LSAT: Reading Comprehension
"Takes for granted" meaning on the LSAT
"Assumes to be TRUE"
Reading Comprehension: Points of view
- 1 pt of view, a thesis passage - 2 pts of view, an antithesis passage - 3 pts. of view, a synthesis passage - DON'T HAVE TO BE SEPARATE PASSAGES (just separate arguments) - Make sure to understand each argument presented by each POV
Comparative passages
- 2 passages that relate in some way - May be about similar but diff topics (one may be broad theory and one may be a specific one) Way to go about these: - Read passage A and determine main point, author's opinion, primary purpose - Repeat for passage B - Make sure you're able to summarize both passages and know how they compare to one another - PAY ATTENTION TO TOPICS BROUGHT UP IN ONE PASSAGE BUT NOT THE OTHER (As well as SIMILARITIES)
Synthesis passages
- 3 POV (pretty rare) - Almost always starts off like a antithesis, but then the author comes in to resolve the debate (maybe both sides are right and view must be synthesized, or maybe both are wrong and another view is presented) - Need to understand author's opinion - If author is present, MAIN POINT AND PRIMARY PURPOSE ARE HIS VIEW (Important to track what author thinks of other views) - If author is not present (very very rare), main point and primary purpose will probably encompass all 3 views and be more neutral - Locate and SUMMARIZE all 3 views
Reading Comp: Passage breakdown (questions anticipated)
- ANTICIPATE questions before hand - What is the MAIN POINT - What is the PURPOSE (what is the author trying to accomplish) - What is the author's ATTITUDE - SUMMARIZE the point of each paragraph and how they RELATE to one another
Secondary structures: Q & A
- Author's will ask a question and then provide an answer, or maybe more than one - Must pay attention to the question and answers when provided - Answers to questions are typically CONCLUSIONS (But, may be POV's if they get fleshed out during the passage) - Questions may not always have a ? - EX: How the platypus could find prey is still a mystery" Localized: - Q&A relate to one part of passage but not the whole thing Extensive: - Entire passage is dominated by a Q&A - Main point of passage will be the answer or set of answers to the question - The question will be the subject of the passage! - Answers can be points of view - Main point if author is PRESENT would be their answer to the question! - EX: Dark matter is up to 20% neutrino's - PRIMARY PURPOSE is to try to answer question!
Secondary structure: Classification
- Author's will come up with titles, put things in list, and compare and contrast examples - Lists lists lists! - Obvious identification includes direct listing (first, second, third, etc. or there are a variety of strategies to win. Then say x. y. z.) - Not so obvious listing can be identified by comparing and contrasting the different methods Localized: - Relates to one part of passage - Relates to one or two questions Extensive: - Relates to entire passage - Main point and primary purpose will be about the category! - Frequently will see specific questions towards one of things in the list - Things can fall into categories in classification passages!
Reading Comprehension strategies
- Focus on 2 elements: 1.) Points of view 2.) Author's role - Anticipate purpose of passage, attitude towards things, thesis of it, parts of passage lending themselves to specific reference questions - LSAT asks about same kinds of things: cause and effect, relationships, experiments, etc. - Summarize each paragraph
Secondary structures: Cause and Effect
- Introduced by language like: causes, leads to, has the effect, produces, responsible for, etc. -One things producing or a factor in something essentially Localized: - Brought up in one part of passage not central to rest of parts made (will probably just get one question on this) - EX: the cause of x led to x Extensive: - Almost all, or entire passage is about it - Cause and effect = MAIN POINT - Ex: Passage shows how media emphasizes bad news instead of good and other examples as entire passage is about relationship between local news and paranoia -When talking about role of some sentence when whole thing is one secondary structure, LSAT wants to know if you are paying attention to the structure - If you are, it will be quick - Choose the structure (maybe causal explanation) that has been mentioned throughout the passage!
Reading Comprehension: Author's role
- Is author present or absent? - Present if his/her views/opinions in at least a part are expressed (arguments are outright and not attributed to different sources) - Views attributed to other people, absent passage - IF AUTHOR PRESENT: Main point is the authors view - IF AUTHOR NOT PRESENT: Main point is something encompassing or touching on each of the passage - If author is ABSENT, an answer choice saying an argument was "DEFENDED" must be incorrect, since they are not expressing any of their own views
"Which of the following sentences would most logically conclude the final paragraph in the passage"
- Keep in mind both the main point of the passage AND the main point of the paragraph - Must apply to BOTH
Preparing for questions: Antithesis passages
- Know each view and how they relate to one another (agree/disagree, what they say about one another) - TRACK where different views are presented
Reading Comp: Thesis Passages
- One POV toward a subject - Present a lot of supporting evidence (expect questions) - IMPORTANT to properly identify the thesis view (should be supported by rest of passage) PRESENT author: - Main point is author's view - Purpose is what the author is trying to do ABSENT author: - Main point captures entire passage - Purpose will be very NEUTRAL
Antithesis passages (RC)
- Reading passage with 2 POV - MOST COMMON structure of RC - Need to understand AUTHOR'S OPINION and how the view points relate to one another (Most times the author will AGREE or ADVOCATE for one of the views) PRESENT AUTHOR: One POV will capture their main point and conclusion - Will also determine how author feels about the other view (skeptical, stupid, uneasy) NON PRESENT AUTHOR: Main point captures BOTH POV (Or at least the viewpoint that is focused on the most) - Answer choice should be more neutral here if ask what author thinks as he is not present - Answer should NOT be too NARROW
Argument
- Set of proposition where one proposition is supported by others - Proposition being supported: Conclusion - Proposition providing support: Premises - EX: Any pizza that has pineapples is delicious (Premise). The Pizza has pineapples (Premise). Therefore, this pizza is delicious (conclusion) - EX: This pizza is delicious (Conclusion). After all it has pineapples (premise). Any pizza that has pineapples are delicious (Premise)
Words that indicate PREMISES propositions
- Since - Because - For - After all - Given that - Lucy loves to make kids cry since she is a dentist (DOESN'T HAVE TO BE AT BEGINNING)
Assumptions
- Something that must be true in order for the conclusion to be proven by the premises, but never actually stated in the argument - Missing piece of argument - EX: Eric's online profile has a picture of him rock climbing. Therefore, Eric is adventurous and loves outdoor activities - Assumption is he is adventurous and loves outdoors activities if he has that rock climbing picture - May be true or not, but is assumed
Secondary structures: Examples
- Specific instance that demonstrates something broader - Introduced by language like "such as, for example, for instance, as shown as, etc." - EXAMPLES ALWAYS support a BROADER POINT! (NOT the main point) - When an example is made, make sure you understand the broad point it relates to Localized: - Something relating to one part of the passage Extensive: - Almost all of passage about it - Ex: how technology can have bad consequences. Then passage gives lot of info as how - When asked on purpose/primary purpose of a structure that uses an example, the answer will be utilizing an example!!
The author "Presupposes what it seeks to establish" meaning
- The author's conclusion is the same as one of their premises - Circular Reasoning Fallacy - VERY UNCOMMON (so when the answer choice presents itself, it is usually wrong)
Words that indicate CONCLUSION propositions
- Thus - Hence, - So - Consequently - Accordingly - Clearly - Therefore - It follows that - As a result
Different between the Main Conclusion and the Subsidiary Conclusion (Statements with multiple conclusive arguments)
Main conclusion: - The ultimate point of the argument - Has support but does not support any other statement Subsidiary conclusion: - Has support from other statements but ALSO provides support to the main conclusion EX: You should be careful about serving chips at a party (Main conclusion). Some people are allergic to chips (Premise). Thus, you may have a big problem if one eats a chip inadvertently (Subsidiary conclusion)
Primary vs Secondary structures on passages
Primary: - Thesis/antithesis/synthesis - Author's role Secondary Structures: - Cause and effect - Examples - Question and answer - Classification -Secondary structures are elements found in any type of passage - Pay attention to these things when you see them (will probably be questioned on them!)
Logical validity and assumptions
Valid: - Argument is VALID if and only if the conclusion is true based on the premises - Conclusion can be PROPERLY INFERRED - Impossible to reject conclusions if premises are sound - Ex: All senior citizens are construction workers; All construction workers love rock music; Therefore, all senior citizens love rock music Invalid: - Argument is INVALID if truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion - Majority of arguments on LSAT - Ex: All construction workers have built houses, SO all construction workers know how to use a hammer (may seem logically sound but we don't know for sure) - ALL INVALID ARGUMENTS ARE MAKING AT LEAST ONE ASSUMPTION
Words that communicate the Logical Force of a statement
Weak M: - "Might, May, Could, Can, Occasionally" Moderate M: - "Probably, Likely, Usually" Strong M: - "Will, Must, Always, Definitely, Always, Is/Are, Necessarily, Do/Does" Weak Q: - Some, At least one, Few, Several, A SIGNIFICANT number, MANY Moderate Q: - Most, Majority, Over half Strong Q: - All, Any, Each, Every
