Lunsford Easy Writer Ch.37-38 Conducting Research

opinion surveys usually depend on

questionnaires

Difference between synthesis and analysis

Synthesis is the flip side of analysis: you assemble the parts into a new whole

Tips for synthesizing sources for a research project

1. *Don't just grab a quotation and move on.* Read the material carefully. 2. *Understand the purpose of each source.* Make sure the source is relevant and necessary to your argument. 3. *Determine the important ideas in each source* Take notes on each source. Identify and summarize the key ideas. 4. *Formulate a position*. Figure out how the pieces fit together. Look for patterns. After considering multiple perspectives, decide what you have to say. 5. *Summon evidence to support your position*. You might use paraphrases, summaries, or direct quotations from your sources as evidence, or your personal experience or prior knowledge. Keep your ideas central. 6. *Consider counterarguments*. Acknowledge the existence of valid opinions that differ from yours, and try to understand them before explaining why they are incorrect or incomplete. 7. *Combine your source materials effectively*. Be careful to avoid simply summarizing all of your research. Try to weave the various sources together rather than discussing each of your sources one by one.

Effective Search Techniques

1. Advanced search tools let you focus your search more narrowly by combining terms with AND or eliminating them with NOT, by specifying dates and media types, and so on- so they may give you more relevant results. 2. If you don't see an advanced search option, start with keywords. 3. databases and search engines don't all refine searches the same way- for instance, some use AND, while others use the + symbol. Look for tips on making the most of the search tool you are using. 4. Most libraries classify material using the Library of Congress Subject Headings. When you find a library source that seems especially relevant, be sure to use the subject headings for that source as search terms to bring up all the entries under each heading.

Beginning the research process

1. Considering the context for a research project 2. Formulating a research question and hypothesis 3. Planning research

How to use a quotation

1. Copy quotations carefully, with punctuation, capitalization, and spelling exactly as in the original. 2. Enclose the quotation in quotation marks. 3. Use brackets if you introduce words of your own into the quotation or make changes in it. Use ellipses if you omit words from the quotation. If you later incorporate the quotation into your research project, copy it from the note precisely, including brackets and ellipses. 4. Record the author's name, shortened title of the source, and page number(s) on which the quotation appeared. Make sure you have a corresponding working bibliography entry with complete source information. 5. Label the note with a subject heading, and identify it as a quotation.

guidelines for assessing the usefulness of a source

1. Your purpose 2. relevance 3. publisher's credentials 4. author's credentials 5. date of publication 6. accuracy of source 7. stance of source 8. cross referencing 9. level of specialization 10. audience of source

How to conduct observations

1. Determine the purpose of the observation, and be sure it relates to your research question and hypothesis. 2. Brainstorm about what your are looking for, but don't be rigidly bound to your expectations. 3. Develop an appropriate system for recording data. Consider using a split notebook or page: on one side, record your observations directly; on the other, record your thought or interpretations. 4. Record the date, time, and place of observations.

How to conduct an interview

1. Determine your exact purpose, and be sure it relates to your research question and your hypothesis. 2. Set up the interview well in advance. Specify how long it will take, and if you wish to record the session, ask permission to do so. 3. Prepare a written list of factual and open-ended questions. If the interview proceeds in a direction that seems fruitful, do not feel that you have to ask all of your prepared questions. 4. Record the subject, date, time, and place of interview. 5. Thank those you interview, either in person or in a letter or email.

What is the beginning of the research process?

1. Have a topic 2. analyze the research assignment 3. articulate a research question to answer 4. form a hypothesis 5. after preliminary research, you can refine your hypothesis into a working thesis and begin your research.

questions to ask to determine how well research fits into your writing project

1. How relevant is this material to your research question and hypothesis? 2. Does the source include counterarguments you should address? 3. How persuasive is the evidence? Does it represent opposing viewpoints fairly? Will the source be convincing to your audience? 4. Will you need to change your thesis to account for this information? 5. What quotations or paraphrases from this source might you want to use?

How to paraphrase

1. Include all main points and any important details from the original source in the same order in which the author presents them, but in your own words. Put the original source aside to avoid following the wording too closely. 2. If you want to include any language from the original, enclose it in quotation marks. 3. Save your comments, elaborations, or reactions for another note. 5. Record the author, shortened title, and page number(s), if the source has them, on which the original material appeared. 6. Make sure you have a corresponding working-bibliography entry. 7. Label the note with a subject heading, and identify it as a paraphrase to avoid any confusion with a summary. 8. Recheck to be sure that the words and sentence structures are your own and that they express the author's meaning accurately.

How to distinguish popular sources

1. Journal does not appear in title 2. Source is generally available outside of libraries 3. Many advertisements 4. Authors are usually journalists or reporters hired by the publication, not academics or experts 5. No summary or abstract; articles are fairly short 6. Articles may include quotations but do not cite sources or provide bibliographies

How to summarize

1. Put the original document aside to write your summary. If you later decide to include language from the original, enclose it in quotation marks. 2. Record the author, shortened title, and page numbers, on which the original material appeared. For online or multimedia sources without page numbers, record any information that will help readers find the material. 3. Make sure you have a corresponding working-bibliography entry. 4. Label the note with a simple heading, and identify it as a summary to avoid confusion with a paraphrase. 5. Recheck to be sure you have captured the author's meaning and that words are entirely your own.

Library Resources

1. Reference Librarians 2. Catalogs 3. Indexes and databases 4. Reference works 5. Bibliographies 6. Other Resources

unacceptable paraphrasing

1. Straying from the authors ideas 2. Using the author's words 3. Using the authors sentence structure

How to distinguish scholarly sources

1. Title often contains the word journal 2. Sources Available mainly through libraries and library databases 3. Few or no commercial advertisements 4. Authors are identified with academic credentials 5. Summary of abstract appears on first page of article, articles are fairly long. 6. Articles cite sources and provide bibliographies.

Formulating a research question and hypothesis

1. Topic? 2. Narrowed Topic? 3. Issue? 4. Research question? 5. Hypothesis

How to consider the context for a research project

1. What is the purpose of the project? 2. Who is your audience? 3. What is your stance or attitude towards the topic? 4. What kinds of sources do you need to find? 5. Consider practical matters, such as how long your project will be, how much time it will take, and when it is due.

Things to consider for collecting field data

1. Where you can find relevant information 2. how to gather relevant information 3. who might be your best provider of information

How to conduct an opinion survey

1. Write out your purpose, and determine the kinds of questions to ask. 2. Figure out how to reach respondents. 3. Draft questions that call for short, specific answers. 4. Test the questions on several people, and revise questions that seem unfair, ambiguous, or too hard or time-consuming. 5. Draft a cover letter or invitation email. Be sure to state a deadline. 6. If you are using a print questionnaire, leave adequate space for answers. 7. Proofread the questionnaire carefully.

How do you find authoritative sources online?

1. You can browse collections in online virtual libraries 2. Search collections housed in government sites such as the Library of Congress, the National Institute of Health, and the U.S. Census Bureau. 3. For current national news, online versions of reputable newspapers such as the Washington Post or electronic sites for news services such as C-Span. 4. Google Scholar 5. Some journals (example: such as those from Berkeley Electronic Press) and general-interest magazines *such as Salon) are published only online; many other print publications make at least some content available free on the web.

difference between summary and paraphrase

Summary uses just enough information to record the points you wish to emphasize.

Other resources

1. ask a librarian whether your library has more extensive bibliographies related to your topic. 2. Your library can help you borrow materials from other libraries 3. check with reference librarians about audio, video, multimedia, and art collections, government documents, and other special collections or archives that student researchers may be able to use.

How to find useful internet sources

1. internet searches 2. Bookmarking tools 3. Authoritative Sources online

Types of field research

1. interviews 2. observation 3. opinion surveys

quotation style notes

1. need subject heading 2. author and short title of source (no page number for electric source) 3. Indication that the note is a direct quotation

Each note should

1. record enough information to help you recall the major points of the source 2. put the information in the form in which you are most likely to incorporate it into your research project (whether a question, summary, or paraphrase) 3. Note all the information you will need to cite the sources accurately.

Common project purposes

1. to describe 2. to survey 3. to analyze 4. to persuade 5. to explain 6. to classify 7. to compare 8. to contrast

When to use quotes

1. when the wording is so memorable or expresses a point so well that you cannot improve or shorten it without weakening it 2. The author is a respected authority whose opinion supports your ideas 3. when an author challenges or disagrees profoundly with others in the field. you can't say the point better, it is a primary source and you need specific wording,

Evaluating sources and taking notes

All research builds on the careful and sometimes inspired use of sources-(research done by others) Since you want the information you glean from sources to be reliable and persuasive, you must evaluate each potential source carefully.

Difference between bookmarking tools in a browser and social bookmarking tools

Bookmarking tools in a browser are tied to one machine and social bookmarking tools can be used whenever you have an internet connection.

research

Examining various kinds of sources, assessing the data you collect, synthesizing your findings, and coming up with an original recommendation or conclusion.

Reference works

General reference works, such as encyclopedias, biographical resources, almanacs, digests, and atlases, can help you get an overview of a topic, identify subtopics, find more specialized sources, and identify keywords for searches.

Level of specialization

General soures can be helpful as you begin your research, but you may then need the authority or currency of more specialized sources. On the other hand, extremely specialized works may be hard to understand.

Accuracy of source

How accurate and complete is the information in the source? How thorough is the bibliography or list of works cited that accompanies the source? Can you find other sources that corroborate with what your source is saying?

Stance of source

Identify the source's point of view or rhetorical stance, and scrutinize it carefully. Does the source present facts, or does it interpret or evaluate them? If it presents facts, what is included and what is omitted, and why? If it interprets or evaluates information that is not disputed, the source's stance may be obvious, but at other times you will need to think carefully about the source's goals. What does the author or sponsoring group want-to convince you of an idea? sell you something? call you to action in some way?

Author's credentials

Is the author an expert on the topic? An author's credentials may be presented in the article, book, or website, or you can search the internet for information on the author.

Cross-referencing

Is the source cited in other works? If you see your source cited by others, looking at how they cite it and what they say about it can provide addition clues to its credibility.

relevance

Is the source closely related to your research question? You may need to read beyond the title and opening paragraph to check for relevance.

How to keep a working bibliography

Keep a running list that includes citation information for each source in an electronic file of on note cards hat you can rearrange and alter as your project takes shape. This working bibliography will simplify the process of documenting sources for your final project

catalogs

Library catalogs tell you whether a book is housed in the library and offers a call number that enables you to find the book on the shelf. Catalogs also indicate whether you can find a particular periodical, either in print or in an online database at the library.

Bibliographies

Lists of sources- in books or articles related to your topic can lead you to other valuable resources.

What are the differences between scholarly and popular sources?

Nonacademic sources (popular sources) like magazines can get you started on a research project, but you need to depend more on authorities in a field whose work usually is in scholarly journals.

Opinion surveys

Opinion surveys usually depend on questionnaires. On any questionnaire, the questions should be clear and easy to understand and designed so that you can analyze the answers without difficulty. Questions that ask respondents to say yes or no to rank items on a scale are easiest to tabulate.

Differences between primary and secondary sources

Primary sources provide you with firsthand knowledge, and secondary sources report on or analyze the research of others.

quoting

Quoting involves bringing a source's exact words into your text

Date of publication

Recent sources are often more useful than older ones, particularly in fields that change rapidly. However, the most authoritative works may be older ones. The publication dates of internet sites can often be difficult to pin down. And even for sites that include the dates of posting, remember that the material posted may have been compose some time earlier.

Internet searches

Research using a search tool such as Google begins with a keyword search. You should find what you need on the first 2 pages, if not, use new keywords that lead to more specific sources.

Indexes and databases

Some databases include the full text of articles from newspapers, magazines, journals, and other works; some offer only short abstracts (summaries) which give an overview so you can decide whether or not to spend time finding and reading the whole text. Indexes of reviews provide information about a potential source's critical reception.

Why conduct an interview?

Some information is best obtained by asking direct questions of other people. If you can talk with an expert-in person, on the telephone, or online-you may get information you cannot obtain through any other kind of research.

Example research question etc

Topic- Farming Narrowed Topic- Small family farms in the united states Issue- making a living on small family farms Research question- How can small family farms in the US successfully compete with big agriculture? Hypothesis- Small family farmers in the US can succeed by growing specialty products that consumers want and by participating in farmers' markets and community-supported agriculture programs that forge relationships with customers. Working Thesis- Although recent days show that small family farms are more endangered than ever, some enterprising farmers have reversed the trend by growing specialized products and connecting with consumers through farmers' markets and community-supported agriculture programs.

Challenges to usually sources effectively

Using sources that are: 1. not directly relevant to your point 2. too specific to support the larger claim being made 3. otherwise inefficient.

what to consider about figuring out the intended audience of a source

Was the source written for the general public? Specialists? advocates or opponents?

Publisher's credentials

What do you know about the publisher of the source you are using? For example, is it a major newspaper known for integrity in its reporting, or is it a tabloid? Is the publisher a popular source, or is it sponsored by a professional or scholarly organization?

Your purpose

What will this source add to your research project? Does it help you support a major point, demonstrate that you have thoroughly researched your topic, or help establish your own credibility through accuracy?

paraphrasing

When you paraphrase, you're putting brief material from an author (including major and minor points, usually in the order they are presented) into your own words and sentence structures.

What are the easiest questions to tabulate on a questionnaire?

Yes or No questions

How to annotate sources

You can annotate copies or printouts of sources you intend to use with your thoughts and questions as well as highlighting interesting quotations and key terms. Resist the temptation to treat copied material as notes, an action that could lead to accidental plagiarism. Tip: Using a different color for text pasted directly from a source will help you to prevent this problem.

reference librarians

You can talk with a librarian about your research project and to get specific recommendations about databases and other helpful places to begin your research

Summary

a significantly shortened version of a passage or whole chapter, article, film, or other work that captures main ideas *in your own words*. Unlike a paraphrase, a summary uses just enough information to record the points you wish to emphasize.

social bookmarking sites

allow users to tag information and share it with others. Users' tags are visible to all other users. If you find a helpful site, you can check how others have tagged it and browse similar tags for related information. You can also sort and group information with tags. Fellow users whose tags you trust can become a part of your network so you can follow their sites of interest.

Primary sources

basic sources of raw information, including your own field research; films, works of art, or other objects you examine, literally works you read, and eyewitness accounts, photographs, news reports, and historical documents

What constitutes a primary or secondary source?

depends on the purpose of your research. Example: A film review is a secondary source if you are writing about the film but a primary source if you are studying the critic's writing.

secondary sources

descriptions or interpretations of primary sources, such as researchers' reports, reviews, biographies, and encyclopedia articles.

synthesis

grouping similar pieces of information together and looking for patterns-so you can put your sources and your own knowledge together in an original argument

Bookmarking tools

help you browse, sort, and track resources online.

analysis

requires you to take apart something complex (such as an article in a scholarly journal) and look closely at each part to understand how the parts fit together into an effective (or ineffective) whole.

sources

research done by others.