicial and ecclesiastical council. Because Romans supported them, Sadducees in return cooperated with them to a considerable extent. Laws about sacrifices were domain of Sadducees. More popular among common people.

Shavuot (Pentecost)

Shavuot means "weeks" and the the Greek derived word means "fifty". Thus it happens fifty days after Passover. Commemorates the giving of the commandments. Also a harvest festival, celebrating the first harvest of the year.

history of shinto

Shinto was slowly absorbed into Buddhism. Pure Land and Zen Buddhism produced increasingly Japanese versions of Buddhist teachings, and the Shingon school adopted numerous Japanese traits. Thus a new form of Shinto-Buddhism was formed called Ryuobu. Even as a part of this though, Shinto was losing ground to Buddhism. When buddhism become so dominant it didn't need Shinto any longer, so Shinto was able to start a life of its own aging. A rehabilitation of Shinto played an important role in the Meiji restoration. BY political decree, the Meiji regime created state Shinto, which now existed side by side with shrine Shinto and domestic Shinto, and spawned sectarian Shinto

shruti and Smriti

Shurti: highest level of inspiration; they are the ones that were "heard" by holy men (rishis). Smriti: greater importance in the lives of common people, but are only "handed down"

The Zaydites

The Fivers, making up a smaller body of Shiites, are located primarily in Yemen. They recognize a different fifth imam, named Zayd, through whom they continued a distinct line of succession for atom. Less extreme in beliefs and actions that other Shiite groups.

rosh hashanah

The Jewish New Year appears in September or October depending on how the Jewish calendar aligns with the secular one in any given year. In their calendar, the first month is Tishri, and the first day of the month is Rosh Hashanah. On Rosh Hashanah the congregation comes together for lengthy service where there is a blowing of the rams horn, the shofar. Tradition to float bread on small bodies of water for good luck.

Ram Das

The Mughal Sultan at the time was Akbar (the Great) and he decided to visit Ram Das to see what was happening. When he arrived, he was asked to eat side by side on the floor with ordinary people. Akbar gladly complied. This showed both Akbar's good will and Ram Das's prestige. It also fortified the emphasis on communal meals in subsequent sikhism and set the binding precedent that at such a meal all people, regardless of status, should sit on floor together. not expected to be vegetarians but at langar, the meal is always vegetarian so that those who are can come and participate.

the trickster

This particular spirit enjoys paling pranks on humans and other spirits. They are not necessarily even or intrinsically adversaries to either gods or humans, but their actions can bring about serious evil. always male. Whereas Satan or devil is thoroughly evil, the trickster may bring about some undesirable matters when he is so inclined by his mercurial personality, but he may simultaneously benefit human beings or spirits.

two ways that religion could originate according to Schmidt

animism or monotheism

polytheism

Worshiping many gods. It may occur in at least three different ways: 1. promoting an exalted ancestor spirit to divine status, 2. promoting nature and household spirits to divine status and 3. personifying abstract principles. The sum total o gods is referred to as its "pantheon." Pantheons are never completely consistent. These are not as easily manipulated as mana or nature spirits.

And beyond gods?

Zen Buddhism relis on personal insights that are achieved apart from any supernatural help. It can't just cap at monotheism.

mana and magic

according to most evolutionary understandings, the first stage of religion begins with a basic feeling; a general awareness of a spiritual force int the world. The distribution of this force may be uneven. Some people or rocks, trees, and animals may contain a greater amount. In cultures that believe this, positive contact with this source provides power and success while negative contact can spoil life. Such an object can also be known as a fetish. All responsibility to relating to this force rests with the human being, who must harness it to be successful. we call this form of religious cultus magic.

universalism

all people will be saved regardless of what they know or how they live

priesthood

experts who become the sole proprietors of the ritual. They perform rituals on behalf of the other members of the community. Usually a professional who derives a livelihood from facilitating the spiritual observances of the common people.

least developed cultures

featured exclusive worship of God and almost no magic. Each group strongly believes in God and prates little or no animism or magic. Thus Schmidt concluded that there is solid evidence for an original monotheism.

Holy war (Jihad)

one common belief is that Islam is a religion spread by the sword. It seemed to expand through military, not religious methods. Despite everything, they want to be known as tolerant. In the same way that there are christians who don't follow the Bible, there are distinctions between true Islam and Islam as claimed by those who are actually unbelievers. 1. the caliphs themselves compiled the Quran and laid down the original interpretations of it. if they violated the teachings of the Quran, islam would have a serious credibility gap on that point 2. the Quran expressly forbids the conversion of anyone by force Jihad literally means struggle. qihad means fighting. The firing refers to internal spiritual striving. This jihad is the war against one own evil inclinations to bring oneself to full submission to Allah. It is the most important war "greater jihad" while military warfare is "lesser jiihad"

tenrikyo

one of the new religions. began as a faith healing cult in the nineteenth century, survived by becoming one of the 13 permitted Shinto sects, and continues to flourish as an independent movement today with no pretense of being a part of Shinto. Nakayama Miki is the founder. headquarters are at Nara, a significant location insofar as the earliest Buddhist schools settled there when they first came to Japan.

exclusivism

only one religion is true and all others are false. a. Jesus is the unique incarnation of God, fully human and fully divine b. salvation is found only in Him c. bible is true, unique authoritative, revelation d. claims incompatible with the Bible must be rejected as false

psychological

people invented religion to fulfill their emotional needs

psychological

people invented religion to fulfill their emotional needs. EX: freud

prayer

pray five times a day: sunrise, noon, mid afternoon, sunset, and on hour after sunset. Some places do a sixth, in midmorning, for people to have additional devotion for special concerns. Prayer is performed anywhere. A mosque is at a minimum a room or building designated for prayer; frequently it is a more elaborately designed house. Mosques have towers called minarets. Crucial part of mosques is water for ritual washing. The main room of a mosque is the prayer hall, which is essentially an empty room with a varying degree of decorations. The most important part is the niche at the front of the building (mihra) that indicates the direction toward Mecca (kiblah.) Cleanliness is essential because Muslim prayer requires the supplicant to place his forehead on the carpet. The sequence of salat is highly structured. The muezzin (his recorded voice) issues the official call to prayer, the adhan. Women pray at home, and men in mosque. Right before the actual prayer, the call to prayer is repeated on more time in the mosque, which becomes known as iqama. Start prayer by cupping hands over ears to show that they are available to hear him. The first sura of the Qur'an (al-fatiha or the opening) is prayed. then they change posture by bowing, prostration, kneeling, second prostrations, and then standing. Each sequence is called a rakat.

Folk religion

since that early period was presumably dominated by rivalry between the different tribes and their specific cultures on the various islands, there may not have been a unified religious system. emphasis on fertility. the practice of shamanism continues as an important part of Japanese religious life. different strands of shamanism. some shamans inherit the office while others train. also emphasizes nature spirits. It has made itself at home in conjunction with both a form of Buddhism practiced by mountain dwelling ascetics and a magical practice called Shugendo. Shugendto is the legacy of Daoism in Japanese culture. Daosim's influence was limited to two minor roles: one was the realm of philosophical speculations, the other was a practice of exorcism and magic. The contemporary significance of mountain spirituality seems to be threefold. Firs, conical, volcanic mountains embody the creative power of the kami. Second they are sources of water and thereby promote fertility. third they are an abode of or connecting point with ancestor spirits. there was a stress on magic.

Hindu temple worship

statues are not just visual representations of spiritual beings. It is true that a physical statue by itself is not a god, but it definitely is considered the special abode of the god. The god will continue to reside in the statue as long as he or she is properly cared for namely, w asked, clothed, fed, and worshiped. Each temple is dedicated to one god or goddess. That deity is housed in a special sanctuary of the temple, the garbagriha, which is marked by a tower right about it, called the shikkara. Worship of the god is called puja, meaning sacrifice. Braman can be captured in the mystic syllable om. Om has no meaning as a word. Its meaning lies in tit sound as it is pronounced or chanted.

Baha'i Practice

stresses importance of social reform, but personal devotion is also important to individuals. Number 9 represents unity in diversity. The Baha'i solar calendar has nineteen months of nineteen days. The last month, is set aside for fasten. Baha'is are asked to abstain from food and drinks during day. New Years day is a major celebrations. Another is the fear of Ridvan, which is a ninny commemoration of Baha'ullahs declaration as manifestations. Temples aren't usual place for worship; Baha'i congregational meetings usually take place in a members home. Mostly meetings last about two hours. Real impact on modern society occurs on the level of social service.

Nanak's teaching

taught there is only one God. Nanak referred to God simply as Sat nam, the "true name" thus avoiding questions of personal identity. He also designated God as Ekankar, which is derived from the syllables ek, the one, undivided; aim or om, the mystical sound expressing God; and kar, the only one. Thus God is Ek-am-kar, the "one and only one". While he said God is one, he avoided the idea of a personal God, and tended to be closer to Hindu pantheism, which identifies God with all reality. He retained the Hindu notions of reincarnation and karma. A person undergoes rebirth in the world of Maya until release. Maya refers to the lesser, painful and derived reality of mundane existence, but no illusion. Devotion is essential to escape samsara (reincarnation). A soul that has become joined to God merges its light with the pure light of God at death. Thus the end result of Sikh salvation does not differ from Atman-Brahman merging Hindu Vedanta. Doesn't teach self deprivation and asceticism. When he died, his former servant, Angad Dev, became the new guru. This showed that while guru could be passed from father to son, the requirement of piety and righteousness would always supersede this arrangement.

Shrine Shinto

the abolition of state Shinto left the shrines of Japan in a precarious economic situation. many shrines had to lay off priests, and many priest had to find supplementary employment. Shinto shrines follow basic patterns adapted to local traditions. The entrance to the grounds of a shiring is marked by a traditional gate, torii. shrines are divided into two main segments, the first is subdivided. the outer part his called the haiden, or hall of worship. the inner area is called the honden. it is the repository of the most sacred object associated with the shrine. these items are known as the shintai. apparently Amaterasus, sun goddess, designated Ice, about 200 miles from Tokyo, as the central shrine. in addition to providing facilities for personal worship, they are also the centers for various festivals.