Management Short answer

Describe, using examples, the different components of attitude;

The components of Attitude (a cognitive and affective evaluation that predisposes a person to act in a certain way) are Cognition, Affect, and Behaviour. The Cognitive component includes the beliefs, opinions and information the person has about the object of the attitude, such as knowledge about what a job entails and opinions about personal abilities. The Affective component is the persons emotions or feelings about the object of the attitude, such enjoying or hating a job. The Behavioural component of an attitude is the persons intention to behave towards the object of the attitude in a certain way. E.g. I'm going to get to work early with a smile on my face.

Describe, using examples, the key questions associated with the three levels of strategy;

The purpose of the three levels of strategy: corporate-level, business-level and functional level strategy are to identify, develop and maximise an organisation's strategy. Listen to podcast.

Describe, using examples, Porter's three competitive strategies;

Differentiation: Distinguishing the firm's products or services from others in the industry (from competitors). The organisation may use advertising, distinctive product features, exceptional service or new technology to achieve a product perceived as unique. Eg Harley Davidson Motorcycles. Cost leadership: The organisation aggressively seeks efficient facilities, pursues cost reductions, and uses tight cost controls to produce products more efficiently than competitors (lower costs and sell them for lower prices). Eg Pak'n'Save. Focus: The organisation concentrates on a specific regional market or buyer group. The organisation will use either a differentiation or low cost approach, but only for a narrow target market. Eg Enterprise Rent-A-Car

Explain, using examples, how a team is different from a group;

A team is a unit of two or more people who work and interact to achieve a goal (e.g. Soccer team works to score and defend goals), whereas a group is just a collection of people all in the same place (e.g. lecture) or all of the same gender or other characteristic.

Describe, using examples, the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards;

An employee may be motivated intrinsically (internal satisfaction) to perform with high productivity because they get a feeling of satisfaction or accomplishment by achieving their task. An employee may be motivated extrinsically (reward from another person) to perform with high productivity because this may lead to a promotion or pay increase.

Discuss the role that motivation can play in a worker realising high levels of potential productivity;

Motivation: The arousal, direction and persistence of behaviour. An employee may be motivated to perform high levels of production because they have a strong external or internal push encouraging them to do so.

Explain, using examples, the differences between 'strategic goals', 'tactical goals' and 'operational goals';

Strategic goals are broad statements describing where the organisation wants to be in the future. They pertain to the organisation as a whole rather than to specific divisions or departments. These should not just be profit or share value goals. These goals should include market standing, innovation, productivity, physical and financial resources, profitability, managerial performance and development, worker performance and attitude, public responsibility. After strategic goals are formulated, the next step is defining tactical goals. Tactical goals are the results that major divisions and departments within the organisation intend to achieve. These goals apply to middle management and describe what major subunits must do in order for the organisation to achieve its overall goals. Operational goals are the specific results expected from departments, work groups and individuals. They are precise and measureable. "Achieve 90% of deliveries on time".

Explain, using examples, the basic difference between a manufacturing organisation and a service organization;

The basic difference between a manufacturing organisation and a service organisation is the fact that manufacturing is physical goods and inventory (cookies-need equipment,recipes, ingredients(inputs) strict control, can be stored), and service is non-physical, customer involvement and no inventory. Examples are Hairdressing (good employees, interacting with customers, need hair dyes, scissors,), otago youth wellness trust is a different kind of service organisation. Nature of process will depend on the nature of the organisation.

Describe, using examples, the three different sector classifications of organisations;

Sector Classifications. Outputs e.g. agricultural sector, manufacturing, services. Ownership e.g. Private, Public, or Community (third sector). Motivation e.g. for profit, for benefit (not-for-profit), both.

Define leadership and explain its importance for organisations;

"The ability to influence people towards the attainment of organisational goals." Leadership is important in an organisation because it allows for groups of people to be organised and directed so that the attainment of a common goal can be achieved effectively and efficiently.

Define ethics and explain how ethical behaviour relates to behaviour governed by law and free choice;

"The code of moral principles and values that govern the behaviour of a person or a group with respect to what is right or wrong." Ethics falls into three areas: • Codified Law (legal standard)- values and standards are written into a legal system and enforceable in the courts. People and companies must behave in a certain way e.g. have a licence to drive a car, pay tax on companies profit. • Area of ethics (social standard)- Has no specific laws, yet it does have standards of conduct based on shared principles and values about moral conduct that guide an individual or organisation. • Domain of Free Choice (personal standard)- Relates to behaviour about which law has no say and over which an individual or organisation enjoys complete freedom. E.g. choice of religion by individuals, choice of number of CD's to manufacture by a company etc. Many individuals or companies get into trouble because they see that if something isn't illegal then it must be ethical, as if there is no third domain.

Discuss, using examples, the impact of using an open-systems perspective to think about the organisation;

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Select one guest presentation from the BSNS 105 lecture series: (i) State what topic was discussed in this session; and (ii) Explain the connections between this presentation and the specific concepts of management and organisation that this topic relates to.

1) Richard Greatbanks talking about operations management to do with healthcare! Talking about the lack of organisation in our health care system and how we need to cut down time by processing more patients but with the same resources which will lower the cost of the service being formed. A person with a predicted broken leg can be in waiting and processing for 13hours before any operation is done. Even though the government has put a target nationwide to get patients admitted and discharged within 6 hours if not a serious condition which needs further more observations. 2) Management and organisations are about attaining goals in an effective and efficient manner. The government has put a target goal for patients being admitted and discharged within six hours. It is managements job to work together to attain this goal by putting in regulations and cutting down the time that it already takes but with the same amount of resources. The main goal is become efficient throughout the whole health care system. An example that Richard provided us with was that on average it can take up to 13hours for someone with a broken leg to be waiting before any operation is done, this is inefficient and resources will be getting lost in the mix of this.

Using the example of making a decision about running a work-related social function, describe the six steps in the managerial decision making process, as indicated in the text;

1. Recognition of decision requirement: An opportunity has arisen to run a work-related social function. 2. Diagnosis and analysis of causes: Managers analyse underlying casual factors associated with the decision situation. The manager needs to ask a series of questions such as how did it occur? To whom did it occur? What is the urgency of the opportunity? Such questions help specify what actually happened and why. Recognise and analyse the opportunity. 3. Development of alternatives: Once the opportunity (or problem) has been recognised and analysed, decision makers begin to consider taking action. The next stage is to generate possible alternative solutions that will respond to the needs of the situation and correct the underlying causes. These solutions could come from programmed or un-programmed decisions. 4. Selection of desired alternative: Once feasible alternatives have been developed, one must be selected. The decision choice is the selection of the most promising of several alternative courses of action. The best alternative is one in which the solution best fits the overall goals and values of the organisation and achieves the desired results using the fewest resources. The manager tries to select the choice with the least amount of risk and uncertainty. 5. Implementation of chosen alternative: The implementation stage involves the use of managerial, administrative and persuasive abilities to ensure that the alternative is carried out. This step is similar to the idea of strategy execution. The ultimate success of the chosen alternative depends on whether it can be translated into action. 6. Evaluation and feedback: In the evaluation stage of the decision making process, decision makers gather information that tells them how well the decision was implemented and whether it was effective in achieving its goals. Feedback is important because decision making is a continuous, never-ending process. Decision making is not completed when a manager or board of directors votes yes or no. Feedback provides decision makers with information that can precipitate a new decision cycle. The decision may fail, thus generating a new analysis of the problem, evaluation of alternatives, and selection of a new alternative. Many big problems are solved by trying several alternatives in sequence, each providing modest improvement.

Define the four types of corporate cultures as they relate to the strategic focus of the firm, and the needs of the general environment;

1.Adaptability: Fast response and high risk decision making, responsiveness to customers is highly valued. 2.Achievement : Serving specific customers in the external environment without the need for flexibility and rapid change. 3.Involvement: Internal focus on the involvement and participation of employees to rapidly adapt to changing needs from the environment. 4.Consistency: Internal focus and a consistency orientation for a stable environment, following the rules are valued.

Describe, giving examples, four training methods used in organisations;

1.On-the-job-training: A type of training in which an experienced employee 'adopts' a new employee to teach them how to perform job duties. 2.Mentoring: Experienced employee guides and supports a less experienced employee. 3.Coaching: A method of directing, instructing and training a person with goal to develop specific management skills.(eg coach might observe a senior executive in action and provide feedback for improvement) 4. Introduction (orientation): Entry point training

Describe, giving examples, five visible artifacts of an organisation's culture; Visible artefacts are all the things one can see, hear and observe also the vision and values of the organisation.

1.Symbols: An object, act or event that conveys meaning. 2.Stories: narrative based on true events that is repeated and shared by the organisation. 3.Heroes: a figure who exemplifies the deeds, character and attributes of a strong corporate culture. 4.Slogans: Phase that expresses a key corporate value. 5.Ceremonies: Planned activities that make up a special event and is conducted for the benefit of an audience.

Using Adam's equity theory, explain how a person might choose to behave if his/her pay-rise was lower than her/his office colleague;

According to Adam's equity theory, if someone's pay is higher than another's, but they are doing the same job, then they will not see this equitable. This will lead to the individual feeling like they don't have to do as much work as the other higher paid worker. The two individuals will be motivated to bring the equity into balance.

Define the terms 'vertical team', 'horizontal team', 'task force', and 'virtual team';

A Vertical team is a formal team composed of a hierarchy. E.g. a Manager with their employees in the organizations chain of command. A Horizontal team is composed usually of the same hierarchical level, who are drawn together to perform a specific task. A Task force is a group of employees from different departments formed to deal with a specific activity and existing only until the task is completed. A Virtual team is a team that uses technology and groupware so that geographically distant members can collaborate on projects and so reach a common goal.

Describe, using an example, the concept of 'core competence';

A company's core competence is a business activity the organisation does well in comparison to its competitors. A core competence represents a competitive advantage because the company acquires expertise that competitors do not have. Eg superior research and development, expert technological know-how, process efficiency, or exceptional customer service.

Explain how a bureaucratic organisation structure improves efficiency and control in an organisation;

A sub-field of the classical management perspective that emphasised management on an impersonal, rational basis through such elements as clearly defined authority and responsibility, formal record keeping, and separation of management and ownership. Elements: 1. Labour is divided with clear definitions of authority and responsibility that are legitimised as official duties. 2. Positions are organised in a hierarchy of authority, with each position under the authority of a higher one. 3. All personnel are selected and promoted based on technical qualifications, which are assessed by examination or according to training and experience. 4. Administrative acts and decisions are recorded in writing. Record keeping provides organisational memory and continuity over time. 5. Management is separate from the ownership of the organisation. 6. Managers are subject to rules and procedures that will ensure reliable, predictable behaviour. Rules are impersonal and uniformly applied to all employees.

Discuss the contribution a SWOT analysis makes to the strategic management process;

Analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT), that affects an organizations performance. Strengths & Weakness- affect organisational performance - internal factors Opportunities & Threats- affect organisational performance - external factors • Customers • Suppliers • Radio/TV/newspapers/internet • Professional associations & networks

Describe, using examples, the three factors that can influence the attributions an employee may make about a colleagues' behaviour;

Attributions: judgements about what caused a person's behaviour- either characteristics of the person or of the situation. These include: Distinctiveness (external)- Whether the behaviour is unusual for that person. Consensus (external)- Whether other people to similar situations in the same way. Consistency (internal)- Whether the person being observed has a history of behaving in the same way. The way that an employee responds will be noted by the employer taking the interview, and if they respond differently to a question than expected, then this will be noted.

Describe, using examples, the three characteristics of authority;

Authority is the formal and legitimate right of a manager to make decisions, issue orders and allocate resources to achieve organisationally desired outcomes. Authority is distinguished by three characteristics: 1. Authority is vested in organisational positions, not people. Managers have authority because of the position they hold, and other people in the same positions would have the same authority. 2. Authority is accepted by employees. Although authority flows top down through the organisation's hierarchy, employees comply because they believe that managers have a legitimate right to issue orders. The acceptance theory of authority argues that a manager has authority only if employees choose to accept his or her commands. If employees refuse to obey because the order is outside their zone of acceptance, a manager's authority disappears. 3. Authority flows down the vertical hierarchy. Positions at the top of the hierarchy are vested with more formal authority than are positions at the bottom.

Describe, using an example, the relationship between authority, responsibility and delegation;

Authority: The formal and legitimate right of a manger to make decisions, issue orders and allocate resources to achieve desired outcomes. Responsibility: The duty to perform the task that has been assigned Delegation: The process managers use to transfer authority and responsibility to positions below them in the hierarchy. The relationship between the three is that with authority normally comes responsibility Managers without either become either tyrant or make a job difficult. When they have both the authority and responsibility then they are encouraged to delegate to meet customer needs and adapt to the environment so as the subordinates continue to do their jobs effectively.

Explain, using examples, the difference between a certain and uncertain decision- making context;

Certainty means that all the information the decision maker needs is fully available. Managers have information on operating conditions, resource costs or constraints, and each course of action and possible outcome. Uncertainty means that managers know which goals they wish to achieve, but information about alternatives and future events is incomplete. Managers do not have enough information to be clear about alternatives or to estimate their risk. Factors that may affect a decision such as price, production costs, volume or future interest rates, are difficult to analyse and predict. Managers may have to make assumptions from which to forge the decision even though it may be wrong if the assumptions are incorrect. Managers may have to come up with creative approaches to alternatives and use personal judgement to determine which alternative is best.

Describe, using examples, five aspects of body-language we use to communicate non- verbally;

Communication transmitted through actions and behaviours rather than word. e.g. facial expression, voice, mannerisms, posture, dress.

Describe, using examples, the five styles of handling conflict team members may use;

Competing style- Reflects assertiveness to get ones way, used when quick, decisive action is vital such as in urgent or emergency scenarios. Avoiding style- Unassertive and uncooperative. Is appropriate when the individual does not agree on a particular issue, but knows they have no chance of winning. Compromising style- Reflects a moderate amount of both assertiveness and cooperativeness. Appropiate when goals on both sides are equally important, when opponents have equal power and want to split the difference, or when people need to arrive at temporary or expedient solutions under time pressure. Accomodating style- Reflects a high degree of cooperativeness, which works best when people realise they are wrong. Especially important for maintain harmony in a team. Collaborating style- Reflects both a high degree of assertiveness and cooperativeness. Enables both parties to win. Important when both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised.

Describe, using examples, the three types of management skills;

Conceptual skills: The cognitive ability to the organisation as a whole and the relationship among its parts. Important by all managers, but especially important for managers at the top, e.g. Microsoft reflecting the conceptual skills of its founder and chairman, Bill Gates. As managers move up the hierarchy, they must develop their conceptual skills, or their promotions will be limited. Human skills: The ability to work with and through other people and to work effectively as a group member. Demonstrated in the way a manager relates to other people. E.g. ANZ relies heavily on the quality of its people for its success, ANZ took big strides over 10 years through a very human and personable John McFarlane as CEO. He introduced a new culture of making the ANZ 'people friendly' to its staff. This saw staff satisfaction rise from 49% to 85% over the 10 year period. Technical skills: The understanding and proficiency in the performance of a specific task. Technical skills includes the mastery of the methods, techniques and equipment involved in specific functions such as engineering, manufacturing or finance. Overall Technical skills as not as important as conceptual and human skills, because they are more focused on knowledge, and the smartest of people don't always make the smartest and best managers. E.g. Bruce Moravec was great with technical skills, but when asked by Boeing to lead a team, he struggles because he had to rely heavily on human skills.

Describe, using examples, the factors that should shape an organisation's structure;

Contingency factors influence an organisations structure. These include strategy, environment and production technology. Strategy- Follows either differentiation or cost leadership. Under differentiation, the organisation attempts to develop innovative products unique to the market. Under cost leadership, the organisation strives for internal efficiency. Environment-

Discuss, using examples, effective and efficient organisation performance;

Efficiency: Minimal resources -> desired outputs. Effectiveness: achievement of the goal. If an organisation isn't effective and efficient in its performance then it may run in to problems. For example airports and airlines have to efficient and effective because otherwise how could they get through all of their flights in a day without accident.

Explain, using examples, the difference between entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship;

Entrepreneurship is the process of initiating a business venture, organising the necessary resources, and assuming the associated risks and rewards. An entrepreneur is someone who engages in entrepreneurship. (An entrepreneur recognises a viable idea for a business product or service and carries it out.) Social entrepreneurship is the process of initiating a business venture that aims to do good business and make a positive social change. New business models are created that meet critical human needs and solve important problems that that remain unsolved by current economic and social institutions. It combines the creativity, business smarts, passion and hard work of the traditional entrepreneur with a mission to change the world for the better. Have a primary goal of improving society rather than maximising profits. About social betterment rather than economic return.

Describe five reasons for becoming an entrepreneur;

Entrepreneurship: The process of initiating a business venture, organising the necessary resources, and assuming the associated risks and rewards. Why should you be an entrepreneur? • A pioneer, not a settler - you thrive on innovation & change • Create your own job (be your own boss) • Choose the type of venture that suits you (entrepreneurial/high growth; lifestyle; salary substitute) • Solve important problems, develop innovative ideas & implement the solutions (pursue own ideas) • Financial success (pursue financial rewards)

Explain, using examples, the three pillars of sustainable development;

Environmental Outcomes: The need to avoid or minimise the environmental impact of physical spaces and resources. Orokonui -> restore and enhance the environment. Physical: catalyst for infrastructural improvements (solar electricity, safe water supply, transportation), recovery of native flora and fauna. Social/ Community Outcomes: connecting different stakeholders, relationships of trust, education (impacts on community and 'customers'), hires locally, volunteer (1000 hours per month). Economic Outcomes: The people in the western world are heavy consumers. In fact, we consume far more than our fair share. Meanwhile, the people in developing countries are exploding in population and some are aspiring to have high-consumption lifestyles too. We need a sustainable economic model that ensures fair distribution and efficient allocation of our resources. This pillar ensures that our economic growth maintains a healthy balance with our ecosystem.

Explain the difference between "ethnocentrism", "monoculture", "ethnorelativism", and "pluralism";

Ethnocentrism= You believe everyone is lower than you. Discrimination of everyone who is different from your cultural group.(stereo typing) Monoculture= Only one way of doing things, glass ceiling-invisible barrier that separates women and minorities from top management. Ethno-relativism= Groups and subculture inherently equal, positive at individual level. Pluralism= Several subcultures in the organisation. Practises are diverse.

Describe, using examples, the five stages of team development;

Forming- Orientation, break the ice. Members test one another for friendship opportunities, and find out what behaviour is acceptable to others. Storming- Conflict, disagreement. Members become more assertive in clarifying what their roles are and what is expected of them. Norming- Establishment of order and cohesion. Conflict is resolved and team harmony is established. Performing- Cooperation, problem solving. Members become committed to the teams mission, they are co-ordinated with one another and handle disagreements in a mature way. Adjourning- Task completion. Emphasis is on wrapping up and team starts to disband. In a large construction firm, it is important that these stages are processed through, sometimes a few days are dedicated to team building exercises so that the forming and storming stages are knocked out of the way before work begins.

Describe, using examples, the differences between Herzberg's motivating and hygiene factors;

Herzberg's Motivators influence job satisfaction. These are high level needs including achievement, recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth. Hygiene factors are factors that involve the presence or absence of job dissastifiers, including working conditions, pay, company policies and interpersonal relationships. Motivators influence job satisfaction whereas hygiene factors discourage.

Compare & contrast McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about workers;

In theory X (classical approach), the average human is said to have an intense dislike for work and will avoid it if possible, because of this the individual must be coerced, controlled, directed or threated with punishment to them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organisational objectives. It is assumed that the average human prefers to be directed, wished to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all. Theory Y (humanistic approach), says that humans want to do well and expenditure of physical or mental effort comes as natural as play or rest, this average human being does not inherently dislike work. The difference between these two theories is that in Theory X, the individual does not want to work and external energy is required for work to be done, whereas in Theory Y, the individual enjoys work and internal is used to get work done.

Briefly describe, using an example, the relationship between innovation and entrepreneurship;

Innovation: In general, innovation is seen as a main vehicle for a new company to profitably enter a market and is a central force for driving competition among companies. To be called an innovation, an idea must be replicable at an economical cost and must satisfy a specific need. Innovation involves deliberate application of information, imagination and initiative in deriving greater or different values from resources, and includes all processes by which new ideas are generated and converted into useful products. In business, innovation often results when ideas are applied by the company in order to further satisfy the needs and expectations of the customers. In a social context, innovation helps create new methods for alliance creation, joint venturing, flexible work hours, and creation of buyers' purchasing power. Entrepreneurship: The process of initiating a business venture, organising the necessary resources, and assuming the associated risks and rewards. Relationship: The entrepreneur pushes the creative ideas, he is the innovator, the person that keeps the business continuing to be successful for years to come.

Describe, using examples, four individual barriers to communication;

Interpersonal barriers include problems with emotions and perceptions held by employees. If a person's mind is made up before the communication starts, communication will fail. Moreover, people with different backgrounds and knowledge may interpret a communication in different ways. Selecting the wrong channel or medium for sending communication can be a problem. For example, when a message is emotional it is better to transmit it face to face than in writing. Semantics often cause communication problems. Semantics relates to the meaning of words and the way they are used. A word such as effectiveness may mean achieving high production to a factory superintendent and employee satisfaction to a human resource staff specialist. Many common words have an average of 28 definitions , thus, communicators must take care to select the words that will accurately encode ideas. Sending inconsistent cues between verbal and non-verbal communications will confuse the receiver. If one's facial expression does not reflect one's words, the communication will contain noise and uncertainty. The tone of voice and body language should be consistent with the words, and actions should not contradict the words.

Describe, using examples, five behaviours of an effective listener;

Listening- the skill of grasping facts as well as feelings to interpret a message's genuine meaning. • Listens actively- asks questions and paraphrases what is said. • Find areas of interest- Looks for opportunities, new learning. • Resists distractions- fights or avoids distractions; tolerates bad habits; knows how to concentrate. • Is responsive- Nods; shows interest, give and take, positive feedback. • Works at listening- Works hard, exhibits active body state, eye contact.

Describe, using examples, the difference between "leadership" and "management";

Management is the attainment of organisational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organising, leading and controlling organisational resources. Because management comes from organisational structure, it promotes stability, order and problem solving within the structure. Leadership is the ability to influence people towards the attainment of organisational goals. Leadership power comes from personal sources that are not invested in the organisation, such as personal interests, goals and values. Leadership power promotes vision, creativity and change in the organisation. In other words, a manager takes care of where you are; a leader takes you to a new place.

Define, using examples, the concept of organisation structure;

Organisation structure: The framework in which the organisation defines how tasks are divided, resources are deployed and departments are coordinated. 1. The set of formal tasks assigned to individuals and departments. 2. Formal reporting relationships, including lines of authority, decision responsibility, number of hierarchical levels and span of managers' control. 3. The design of systems to ensure effective coordination of employees across departments. Ensuring coordination across departments is just as critical as defining the departments to begin with. Without effective coordination systems, no structure is complete.

Describe, using examples, the six dimensions of best practice in organisation management;

People: Leadership: influencing and motivating vs. directing. People Management: Treat people to give them a sense of purpose, understanding, development and growth, and recognition. Customer focus: Focus on building a relationship with the customer, giving them information, training and delivering value (exceeding expectations). Peoples Practice: Quality management: customer-centric, reduce all forms of waste, process control, process improvement, have high levels of staff engagement. Innovation: Innovation in products, services, management systems, production processes. Corporate values and other aspects. *Without innovation a company will not survive! Knowledge management: new knowledge, acquiring existing knowledge through research, analysing, writing and communicating.

Describe, using examples, the four most common facility layouts used for the actual production of a good or service

Process Layout: Is like a supermarket, the baking items are all together and beer and meat and you the product physically moves between the different functions to create a unique product. Product Layout: Production line which is not customizable as normally part of a industry of mass production. Cellular Layout: Material/people more into separate spaces for processing. Eg,Mobile phone goes in the electrical department to get all the electrical components and then moves onto the casing department etc. Fixed Position: Product remains in one location and the parts come to it. Hotel being built, Aeroplane as too big to move, Model hair and makeup come to you.

Describe, using examples, potential perceptual distortions that can lead to errors in perceptual judgement;

Perception: the cognitive process people use to make sense out of the environment by selecting, organising, and interpreting information. Perception distortions: errors in perceptual judgement that arise from inaccuracies in any part of the perception process. Potential distortions that can be made by managers include: Stereotyping- tendency to assign an individual to a group such as females, elderly, white, disabled. Halo effect- occurs when the perceiver develops an overall impression of a person or situation based on one attribute, either favourable or unfavourable. E.g. perceiving that someone with a high attendance record is responsible, industrious and highly productive (it may be true, but it is the managers responsibility to make sure assessment is based on complete information, not just a liking for individuals with high attendance). Projection- The tendency to see ones personal traits in an individual. E.g. a manager who is achievement-orientated may assume that her employees are as well. This may cause the manager to structure her department to be less routine and more challenging. Guards against this can be empathy, where you put yourself in someone else's shoes. Perceptual defence- the tendency of perceivers to protect themselves by disregarding ideas, objects or people that are threatening to them. As humans we perceive things that are satisfying and pleasant, but tend to disregard things that are disturbing and unpleasant.

Describe, using examples, the five sources of power;

Position Power: The traditional manager's power comes from the organisation. Legitimate power is power coming from a formal management position in an organisation and the authority granted to it. Eg Once a person is appointed as a manager, most workers understand that they are obliged to follow their directions with respect to work activities. Reward power stems from the authority to bestow rewards on other people. Managers have access to formal rewards, such as pay increases or promotions. They also have at their disposal such rewards as praise, attention and recognition. Managers can use rewards to influence employees' behaviour. Coercive power is the opposite of reward power. It refers to the authority to punish or recommend punishment. Managers have coercive power when they have the right to fire or demote employees, criticise or withdraw pay increases. Personal Power: most often comes from internal sources, such as a person's special knowledge or personality characteristics. Expert power is power resulting from a leader's special knowledge or skill regarding the tasks performed by followers. When the leader is a true expert, employees go along with recommendations because of his or her superior knowledge. Referent power comes from leader personality characteristics that command employees' identification, respect and admiration so that they wish to emulate the leader. When workers admire a supervisor because of the way he or she deals with them, the influence is based on referent power.

Describe, giving examples, three 'primary' and three 'secondary' dimensions of diversity;

Primary dimensions are the core elements through which people share their self image and world veiw: age,gender, race, ethnicity,mental and physical abilities and sexual orientation. Secondary dimensions can be acquired or changed throughout one's lifetime. These tend to have less impact than those of the primary but still affect a person's self-definition and world view and on how others view them as a person:Education,parental status,religious beliefs,martial status. Eg married people and people with children maybe perceived differently and have different attitudes from those who are single and have no kids.

Describe, using examples, the major differences between programmed and non- programmed decisions;

Programmed decision: "A decision made in response to a situation that has occurred often enough to enable decision rules to be developed and applied in the future." Non-programmed decision: "A decision made in response to a situation that is unique, is poorly defined and largely unstructured, and has important consequences for the organisation." Programmed decisions are made in response to reoccurring organisational problems eg reordering office supplies when inventories drop to a certain level whereas non-programmed decisions do not occur regularly eg decisions to build a new factory, develop a new product or service, relocate headquarters or enter into a new geographical market. Programmed decisions have rules whereas non-programmed decisions do not and therefore require planning.

Explain, using examples, the difference between a risky and an ambiguous decision- making context;

Risk means that a decision has clear-cut goals and that good information is available, but the future outcomes associated with each alternative are subject to chance. However, enough information is available to allow the probability of a successful outcome for each alternative to be estimated. Statistical analysis might be used to calculate the probabilities of success or failure. The measure of risk captures the possibility that future events will render the alternative unsuccessful. Ambiguity means that the goals to be achieved or the problems to be solved are unclear, alternatives are difficult to define, and information about outcomes is unavailable. Ambiguity is what students would feel if an instructor created student groups, told each group to complete a project, but gave the groups no topic, direction or guidelines whatsoever.

Describe, using examples, four causes of stress in the workplace;

Stress: A physiological and emotional response to stimuli that place physical or psychological demands on an individual. Four examples for the workplace include: Task demands- if an employee feels overworked, has little time to complete a big project, or faces consequences they are likely to get stressed and may burnout. Physical demands- If an employee does not have a comfortable environment to work in with good space, right temperature and good airflow then they may get stressed. Role demands- If an employee does not specifically what to do in their role then they become stressed. Interpersonal demands- When pressure is put on one employee by other employee's to complete a task, they may become stressed due to what is expected by them by so many.

Describe, using examples, the six dimensions of the organisation's General Environment;

The general environment is the outer layer of the environment- the dimensions that influence the organisation over time but are not involved in day to day transactions with it. The dimensions of the general environment include: International dimension of the general environment consists of events originating in foreign countries, as well as opportunities for local organisations in other countries. The international environment provides new competitors, customers and suppliers, and shapes social, technological and economic trends as well. Technological dimension includes scientific and technological advancements in a specific industry as well as in society at large. Sociocultural dimension of the general environment represents the demographic characteristics as well as the norms, customs and values of the general population. Important sociocultural characteristics are geographical distribution and population density, age and education levels. Today's demographic profiles are the foundation of tomorrow's workforce and consumers. Economic dimension represents the general economic health of the country or region in which the organisation operates. Consumer purchasing power, the unemployment rate and interest rates are part of an organisations economic environment. Legal-political dimension includes government regulations at the local and national levels, as well as political activities designed to influence organisation behaviour. The NZ political system encourages capitalism, and the Government tries not to over-regulate business. However, government laws do specify some rules of the game via legislation and regulation. Natural dimension has developed in response to pressure from environmental advocates. Organisations have become increasingly sensitive to the earth's diminishing natural resources and the environmental impact of their products. The natural dimension includes all elements that occur naturally on earth, including plants, animals, rocks, and natural resources such as air, water and climate. The natural dimension has no voice of its own.

Describe, using examples, the three decision-making models, as described by the text;

The Classical model of decision making is based on economic assumptions. It is considered to be normative, which means it defines how a decision maker should make decisions. It does not describe how managers actually make decisions so much as it provides guidelines on how to reach an ideal outcome for the organisation. The Administrative model is considered to be descriptive, meaning that it describes how manager should actually make decisions in complex situations rather than dictating how they should make decisions according to theoretical ideal. Bounded rationality means that people have limits, or boundaries, on how rational they can be. Managers have the time and ability to process only a limited amount of information with which to make decisions. Because managers do not have the time or cognitive capacity to process complete information about complex decisions, they must satisfice. Satisficing means that decision makers choose the first solution alternative that satisfices minimal decision criteria. Rather than pursuing all alternatives to identify the single solution that will maximise economic returns, managers will opt for the first solution that appears to solve the problem, even if better solutions are presumed to exist. The decision maker cannot justify the time and expense of obtaining complete information. Intuition represents a quick apprehension of a decision situation based on past experience but without conscious thought. Intuitive decision making is not arbitrary or irrational, because it is based on years of practice and hands-on experience that enables managers to quickly identify solutions without going through painstaking calculations. Political model: The third model of decision making is useful for making non-programmed decisions when conditions are uncertain, information is limited and there is disagreement among managers about what goals to pursue or what course of action to take. A coalition is an informal alliance among managers who support a specific goal. Coalition building is the process of forming alliances among mangers. In other words, managers persuade other managers to support their decision thus forming a coalition. Key points Classical model: Clear-cut problem and goals. Condition of certainty. Full information about alternatives and their outcomes. Rational choice by individual for maximising outcomes. Administrative model: Vague problem and goals. Condition of uncertainty. Limited information about alternatives and their outcomes. Satisficing choice for resolving problem using intuition. Political model: Pluralistic; conflicting goals. Condition of uncertainty/ambiguity. Inconsistent viewpoints; ambiguous information. Bargaining and discussion among coalition members. 336

Explain the impact of the Hawthorne Studies on management thinking about employee productivity;

The Hawthorne studies impacted how managers thought about their employees productivity by including human relationships. By adding in human relationships between managers and general employees, employees felt more valued and with this bonus were more positive and had a greater productivity in the workplace.

Describe, using examples, four common causes of conflict in a work team;

The four common causes of conflict are: Competition over resources e.g. money, information or supplies. Different goals e.g. individual sales point targets Communication breakdowns e.g. people not talking to one another Trust broken e.g. virtual teams may feel left out if they are not included in important communication interactions.

Describe, using examples, the four primary functions of management;

The management functions include Planning (select goals and ways to attain them), Organising (assign responsibility for task accomplishment), Leading (using influence to motivate employees), Controlling (Monitor activities and make corrections). Planning: defines where the organisation wants to be in the future, and how it is going to go about getting there. E.g. Time Warner Inc. gets together with the various chiefs of its divisions every 3 weeks and talks about futures projects and how the divisions can work together to make the projects more successful. Organising: typically follows planning and reflects the way the organisation tries to accomplish the plan. E.g. companies such as Air NZ and Telecom have undergone reorganisation plans to accommodate for their changing plans, Leading: the use of influence to motivate employees to achieve organisational goals, involves motivation entire departments as well as those individuals working immediately with the manager. E.g. Steve Jobs was an exceptional leader for Apple. He was because he was able to communicate his vision through the whole organisation and energise employees into action. Controlling: monitoring employees' activities, determining whether the organisation is on target towards its goals, and making corrections as necessary. E.g. every employee clocks on when they arrive at work each day

Describe, using examples, the elements of the communication process; The sender is anyone who wishes to convey an idea or concept to others, to seek information, or to express a though or emotions. The sender encodes the idea by selecting symbols with which to compose a message.

The message is the tangible formulation of the idea that is sent to the receiver. The message is sent through a channel, which is the communication carrier. The channel can be a formal report, a telephone call, or a face-to-face meeting. The receiver is the person to whom the message is sent. The receiver decodes the symbols to interpret the meaning of the message. Encoding and decoding are potential sources for communication errors, because knowledge, attitudes and background act as filters and create noise when translating from symbols to meaning. Finally, feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the sender's communication with a return message. Without feedback, the communication is one-way; with feedback it is two-way. Feedback is a powerful aid to communication effectiveness, because it enables the sender to determine whether the receiver correctly interpreted the message.

Discuss the differences between the 'new social contract' and the 'old social contract' perspectives for both employers and employees;

The old social contract meant the employee could contribute ability,education,loyalty and commintment and in return expect that the company would provide wages and benefits,work,advancement and training throughtout the employees working life. Where as the new social contract is based on the concept of employability rather than life time employment. Individuals are responsible for developing their own skills and abilities, understanding their employer's business needs and demonstrating their value to the organisation. The employer's in turn invests in creative training and development opportunities so that the people will be more employable when the company no longer needs their services. Summary: the old social contract is a two way street between both the employee and the employer the better and harder the employee worked the more benefits and rewards they would receive from the employer. Employers were looking for long term employment options where as now compared to the new social contract employers are looking for employees that have the skills needed or can teach themselves and employers no longer want to invest as much time and money into an employee as they now no longer want them for long term employment.

Describe, using examples, the four dimensions of the organisation's Task Environment;

The task environment includes those sectors that have a direct working relationship with the organisation. Customers are those people and organisations in the environment who acquire goods or services from the organisation. As recipients of the organisation's output, customers are important because they determine the organisation's success. In a supermarket context, customers are those people who buy the food from the store. Competitors are other organisations in the same industry or type of business that provide goods or services to the same set of customers. In a supermarket context, PaknSave is a competitor of Countdown's. Suppliers provide the raw materials the organisation uses to produce its output. In a supermarket context, suppliers are the businesses that produce the food for the supermarket to sell eg Coca-cola. The labour market represents people in the environment who can be hired to work for the organisation. Every organisation needs a supply of trained, qualified personnel. A supermarkets labour market includes people with experience in customer service to work at the checkouts.

Describe, using examples, the three key roles of management identified by Henry Mintzberg;

The three key roles and interpersonal, informational and decisional. Interpersonal Figurehead: symbolic head, obliged to perform a number of routine duties of a legal or social nature. Leader: responsible for the motivation and activation of subordinates; responsible for staffing, training, and associated duties. Liaison: maintain self-developed network of outside contacts and informers who provide favors and information. Informational Mentor: seeks and receives a wide variety of special information (much of it current) to develop a thorough understanding of the organization and environment; emerges as the nerve center of internal and external information for the organization. Disseminator: transmits information received from outsiders or from other subordinates to members of the organization. Some information is factual, some involves interpretation and integration of diverse value positions of organizational influences. Disseminating what is of value, and how, is a critical informational role. Spokesman: transmits information (plans, policies, results, etc.) within and outside of the organization; serves as an expert on the organization's industry. Decisional Entrepreneur: searches the organization and its environment and initiates improvement projects to bring about change; supervises design of certain projects as well. Disturbance Handler: responsible for corrective action when the organization faces important, unexpected disturbances. Resource Allocator: : responsible for the allocation of the organization's resources; makes or approves of all significant organizational decisions. Negotiator: responsible for representing the organization at major negotiations.

Explain, using examples, utilitarian, individualism, moral-rights, and justice approaches for ethical decision-making;

The utilitarian approach holds that moral behaviour produces the greatest good for the greatest number. Under this approach, a decision maker is expected to consider the effect of each possible decision on all parties and select the one that optimises the satisfaction for the greatest number of people. The individualism approach contends that acts are moral when they promote the individual's best long-term interests. Individual self-direction is paramount, and external forces that restrict self-direction should be severely limited. Individuals calculate the best long-term advantage to themselves as a measure of a decision's goodness. The moral rights approach asserts that human beings have fundamental rights and liberties that cannot be taken away by an individual's decision. Thus an ethically correct decision is one that best maintains the rights of those people affected by it. Eg the right to privacy, the right of free speech, the right to life and safety. The justice approach holds that moral decisions must be based on standards of equity, fairness and impartiality. Three types of justice are of concern to managers. 1. Distributive justice requires that different treatment of people not be based on arbitrary characteristics. Individuals who are similar in respects relevant to a decision should be treated similarly. Men and women should therefore receive the same salaries if they are doing the same job. 2. Procedural justice requires that rules must be administered fairly. Rules should be clearly stated, and consistently and impartially enforced. 3. Compensatory justice argues that individuals should be compensated for the cost of their injuries by the party responsible. Moreover, individuals should not be held responsible for matters over which they have no control.

Describe, using examples, 2 channels of communication that have high levels of richness and 2 channels of communication that have low levels of richness;

Two channels of high richness include: • Face to face talk- richest because it permits direct experience, multiple information cues, immediate feedback and personal focus • Telephone- lacks the element of being there, but still carry the human voice which can carry a tremendous amount of emotional information. Two channels of low richness: • Memos or letters- Are not instant and don't carry a human voice, also emotion can be hard to express on paper leading to the message sometimes being decoded wrong by the receiver. Feedback is also slow to receive. • Formal reports- These are impersonal and are not focused on a single receiver so use limited information cues, with no feedback required.

Describe, using examples, the difference between a vertical functional and a divisional organisational structure;

Vertical functional structure: The grouping of postions into departments based on similar skills, expertise and resource use. A vertical functional structure can be thought of as departmentalisation by organisational resources, because each type of functional activity - human resources, enginereering, manufacturing - represents specific resources for performing the organisation's task. E.g. CEO with General managers below: Admin mananger, marketing manager, financing and planning manger etc. Divisional- Similar organisation outputs. e.g. R&D, Marketing, Accounting Finance, all part of each division.

Describe two characteristics of the stimuli and two characteristics of the perceiver that can influence what an individual employer will perceive about a prospective employee in an employment interview;

Two characteristics of the stimuli that will influence what an individual employer will perceive about a potential employee include: Novelty- The employee may be better dressed, or be wearing something a little different than other prospective employees. They may have characteristics that are novel and so the employer may be more interested by these. Familiarity- An employer may have just lost an employee and is looking for someone just like them, so when they find this in an employee, they may be very familiar to it. Repetition- if an employee keeps bring up a specific qualification that they possess, then the employer is likely to notice and remember it. Two characteristics of the perceiver that will influence what an individual employer will perceive about a potential employee include: Primacy- The employer may make a good first impression, this is said to be what sticks the most for an employer (beginning has greater attention than end). This may be done through something as simple as looking your best. Values and beliefs- The employee may have the same values and beliefs as the employer, which will build a quick likeable relationship.

Describe, using examples: two types of upward organisational communication; two types of downward organisational communication; and two types of horizontal organisational communication;

Upward communication- communication that flows from the low to high levels of the organisation. • Problems and exceptions- these messages describe serious problems with and exceptions to routine performance in order to make managers aware of difficulties. E.g. the printer has been out of ink for two day, and its still going to be a week before a new one arrives. • Performance reports- these messages include periodic reports that inform management how individuals and departments are performing. E.g. Audit report Smith an Smith on schedule, but we are one behind on the Jackson report. Downward Communication- Messages sent from management down to employees. • Implementation of goals or strategies- Communicating new strategies and goals provides information about specific targets and expected behaviour. Gives direction for lower levels of the organisation. E.g. product quality must be improved so the organistation can survive. • Performance feedback- lets individuals and departments know how well they are doing their jobs. E.g. Joes work on the computer has greatly improved the efficiency of our ordering process. Horizontal Communication- The lateral or diagonal exchange of messages among peers or co-workers. • Intradepartmental problem solving- these messages take place between members of the same department. E.g. Bob, can you help us figure how to complete this expense report. • Interdepartmental problem solving- facilitate the accomplishment of a joint task or project. E.g. Bob, please contact marketing to discuss the specifications for the new subassembly. We may not be able to meet their requirement.

Describe, giving examples, five types of questions that are inappropriate or illegal to ask:

in an interview context; (What religious holidays they observe such as the Christian day easter triduum which is a three day festival, Race,Age, Marital status and Ever been arrest(because it may not have had any affect but the potential employer will judge the person by that without meaning to) The origin of the applicants name Applicants ancestry/ethnicity Race or colour of skin If applicant has any physical or mental defects If applicant has ever filed workers compensation claim Applicants age When applicant graduated from high school applicants religious affiliation What religious holidays applicant observes If applicant has ever been arrested Marital status,number of children,or planned children childcare arrangements When applicant graduated Hobbies If applicant is a citizen of another country.