MCAT ALL SET 1: Physics + Bio ch1-6
Mechanical Advantage Equation
ME = F(out)/F(in); ratio of force created to the force you put in; no dimensions or units (a ratio)
What type of replication do germ cells perform?
MEIOSIS; creates 4 non-identical daughter cells; gametocytes (germ cells) creates gametes
Indexes of refraction may only take values ________________ 1 because...
greater than 1 the equation is c/v, and v can never be larger than c, which would make it less than 1
Overall lesson on problems that can occur with pregnancy
highly variable in nature, and highly variable outcomes depending on genetics and environment; hard to predict
Cell Body ("Soma")
part of the neuron where the nucleus, ER, ribosomes are
What happens to TOTAL resistance as # resistors increases in series vs parallel resistors?
1) Series: as # increases, resistance INCREASES; 2) Parallel: as # increases, resistance DECREASES
2 layers that surround oocytes
1) Zona Pellucida, 2) Corona Radiata (made of granulosa cells)
Prefix: Tera
10^2, T
Prefix: hecto
10^2, h
Prefix: kilo
10^3, k
Prefix: Mega
10^6, M
What values can h take in Ep = mgh?
both positive and negative; note h is relative to the datum, so if you're below it, your height is negative!
What EQUATIONS apply to charged particles?
both the ELECTRICAL equations & the MASS-BASED ONES (THEY HAVE MASS!!!); kinetics, gravitational energy, kinetic energy, etc.
Physics of the respiratory system
breathing mediated by change in pressure; inspiration: negative pressure gradient (low P in lungs), so air is sucked in; expiration: reversed gradient (higher P in lungs), so air sucked out
Plane mirror do not cause ________________ nor ________________ of light, and thus always create ________________ images
convergence; divergence; virtual images
The different types of epithelial Tissue Is organized by __________
NUMBER OF LAYERS or SHAPE
Conservative forces
Path independent and do not dissipate the mechanical energy of the system. 1) If only conservative forces are acting on an object, the total mechanical energy is conserved.
Hypoglycemia
an excess of insulin sharply dropping blood sugar
2 Error Sources
reliability and validity
If hearts have higher pressure on the left, why does the Foramen Oval Shunt & Ductus Arteriosus Shunt work?
relies on the fact that the fetus' heart has higher pressure on RIGHT side (opposite in adults) to push blood through; this reverses at birth and permanently shuts this 1-way valve
Meiosis
replicative step of germ cells (4 non-identical daughter cells; gametocytes (germ cells) creates gametes)
Log-log Graphs
representation of logarithmic data; both axes 'Axis Ratio' changed
Heat of Fusion (L)
the amount of energy needed to completely go from S to L or lost to go from L to S; q = mL (L is heat of fusion)
1cal vs 1Cal
the amount of heat required to raise 1g water by 1C; 1Cal is the amount of heat needed to raise 1kg water by 1C (1000cal!)
Regression Analysis
the analysis of linear/parabolic/exponential/etc. relationships between variables (independent vs dependent, suspected confounding variables plotted vs dependent, etc.)
What does the blastopore (opening of the archenteron in a gastrula) become in deuterostomes vs protostomes?
the anus vs the mouth, respectively
What embryonic structure becomes the gut?
the archenteron (tube through a gastrula that formed when the blastula invaginated)
Isotopic Notation
the atom (X) symbol is written, with a superscript on the left for mass number (=protons+neutrons) (A) and subscript on left for atomic number (Z)
Menstrual Flow
the beginning of a new menstrual cycle (occurs in Follicular Phase); shedding of the uterine lining
What embryonic structure becomes the mouth in protostomes?
the blastopore (the opening to the archenteron in a gastrula)
Catecholamines
amino-acid derived hormones; e.g., epinephrine and norepinephrine of the adrenal medulla
What happens to capacitance when a dielectric (insulative) material is places between the plates of a capacitor?
the capacitance INCREASES by a factor x dielectric constant (𝜅)
Sertoli Cells
the cells that nourish the seminiferous tubules that make sperm
Why do we not feel air pressure on us?
because our bodies produces equal pressure to push back!
Why is a provirus evolutionarily advantageous?
because the provirus is relative unharmful (unless it separates) while at the same time it prevents superinfection (multiple infections)!
What happens if androgens do not develop a male (e.g., Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome)?
the male will be phenotypically a female
Amplitude (A) of a wave
the maximum magnitude of displacement of a wave (from the baseline to the crest)
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
the maximum volume of air the lungs can hold (inhaled completely); usually 6-7 litres
Bimodal Distribution
distribution with 2 modes (peaks) with valley between; NOTE: TECHNICALLY ONE MODE IF ONE MODE IS HIGHER, but still technically a bimodal distribution
Skewed Distributions
distribution with a tail on one side of the mode; negative skew (tail on negative/left) or positive skew (tail on positive/right)
air resistance
like friction, opposed the motion of an object. air resistance increases as the speed of the object increases. therefore, objects in free fall will experience an increasing drag force as the magnitude of the velocity increases.
Problems in Early Development
highly sensitive, therefore teratogens can wreck u
Follicles
multilayered sacs that make up the ovaries; contain, nourish, protect immature ova (eggs)
Filament of flagella? structure? composition?
hollow, helical composed of FLAGELLIN
Atmospheric Pressure
pressure caused by the weight of the atmosphere pressing on you that DECREASES with altitude (less atmosphere pushing on you)
isobaric
pressure remains constant, work can be calculated
How does the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland?
regulates pituitary via tropic hormones that it releases into a portal between them
1 Inch = ? centimeter conversion
2.54cm/in
Heat Transfer & 3 ways
occurs when objects are in thermal contact (doesn't have to be in contact; even infinite space); occurs in 3 ways: conduction, convection, radiation
Glottis
opening of the larynx; covered by epiglottis to prevent food in when food is passing and only allows air Epiglottis is open when food is not passing
Mean can be labelled as a _____________ or _____________, depending on whether or not it comes from population or sample, respectively
parameter; statistic
Carrier
refers to someone carrying but not expressing a genetic disease (occurs frequently with x-linked disorders when the female carries it)
If an object does not emit light, its colour corresponds to the colour it _______________
reflects!; e.g., a red object absorbs all colours of light but reflects red
GnRH
released by hypothalamus; causes releases of LH and FSH from anterior pituitary
GHRH (growth hormone releasing factor)
released by hypothalamus; causes the release of GH from anterior pituitary
Number of cells in the body vs bacteria
37T cells in the body, 10X as many bacterial
Squares (roots) to memorize: 13 to 20
3:169, 14:196, 15:225, 16:256, 17:289, 18:324, 19: 361, 20:400; if you need to calculate a square root between these, then memorize and estimate
In a Hydraulic Lift System, how much smaller is d2 (distance piston 2 pushes up) than d1 (distance piston 1 pushes down)?
scaled down by the factor A1/A2; d2 = d1(A1/A2)
Glucagon
secreted by 𝛼-Islets of Langerhans when "glucose is gone"; 1) increases glycogenolysis (release of glucose from glycogen), 2) increases gluconeogenesis, and 2) increases degradation of protein/fat for energy; can be increases by CCK and gastrin
Because a fetus does not use its lungs and liver, what happens to them?
they become underdeveloped and sensitive to high blood pressure they receive in uterus; 3 shunts direct blood away while they develop
What can resistors do to the FORM of energy in a circuit?
they can CHANGE its form; e.g., into light, hot coils in a toaster
Transformation of sex factors
they can be integrated into the host bacteria genome via transformation; causes the ENTIRE BACTERIA GENOME to be replicated during conjugation next time as it contains the sex factor and transfers whole this; pilus usually BREAKS before complete
Hormones
signalling molecules secreted directly into the blood by gland to target distant tissue; induce gene expression or cellular function changes
Archaea relation to eukaryotes? similarities?
similar domains, thus hypothesized there is a common origin 1) both start translation with Met, 2) have similar RNAP, 3) wrap DNA on histones
Diversity of prokaryotes
simple but very diverse
Prokaryotes
simplest organisms; include ALL bacteria
What 3 things can support standing waves?
strings, a pipe open at both ends, and closed pipes; each have BOUNDARIES at either end
Saltatory Conduction
the "hopping" of ion movement along mammalian axons due to myelination and the Nodes of Ranvier being the ONLY places ions can move; allows for faster conduction
Pressure and Work
the 'density of energy' that can occur from work
What is 'datum'?
the 'ground level' in gravitational potential energy; 0J
Pitch & it's underlying cause
the 'highness' of a sound; caused by frequency (higher frequency = higher pitched!)
How humans produce speech sounds
the 2 vocal cords vibrate and create air sound waves at some frequency; controlled by changing tension of the vocal cords; longer/thicker (like males) is deeper
Body's long-term solution to low O2
vascularizes (more vessels)
Other than the lungs, OTHER body system that controls blood pH:
the KIDNEYS: secrete and reabsorb acid and bases within the nephron; SLOWER but LONG-TRM
What does the speed of impulse propagation depend on?
the LENGTH and CROSS-SECTION AREA of the axon; more length = high resistance = low conduction; more area = MORE SIGNIFICANT more area = lower resistance = high conduction
Is electrical field magnitude scalar or vector?
vector!!!! E = Fe/q = kQ/r^2
Y Chromosome
very little genetic information; SRY
Axon
the LONG appendage of a neuron that ends at the target structure (e.g., muscle, gland, a neuron)
Viscosity (𝜂)
the measure of internal resistance to flow of a fluid in SI Pascal-second (Pa•s; N•s/m^2)
Entropy
the measure of spontaneous dispersal of energy at a specific temperature; how MUCH energy is spread or how WIDELY spread it becomes; e.g., water and ice may have the same T at 0˚C, but water has its energy spread over more microstates, therefore is more entropic!
Mechanical Advantage
the measure of the increase of force accomplished by a machine (F(out)/F(in)); reduces force required to achieve same work
Standard Distribution
the technique used to give a data set a mean of 0 and a SD of 1 such that we can think of it as a normal distribution & make analyses
Competence (cell-cell communication differentiation)
the term used to describe a cell that is competence to receive & act on signals from an inducer (inducing cell) as a responder
Absolute Zero
the theoretical temperature with NO thermal energy (0K)
Period (T) of a wave
the time is takes to complete 1 cycle; T = 1/f
Heat
the transfer of thermal energy from a hotter (high energy) to colder (lower energy) object
Crossing Over
the numerous events where homologous chromosomes exchange DNA (recombination) by breaking at their chiasmata in prophase I (single crossovers, double crossovers, etc.)
Repolarization
when K+ voltage-gated ion channels open in response to the neuron reaching +35mV in an action potential, allowing K+ to flow OUT, restoring the (-) inside of the cell and a Vm of -70mV; brief hyperpolarization
Dwarfism
when a deficit of GH occurs in childhood
The Photoelectric Effect
when high frequency (usually blue to UV) hits metal in a vacuum, the metal atoms emit electrons, producing a current
When does the specific heat of a substance change?
when it CHANGES PHASE (STATE!!)
Second condition of equilibrium
when the vector sum of all the torques acting on an object is zero.
Electron Capture
when unstable radionucleotides can 'capture' an inner electron: electron + proton ➝ neutron; lowers atomic number by 1, mass number stays the same: X + e- ➝ X(Z-1); essentially reverse 𝛽- decay
Isovolumetric/Isochoric Process
when ΔV = 0 in a gas system although pressure changes, indicating that 0 Work was done
Exponents: x^0
x^0 = 1
Exponents: multiplication: x^a * x^b =
x^a * x^b = x^(a+b)
Exponents: division: x^a / x^b =
x^a / x^b = x^(a-b)
Do neurons have nuclei?
yep
Speed of fluid (air) flow at the alveoli
zero!
When does the potential energy of a system decrease? Increase?
1) Decreases when 2 like charges move apart (closer to 0) or 2 opposite charges come together (more negative aka smaller number) 2) Increases with the opposite
What are the 2 functions of the mito?
1) Energy, 2) Killing Cell: release enzymes from ETC, starting programmed apoptosis; cascade
2 cell groups of the thyroid (as seen under a microscope)
1) Follicular Cells (produce T3/T4), 2) C-Cells (Parafollicular Cells) that produce calcitonin
What is the temperature the scrotum maintains? How?
2-4℃; a layer of muscle around the vas deferens can raise and lower the scrotum from the hot body to control T
How to calculate mass defect energy released
E = mc²; the m is the difference in the theoretical mass and the experimental mass of the nucleus, which is the mass that is given off as energy
Directionality of bacterial conjugation
UNIDIRECTIONAL; from donor male (+) to recipient female (-)
Glucagon is inhibited when ________________
inhibited when glucose is present in blood
When you find a new 'thing' (correlation, causation) in experiment, all future experiments should...
acknowledge this + offer explanation of the results + judge if it should impact outside into the real world
What is the Intermembrane Space?
is the space b/t inner and outer mito membranes
What is the mito Matrix?
is the space behind the inner membrane
2 types of 'flow' of a fluid
laminar and turbulent
Coulomb's Law
law of electrostatic force between 2 charges; Fe = kq1q2/r^2; k is Coulomb's (Electrostatic) Constant that depends on the units in the equation: k = 1/4π𝜀0 = 8.99•10^9 N•m^2/C^2
Body's short-term solution to low O2 env
makes more RBCs
Androgens? secreted by?
male sex hormones secreted by the Interstitial Cells of Leydig
Interneurons
between sensory and motor, the most numerous neurons, usually do reflexes
Process Functions
describe the path taken to get from one state to another (work or heat)
Geometric Optics
describes how light behaves when it hits the boundary between 2 mediums (media): reflection, refraction (mirrors, lenses)
Nearsighted glasses have lenses that are ________________ with ________________ power
diverging (concave); negative power
Significant figures while doing the actual math
do NOT ROUND until the final answer in a string of calculations as this prevents rounding error
Radiation
mode of heat transfer via electromagnetic waves; only mode that can exchange heat in a vacuum (how sun warms earth!)
Convection
mode of heat transfer via physical motion of a fluid (thus only liquids and gases) over a material; higher T fluid will give energy, lower will take E
Streamlines
drawings of the pathways of fluid movement of "Fluid Particles" velocity vector is the tangent never cross the streamlines acts exactly how you think it would (as lines spread apart to a bigger cross-section, tube gets wider, etc.)
In dispersion, shorter wavelengths (like violet) will be refracted/bent ________________, and longer wavelengths (like red) will be ________________
more; less
Microglia
phagocytic glial cells that ingest/break-down waste products + pathogens in the CNS
Does air or food enter the pharynx? Larynx?
pharynx = BOTH, larynx = AIR (glottis covered by epiglottis)
Based on how the photoelectric effect, Einstein concluded light travelled in packaged quanta of energy called ________________, which is evidence that light is both a wave and a ________________
photons; particle
Main difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes
pro lack nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; single-celled
Temperature
proportional to the average kinetic energy of a substance (akin to how hot/cold it is)
k in the Ee equation
spring constant; measures stiffness of elastic/spring
Probability of at least one of a series of events occurring
P(AUB) = P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B); or = add
What equation can be used for blood vessels?
Poiseuille's Law, but only for isolated segments
For convex mirrors, the centre/radius of curvature are ________________ the mirror, and for concave they are ________________
behind; in front
Breakdown of Neurotransmitters
1 of 3 modes to get rid of neurotransmitter when no longer required; Enzymes destroy them, e.g. acetylcholine destroyed by acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Instantaneous Velocity (*v*)
is limit of the change in displacement over time as the change in time (Δt) approaches 0. lim ( Δ*x*/Δt ) Δt—> 0 Δ*x* is the change in position Δt is the change in time. *vector*
Circular Polarization
light that is polarized all w/ the same amplitude, but constantly rotating direction in a helical propagating wave; on average the electrical and magnetic fields are perpendicular; rare, but caused by things like pigments/specialized filters
Unpolarized Light
light where the electric field vectors have random orientation (e.g., sunlight, light bulbs)
falling objects exhibit...
linear motion with constant acceleration. *common problem on MCAT*
What states of matter are fluids?
liquids and gas
List of peptide hormones
literally ALL of the hormones that are not listed as amino-acid-derived nor steroid (e.g., endorphins, GH); thus not glucocorticoids (cortisol, cortisone), mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), Sex cortical steroids (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone), T3, T4 (based on tyrosine with iodine), epinephrine/norepinephrine (catecholamines)
4 Functions of the Lungs
1) gas exchange, 2) thermoregulation by the capillaries, 3) first immune defense, 4) blood pH control
The subjective (experienced) loudness of sound is directly related to its objective ________
intensity
Cohort Studies
longitudinal observational studies of different Cohorts (groups) based on Exposures to certain risk factors, trying to tie Exposure-to-Outcome (e.g., in 2 cohorts of Exposure to smoking vs not, which had Outcome of cancer?)
The level of control in human research is (lower/higher) than that of basic science (lab) because...
lower; ethical reasons
Sperm anatomy (3)
1) head (genes within plasma membrane and acrosome), 2) midpiece (generates ATP from fructose), 3) flagella (motility) (filament, end piece)
Death Phase (Bacterial Growth cycle)
number of bacteria exceed what environment can support; DEPLETED RESOURCES
Where does childbirth occur for a female?
out of their vaginas; it double for sex and childbirth
What is characteristic to human embryonic development?
placenta formation
Transduction via provirus
provirus may exit with some bacterial genes, allow for transduction (bringing of bacterial genes to ANOTHER bacteria)
Shear (Tangential) Force
pushing 2 parts of an object in 2 different directions; only SOLIDS can resist it, not fluids
Heat of Vaporization (L)
the amount of energy needed to completely go from L to G or lost to go from G to L; q = mL (L is heat of fusion heat)
In forced oscillation, if the Force Frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the material...
the amplitude of the oscillation will increase TO A MAXIMUM, and if it were frictionless, then energy would keep increasing, and amplitude could increase indefinitely
The Scientific Method
set of steps that defines order of events to carry out an experiment to make 'new knowledge'
Myelin
the insulation on MOST mammalian axons made of fat to 1) prevent signal loss and 2) prevent crossing signals; produced by oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann Cells (PNS)
Resistivity (𝜌)
the intrinsic resistance to current flow of a material (i.e., some conduct more, some resist more) in OHM-METERS (𝛺m)
Preganglionic Neuron
the neuron in the autonomic nervous system that starts with cell body in CNS; axon travels to Postganglionic Neuron in PNS that synapses and stimulates the automatic tissue function
The Harmonic (n) (waves)
the number of 1/2 wavelengths in the string; seen in equation for standing wave length 𝜆 = 2L/n; MATCHES THE NUMBER OF ANTINODES ON THE STRING or THE NUMBER OF NODES IN AN OPEN PIPE
Modes of bacterial genetic recombination (4)
transformation, conjugation, transduction, transposons
Morphogen examples (3)
transforming growth factor beta (TGF-𝛽), sonic hedgehog (Shh), epidermal growth factor (EGF)
The landmark research that showed light was a wave was done by Young, in the '_________________' experiment, which showed that light could _________________
'Double-Slit Experiment'; interfere
Celsius-to-Fahrenheit equation Celsius-to-Kelvin equation
(9/5)C + 32 K = C + 273
Exponents: brackets on fractions (X/Y)^a
(X/Y)^a = X^a/Y^a
How T3 and T4 are produced
(thyroid's hormones that set basal metabolic rate); produced by iodination of tyrosine in the follicular cells of the thyroid; have 3 vs 4 iodine attached
Exponents: exponent of exponent: (x^a)^b =
(x^a)^b = x^(a * b)
Depolarization Threshold for neurons
-55 to -40mV (nothing smaller); if the axon hillock is depolarized to this point, an action potential is triggered
What is the resting potential for a neuron's membrane?
-70mV; inside is MORE NEGATIVE
Equilibrium Potential of Potassium
-90mV; (-) means the (+) potassium ion is leaving the cell; at this voltage, potassium is equally entering and leaving the neuron
Simple Epithelia
1 layer
Seminiferous Tubules? nourished by?
1 of 2 parts of the testes; coiled, produce sperm; nourished by Sertoli cells
Membrane Potential vs Time
starts at -70mV, voltage-gated Na+ influx to +35mV action potential, K+ effluxes to -80mV hyperpolarization (to inhibit signals), Na+/K+ Pump returns -70mV resting potential
Male Sexual development outline
starts with Y & androgens in fetus, drops at birth, FSH and LH make sperm and testosterone, testosterone make 2° sex characters and negatively feedbacks
What is the difference between a state and process function?
state are path-independent (to get to the equilibrium point), process are path-dependent (to get to the equilibrium point)
Menarche
the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual bleeding, in female humans
For lenses thin enough to be negligible, the sign of the focal length & radius of curvature is based on the sign of...
the first surface light that passes through
Epididymis
the location where sperm pass to after formation in the testes; flagella then gain motility; stored here until ejaculation
Sound Level (𝛽)
the logarithmic scale of sound (since it's such a wide range we can hear), expressed in dB 𝛽 = 10log(I/Io), where I is the intensity of sound wave and Io is the threshold of hearing (10^(-12) W/m^2)
Why can't most pathogens pass the placental barrier to infect the fetus?
they are too large
Sinusoidal Waves
transverse/longitudinal waves with displacement in a sinusoidal (repetitive) pattern
Where do most tropic hormones originate?
(hormones that require an INTERMEDIATE to act); USUALLY ORGINATE IN BRAIN/ANT PITUITARY to coordinate multiple effects around the body
3 Functional classes of corticosteroids
(produced by the adrenal cortex) 1) Glucocorticoids, 2) Mineralocorticoids, 3) Cortical Sex Hormones
Umbilical Vessels
Umbilical Arteries (2), Umbilical Vein
As compared to a 𝛽-particle, and 𝛼-particle has _________________ the charge and its size is _________________
double the charge; larger
Is there a 'best' measurement unit for temperature?
Nope; just depends on accuracy of the instrument (also K and C are the same size so no advantage)
Gravitational potential energy
Related to the mass of the object and its height above 0, called the datum.
Bacterial growth curve is what kind of graph?
SEMILOG plot; logarithmic y-axis aka a straight line = exponential, NOT LINEAR
Male Reproductive Pathway (mnemonic)
SEVE(N) UP; Seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, NOTHING, urethra, penis
Magnetic Field Strength Unit
SI UNIT Tesla (T); N•s/m•C (large fields) or Gauss (1T = 10^4 Gauss)
What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?
Series of interconnected membranes
Transduction (cells)
only genetic recombination that requires a VECTOR (a VIRUS that carries genes from one bacteria to another)
How LONG peptide vs steroid hormones last + mnemonic
peptide = SHORT (e.g., insulin, released after every meal quickly) & steroid = LONG (e.g., testosterone, LONG-TERM sexual maturation)
Cerebrospinal Fluid
physically supports the brain & is a shock absorber; produced the ependymal glial cells that line the ventricles
In terms of water melting, is it physics-ally reversible? Chemically reversible?
physics-wise NO; irreversible because they must be moved into diff environments (e.g., to freeze again it will not happen spontaneously in a warm env), but chemically YES because they technically CAN change chemical forms from liquid to ice (doesn't depend on if its spontaneous or not)
How to measure conductivity of an electrolyte solution
place a resistor circuit in it, measure change in voltage across solution
Most common viroid host
plants
Subatomic particles with electrical charge
proton (+) and electron (-)
Nucleons
protons & neutrons
Na+/K+ ATPase Mnemonic
pumpKin; K+ is pumped in, Na+ is pumped out!
What is the equation to determine the amount of energy needed to get a substance COMPLETELY THROUGH their phase change?
q = mL
Pulleys
simple machines that provide mechanical advantage (same work for lower force over a greater distance)
Batteries and Potential Mnemonic
the + end is HIGH POTENTIAL and the - end is LOW POTENTIAL; thus + particles move to lower potential, and - charges move to higher potential
Anterior Pituitary
endocrine gland connected to the hypothalamus and controlled by its hormones; produced 4 TROPIC and 4 DIRECT hormones
Bacterial flagella
long, whip-like structures for propulsion TOWARDS food or AWAY from toxin
X Chromosome
lots of genetic info, mutations caused sex-linked (X-linked) disorders
What is important to know about MCAT Biology 4.3: Organization of the Human Nervous System?
most of it is covered in MCAT psych ch 1, therefore not so many notes on it are in OneNote or in Quizlet
Multiple Lens System? focal length? power?
multiple lenses in contact with negligible distance between them; behave as a single lens with 1 focal length that is the 1/f = 1/f1 + 1/f2... etc. & power P = P1 + P2
Temporal Summation
multiple signals integrated by axon hillock in a short period of time; e.g., many small excitatory signals at the same time may actually depolarize enough for an AP
Diffraction Gratings
multiple slits arranged in a pattern; can create colourful patterns (like a prism) as different wavelengths interfere in different ways: e.g., DVDs/CDs
For the purposes of the MCAT, we say lenses have ________________ thickness
negligible
Resting Potential
net electric potential difference across a (neuron) cell's membrane dictated by ions; about -70mV for neurons (outside = POSITIVE compared to inside)
Reflex Arcs
neural circuits between receptors and spine that reflex to pain etc. before brain is even aware; 2 types: monosynaptic and polysynaptic
Hypothalamus + Posterior Pituitary Interactions
neurons from hypothalamus go through pituitary stalk and stimulate oxytocin and ADH ONLY
Is work by displacement caused by heat transfer?
no, at least not usually; usually heat results from friction tho
Prophase II
nuclear envelope dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate to poles, spindle forms
Telophase I
nuclear membrane reforms around each new nucleus; each cell only has 1 chromosome of each type with 2 sisters, so technically haploid
First Law of Thermodynamics
the change in total energy of a system is equal to the amount transferred in the form of HEAT to the system MINUS the amount of energy transferred out as WORK: ΔU = Q - W
If the mean & median are close to each other, this means...
the distribution is symmetrical
Panting
the method where animals thermoregulate (cool down) by moisturizing the tongue and allowing the water to evaporate, robbing their bodies of heat
Work Function purpose?
the minimum energy required to eject an electron from metal; W = h(ft), where ft is the threshold frequency
Yolk Sac
the sac that supports the embryo until the placenta is made; also develops early blood cells
Why is the mito a unique organelle?
they are SEMI-AUTONOMOUS organelles; contain circular dsDNA; replicate by itself from nucleus in BINARY FISSION and its own DNA copying
Why might cells migrate?
they are not in the right location to carry out their function
Non-conservative forces vs path
they are path-dependent; the longer the distance they act, the more energy lost by the object they work on
How do conjoined twins form?
they occur when monozygotic twins do not completely split and come out physically attached (i.e. their zygotes do not completely separate in the uterus when they split to become identical twins)
Converging lenses are always ________________ at their centre
thicker AKA CONVEX
Institutional Review Boards
things at hospitals/universities that place systematic protections against unethical studies; take above-and-beyond-care of Vulnerable Persons (children, pregnant women, prisoners)
Simple Machines
things that provide mechanical advantage (provide same work with less force); 6 of them
Diverging lenses are always ________________ at their centre
thinner AKA CONCAVE
Location of the heart in the body
thoracic cavity in mediastinum and is slightly more to the left than right
What is the cell #/nucleus of prokaryotes?
uni only no nucleus
Units of heat
unit J or cal or nutritional cal (Cal) or British Thermal Unit (BTU)
Grey Matter
unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites
Natural Logarithms
use base e (Euler's Number); aka ln
Virus use of host cell in translation
use our ribosomes, tRNA, AAs, enzymes to make protein
Acidemia? body response?
when blood pH drops below 7.35 (ideal range 7.35 to 7.45) medulla will trigger the brain to breath faster to rid CO2 and push Bicarbonate Buffer System (CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-) to the left via Le Châtelier's, raising blood pH via lost CO2
Gigantism
when an excess of GH occurs in childhood
What are the 2 criteria for Ek?
you must have mass and you must be moving
Length of human gestation
~280 days
When you do not have the whole data set and cannot calculate Standard Deviation, you can approximate it as...
¼ of the RANGE
Conservation of Mechanical Energy Equation
ΔE = ΔEp + ΔEk = 0
Ep-Heat-Work Relation (first law of thermodynamics)
ΔEp = Q - W
Isobaric Process
ΔP = 0 but volume changes, meaning work HAS been done; W = PΔV
Gravitational Pressure Term (Bernoulli's Eqn)
𝜚gh; the pressure associated with a fluid sitting above the datum position
What is the interior of the ER called?
Lumen
What 'force' is used in calculating pressure?
NORMAL force; P = F/A
FSH in male puberty
stimulates the Sertoli Cells and sperm maturation
At what side of the spine do sensory signals enter?
the dorsal (back) side of the spine
Karyorrhexis
the fragmenting of the nucleus during apoptosis
Prefix: Giga
10^9, G
The value of tangent runs from...
(-∞, ∞)
[Na+] inside & outside neurons at rest
145mM outside, 12mM inside (OPPOSITE K+); sodium leak channels allow movement pushing sodium in, eventually drawn back out by negativity outside; Equilibrium Potential of Sodium = 60mV
What type of pressure is in the Bernoulli equation
ABSOLUTE pressure
2 Types of refractory periods (neurons)
Absolute Refractory & Relative Refractory
________________ is the incident angle at which the refracted angle 𝜃2 = ________________ ; the light passes ________________; when the incident angle becomes any larger than this, ________________ occurs, meaning...
Critical Angle; = 90˚; light passes along the interface of the 2 media; Total Internal Reflection occurs
Cuboidal Epithelia
Cube cells
Celsius-to-Farenheit equation
F = (9/5)C + 32
What are genes?
Genes are coding regions on DNA
Conservative forces examples
Gravity and electrostatic forces. Elastic forces, such as those created by springs, are nearly conservative.
Sound intensity vs distance from the source
I ∝ 1/d^2; since the spherical area sound covers increases by a square value
In what direction do test charges spontaneously move (according to U and V)?
In the direction that LOWERS electric potential energy; In terms of electric potential: Positive charges: move in whatever direction LOWERS their electric potential: ΔV < 0 (-); Negative charges: in whatever direction INCREASES their electric potential: ΔV > 0 (+)
Nonconservative forces example
Include friction, air resistance, and viscous drag.
What does increasing the intensity of the stimulus do action potentials fired by the neurons?
Increases the FREQUENCY of AP firing; des not increase the potential difference!
Circuit Laws (2)
Laws of Conservation: charge and energy can never be created nor destroyed
1674 Cell History (Leeuwenhoek)
Leeuwenhoek made the microscope; could see living cells
When do spindle fibers first connect to kinetochores during cell cycle?
PROPHASE!!!!!!!
Amplitude is related to __________ whilst frequency is related to _________
Sound level Pitch
Energy levels of the electron are _________ and ___________
Stable and discrete
The 4 fundamental forces of nature
Strong Nuclear Force, Weak Nuclear Force, Electrostatic Force, Gravity
Which pathogens can cross the placental barrier? How do we defend?
TORCHES; Toxoplasma gondii, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, HErpes/HIV, Syphilis; mothers are screened/vaccinated
When doing multiple nuclear fission and fusion reactions in a row, what must you keep in mind?
The element is the one converting and reducing number and size and thus when going to the next reaction, only focus on the element and not the total of the element and the extra matter (ex: electrons) see pg 328 of kaplan
Kinetic energy
The energy associated with the movement of objects. It depends on the mass and speed (not velocity).
Total mechanical energy
The sum of kinetic and potential energies in a system.
What is on the inside of the brain: grey or white matter?
White matter (axons and myelin sheaths)
What is on the outside of the spine: grey or white matter?
White matter (axons and myelin sheaths)
What causes the fusion of the neurotransmitter vesicles to the axon terminal?
a flood of Ca2+ ions
centripetal force
a force which always points radially inward
Nuclear Fission
a large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei
Seminal Vesicles
add FRUCTOSE to seminal fluid to nourish sperm; basifies the seminal fluid (along with prostate)
Basal body of flagella
anchors flagellum to membrane, motor (up to 300Hz)
MS-ring of flagella
anchors in inner cell membrane
Stator of flagella
anchors in inner cell membrane
C-ring of flagella (bacteria)
anchors under inner cell membrane
When 2 polarizers are setup in tandem, the ________________ between them determines ultimately how much of the original light gets through, and if the 2 polarizers are ________________ to each other, NO light gets through
angle between; perpendicular
4 types of cell signals
autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, endocrine
According to Snell's Law, when light enters a medium with a LOWER index of refraction (n2<n1) (faster speed of light), it the light ray bends ________________ the normal
away from (sin𝜃2 > sin𝜃1)
White Matter
axons and myelin sheaths
LH in female puberty
causes secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum (theca cells)
Prophase I
chromatin condenses to chromosomes, spindle apparatus forms, nucleus + nucleolus disappear, recombination (synapsis, crossing over)
Gas to liquid name
condensation
Junction of filament of flagella
connection of filament to hook
Hook of flagella
connects filament to basal body
What is counterintuitive about the definition of "current"?
considered the flow the positive charge, but NEGATIVE charges actually flow
The ________________ of the eye is its primary source of refractive power due to... ...and the ________________ is a secondary one that can change thickness
cornea; its change in refractive index is HIGH; lens of the eye
What is the preferred mode of transport to the fetus via umbilical cord?
diffusion; easiest
What is the ploidy of animals?
diploid (2n) somatic cells; 2 copies of each chromosome
Spermatogonia
diploid stem cells that produce sperm
Growth Hormone
direct horm'n released by the anterior pituitary in response to GHRH; promotes growth of bone/muscle (stimulates breakdown of sugars/fatty acids); inhibits uptake of glucose in tissues not growing, increasing availability to bone/muscle
Why is energy lost in turbulent fluid flow?
due to increased friction
Pineal Gland
endocrine gland deep in the brain; secretes MELATONIN; acts through an unknown mechanism to produce Circadian Rhythm & the sensation of sleepiness; releases when retina sends signals of reduced light
Ovaries
endocrine gland; secretes estrogen and progesterone when GnRH releases LH and FSH to cause sexual differentiation of females in gestation and secondary sex characteristic in puberty
Testes
endocrine gland; secretes testosterone when GnRH releases LH and FSH to cause sexual differentiation of males in gestation and secondary sex characteristic in puberty
ATP Energy Transfer
energy harnessed from ATP as heat; this is the same as WORK on a microscopic level simply because atoms move and exert force
Hyperopia
far-sightedness
Slit-Lens System
if a lens is placed between a narrow slit and a screen, light appears on the screen as a bright central spot (maxima = bright, minima = dark), alternating bright-dark spots and diffusing brightness outwards from the centre; the central bright spot is x2 as wide as the bright spots on the sides
Where are the lungs located?
in the thoracic cavity
Why does a fetus not move as much in the 3rd trimester?
it has grown as shit ton; it have no space to!
Why bacteria and archaea separated from Monera
modern genetics/biochem show that their evolutionary difference is AT LEAST AS SIGNIICANT as either branches vs eukarya!
Which organelle is most heavily tested?
nucleus
P (power) is ________________ for converging lenses (convex) and ________________ for diverging lenses (concave)
positive; negative
Resistors in "Series"
resistors are linear and current must pass linearly; current has no choice but to pass through each
Semen
sperm + seminal fluid
Solid to gas name
sublimation
Corona Radiata
surrounds the zona pellucida of an oocyte; used to be adhered directly to the oocyte during ovulation
What is the amnion covered by for protection?
the chorion
What happens if a zygote arrives in the uterus too late?
the endometrium to support it will be gone, and it will die
Virulent
the name for viruses in the lytic cycle
Reflection
the rebounding of incident light waves at the boundary of a medium; bounce off the second medium and travel back through the first
What structure do most reflexes use?
the spine and interneurons; don't even need the brain
Equilibrium Potential of Sodium
+60mV; (+) means that the (+) Na+ ions are moving into cell; at this voltage, sodium is equally entering and leaving the neuron
What are the 3 Possible Routes of the Golgi?
1) Golgi --> secretory vesicle, 2) Golgi --> lysosome, 3) ER --> Golgi --> Storage/Secretory vesicle
What 2 parts to the second law of thermodynamics are there?
1) Heat and 2) Entropy
2 Types of Zygote Cleavage
1) Intermediate, 2) Determinate
3 Common secondary messengers for hormones
1) cAMP, 2) IP3 (inositol triphosphate), 3) Ca
Prefix: micro
10^-6, 𝝁
After what # of cells does an embryo become a morula?
16+ cells
What is Po (surface pressure) in water (ocean, etc.?)
1atm!
How long does an oocyte have to be fertilized?
24 (sits in fallopian tube)
Pluripotent Stem Cells
2nd highest potency; the stem cells when the embryo is in the 3 germ layers; differentiate into any cells EXCEPT placental
Second Trimester
2nd part of gestation; occurs from 2-6 months; EXTREME growth, fetus moves in amniotic fluid, face looks human-like, toes and fingers elongate, measures 30-36cm;
Contractions/Birth
2nd phase of birth; prostaglandins and oxytocin signal rhythmic uterine smooth muscle contracts to push baby out
Secondary Spermatocytes
2nd stage: what haploid sperm is called after meiosis I
Menstruation Phase of menstrual cycle
4th stage of menstrual; (ASSUMING NO IMPLANTATION) LH forming the corpus luteum drops, thus progesterone drops, thus the endometrium is not protected; the Menstrual Flow that begins the follicular phase occurs
Does nuclear fission or fusion release energy?
BOTH
Equation for SIMPLEST GEOMETRY parallel plate capacitance
C = 𝜀0(A/d); 𝜀0 is the permeativity of free space (8.85•10^(-12) F/m), A is the area of overlap of the plates, d is the separation of the 2 plates A is the area of the plates, and d is the distance between the plates. ɛ is a constant called the permittivity, which determines how easily the air between the plates allows an electric field to form. If a different insulating material is used inside the gap, this constant will have a different value, and so materials with a higher value of this constant generally make better capacitors.
Capacitance after dielectric material added equation
C' = 𝜅C, C' is capacitance after, C is original capacitance
What are the volumes of blood entering and leaving the heart?
Constant; blood in = blood out (i.e. through vena cavae and arteries), despite the non-constant flow rates elsewhere
________________ mirrors and ________________ lenses are converging, whereas ________________ mirror and ________________ lenses are diverging
Converging = concave mirrors and convex lenses; Diverging = convex mirrors and concave lenses
Einstein's energy-mass equivalence
E = mc²; a tiny amount of mass yields a huge amount of energy due to the 10^8 exponent (squared!) of c
What is Smooth (SER)? What 3 things does SER do?
ER with No ribosomes 1) LIPID SYNTHESIS (e.g., phospholipids for membranes), 2) DETOXIFICATION of drugs/poisons, 3) - Transports proteins RER --> Golgi
What is the work to lift an object USUALLY? What is the force to lift it using a machine?
Fg = mg usually; LESS than Fg is using a machine (pulley, ramp, etc.)
What is on the inside of the spine: grey or white matter?
Grey matter (unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites)
Negative-Pressure Breathing is...
HOW WE BREATHING! Pressure inside lungs in decreased such that air spills in
What is the structure of ER?
Has INVAGINATIONS
What can atmospheric pressure affect IN the body?
HbA's binding affinity to oxygen, the boiling point of liquids, etc.
𝛼-particle
Helium nucleus: 2 protons, 2 neutrons, 0 electrons
How many natural frequencies do strings have? What does this depend on?
INFINITE; depends on length, linear density, and tension
Is inhalation an active (you control it) function? Exhalation?
Inhalation = yes, Exhalation = no, unless you force it to be via internal intercostal muscles & abdominal muscle to forcefully exhale
Type-I Diabetes
Insulin-dependent; caused by autoimmune destruction of 𝛽-Islets of Langerhans resulting in low insulin; require insulin injections to prevent hyperglycemia
What is the regenerative capacity of the human heart?
Low; heart attacks result in scarring
Summary of Neuron Resting membrane potential
Na+ is constantly flowing IN and K+ OUT with their gradients (trying to achieve +60mV and -90mV); to keep the membrane at -70mV, Na+/K+ ATPase pumpKin (and Na+( out against the gradients
torques that generate clockwise motion are considered_______ torques that generate counterclockwise rotation are considered___________
Negative positive
in SI: what is the derived unit for force (N) what is the derived unit for Work and Energy (J) what is the derived unit for power (Watt)
Newton [kg*m/s^2] Joule [kg*m^2/s^2] Watt [ kg*m^2/s^3]
If a patient hyperventilates and raises blood pH, they resist treatment, and all of a sudden their blood pH drops and they slow breathing, is this good?
No - they are having respiratory failure due to exhaustion from hyperventilation; they're breathing slower and their blood is acidifying
Does an electric potential of 0 mean a charge will not move?
No; moving is based on electric potential energy and voltage (electric potential DIFFERENCE), so it may or may not move depending on these factors
Are the 3 definitions (Totipotent, Pluripotent, Multipotent) completely accurate?
No; there are no clear definitions; potency exists on a spectrum
Do 𝛼-particles pass through things?
No; very large and thus collide/interact with matter
Does the MCAT require physics-based calculus?
Nope.
Units of pressure + conversions
Pascal (Pa); N/m^2; other common ones: mmHg (= torr), atm; 1.013•10^5 Pa = 760mmHg (torr) = 1atm
If the same physician sees 2 groups of patients, one receiving treatment and told of side-effects with actual side-effects, and the other receiving a treatment told of side-effects with no side-effects, and the Physician notes the ones with the real drug get 'way more side-effects', what effect is this?
Physician un-blinding; the physician knows which group is getting the real treatment and should be getting side-effects, and thus can report that
Shortcut of equivalent resistance of n resistors in parallel
Rp = R/n, where n is the number of identical resistors
The 3 Ss of corticosteroids (of the adrenal cortex)
Sugar (glucocorticoids), Salt (mineralocorticoids), Sex (cortical sex hormones)
Human-bacteria relationships (3)
Symbiotic relationships: Mutualistic Commensalism or parasitic
If a block is suspended by 2 ropes, what are the forces acting?
T1 T2 and Fg; note T1 + T2 = Fg is it is not accelerating (translational equilibrium)!
Chemical potential energy
The energy stored in the bonds of compounds
What sex chromosome do ova carry?
X
What signifies that work has been done on a volume of gas?
a change in volume has occurred from applied force
ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
a hormone produced by the heart that regulars water-salt balance; promotes excretion of Na, thus water follows, thus increases urine volume; antagonistic to aldosterone, lowering blood volume without affecting osmolarity
Withdrawal Reflex
a polysynaptic reflex arc; when stepping on a nail, a monosynaptic reflex tells your foot to yank away, but it becomes polysynaptic as interneurons synapse with the sensory neuron and tell the other leg to balance you
Convex mirror
a popped-out mirror centre of curvature & radius of curvature are BEHIND the mirror Diverging because they cause parallel light rays to diverge when they reflect
Conjugation (cells)
bacterial sexual reproduction (mating)
Nodes of Ranvier
bare spots with no myelin along an axon that allow rapid signal conduction
What does the Outer Membrane of mito do?
barrier between cytosol and inner mitochondrion
Prostate Gland
basifies the seminal fluid (along with seminal vesicles)
Blood-Brain Barrier
controls the transmission of solutes from bloodstream to nervous tissue; made of the glial cells "Astrocytes"
Gas to solid name
deposition
Chromatic Aberration
dispersive effect with a spherical lens where, depending on the thickness of the lens, white light may be split significantly which can result in a rainbow halo around images; this is corrected in cars/lenses with a coating that has different dispersive qualities than the lens at the edges
Components of vectors?
each vector *V* has an x- and y-component where the *V* is the hypotenuse
Cytokinesis
end of telophase; the splitting of cytoplasm and organelles between daughter cells to survive
𝛼-Islets of Langerhans
endocrine cell grouping in the pancreas; release GLUCAGON
𝛽-Islets of Langerhans
endocrine cell grouping in the pancreas; release INSULIN
How airplane's take off
engine thrust air back; the top of the wing is curved and the bottom is flat, so air must travel farther over the top wing, meaning to maintain constant flow, it moves faster according to Bernoulli's equation, there is more force (pressure) exerted by the slow air on the bottom of the wing, which pushes the plane wings up!
Total Electric Potential
in the presence of many charges, the total electric potential is just the sum of the scalar quantities of the electric potentials
How do metatherians (marsupials; koalas, kangaroos) give develop their young?
in the uterus, then climbs to birth canal, into marsupium (pouch)
2 types of reflex arcs
monosynaptic and polysynaptic
Physics behind inhalation
negative-pressure breathing: INTRATHORACIC VOLUME INCREASES → Thus INTRATHORACIC PRESSURE DECREASES → Lungs were at 1atm which is now higher P than thoracic cavity, therefore they expand → Lungs DECREASE PRESSURE, thus air is sucked in from outside to equalize the pressure
Type-II Diabetes
non-Insulin-dependent; receptors of insulin are resistant; partially genetic and partially environmental (high carb diet decreases sensitivity over time); oral medication can allow the body to make use of insulin it produces, but insulin injection if this doesn't work
Viscous Drag
non-conservative force (like air resistance) that saps energy from an object moving through a viscous liquid
Cross-sectional Studies
observational studies looking at different groups at the same point in time (e.g., how many smokers and non-smokers have cancer RIGHT NOW?)
Episomes
plasmids that are capable of integrating into the bacterial genome
Newton's second law:
states that any acceleration is the result of the sum of the forces acting on the object and its mass [ *F*net = m*a* ] *F*net : net force m: mass *a* :acceleration
Acrosome
the cap that covers a sperm's head (genes); derived from Golgi; necessary to penetrate ovum
In work, what component of force actually does work?
the component PARALLEL (antiparallel) TO THE DISPLACEMENT VECTOR
Specific Gravity
the density of a fluid compared to pure water at 1atm and 4˚C (the combo where water is 1g/cm^3); AKA: the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard, usually water for a liquid or solid, and air for a gas. SG = 𝜚/(1g/cm^3); note this is the same as the g/cm^3 density just without units (make sure to convert if the density is in kg tho)
Neurulation
the development of the nervous system after the 3 germ layers; NS comes from the ectoderm remember; Notochord (rod of mesoderm cells) forms along the axis of the organism (primitive spine); it induces the top ectoderm cells to slide inward to slide in and form neural folds surrounding the neural groove; 2 neural folds fuse into neural tube = the CNS; neural crest cells that were at the peaks form PNS & disparate tissues; more ectodermal cells cover the tube in the end
Magnification (m)
the dimensionless ratio of image:object distance (& ratio of the size of the object in both senses); m = -i/o
Propagation
the direction of energy transfer of a wave; the direction it is moving
Focus Length (f) (mirror)
the distance between the Focal Point (F) and the mirror; all spherical mirrors have f = r/2
Alpha Decay
the emission of an 𝛼-particle (Helium nucleus: 2 protons, 2 neutrons, 0 electrons); double the charge of a 𝛽-particle and WAY larger; massive and thus interact with matter (don't really pass through things)
Synaptic Cleft
the empty space b/t neurons' axon terminal and dendrites into which neurotransmitters are released; diffuse across and bind to dendrites
Alveoli
the endings of the bronchioles; balloon-structures that exchanges air; covered in a surfactant (detergent) that lowers surface tension and prevents it from collapsing; covered in capillaries that carry O2 and CO2
Thyroid? 2 roles?
the endocrine gland controlled by TSH from anterior pituitary; on the front surface of the trachea: 1) Sets basal metabolic rate (which allows proper development too), 2) Calcium homeostasis
Third Law of Thermodynamics
the entropy of a perfectly organized crystal at absolute zero is ZERO
Perpendicular Bisector of a Dipole
the equipotential line that lies halfway between +q and -q in a dipole, 90˚ to the dipole line;, i.e. cos𝜃 = 0, SO THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ANYWHERE ALONG THIS LINE IS 0; makes sense as any point is equidistant between q1 and q2
Spherical Aberration
the errors (blurring) of the periphery of an image as a result of inadequate reflection/refraction of parallel beams at the edge of a mirror/lens (imperfection in the device), resulting in multiple images & them not joining at the focal point; appears BLURRY!
IR Spectroscopy
the organic chem technique to determine chemical structure; works because diff bonds absorb diff wavelength
Gestation
the period from conception to birth
Cell Cycle
the reproductive cycle of a eukaryotic cell; deranged = cancer
Internal Resistance (r(int))
the small but measurable resistance present in conductors; USUALLY YOU CONSIDER CELLS PERFECT ON THE MCAT AND WITH NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE it slightly drops the voltage! (e.g., drops emf!); smaller than theoretical emf value
Capacitors in Parallel
total capacitance INCREASES with # capacitors; it is the SUM of the capacitances: Cp = C1 + C2 + C3...; voltage is the same across each parallel capacitor
Testes
what the primitive gonads turn into in males); 2 parts: 1) Seminiferous Tubules 2) Interstitial Cells of Leydig
Destructive Interference
when 2 wave's crests + troughs are PERFECTLY in line and they reduce the resultant amplitude
Principle of Superposition
when 2 waves overlap, the displacement of the resultant wave is the sum of the 2 other waves' displacements; constructive or destructive interference
How are neurotransmitters released?
when the AP reaches the axon terminal, voltage-gated Ca2+ ion channels open and flood the axon, which triggers fusion of the membrane-bound neurotransmitter vesicles to the membrane to exocytose, and they diffuse across the synapse to the dendrites
Acromegaly
when the SMALL bones (awkward hands, feet, head) in adults grow in response to excess GH (large ones cannot as epiphyseal plates are shut)
When is milk released from a mother's breasts?
when the baby latches onto it
Vaginal Canal
where sperm is deposited during sex; connected up to the cervix (lower part of the uterus)
Dipole Torque equation
𝛕 = pEsin𝜃; p is the magnitude of the dipole moment, E is the magnitude of the external electric field, 𝜃 is the ANGLE THE DIPOLE MOMENT MAKES WITH THE ELECTRIC FIELD; TORQUE WILL MAKE P ALIGN WITH ELECTRIC FIELD E
What is the relationship between 𝛼 (coefficient of linear expansion) and 𝛽 (coefficient of volumetric expansion?
𝛽 = 3𝛼
'New' Sound Level equation
𝛽 = 𝛽i + 10log(If/Ii), where If and Ii are the initial and final sound intensities, and 𝛽i is the initial sound level
Dynamic Pressure Term (Bernoulli's Eqn)
(1/2)𝜚v^2; pressure associated with the movement of a fluid; Kinetic Energy divided by VOLUME (as 𝜚 = m/V)
Early Developmental Stages (6)
(FCBIGN) Fertilization, Cleavage, Blastulation, Implantation, Gastrulation, Neurulation
Foramen Oval
1 of 3 fetal shunts, 1 of 2 for the lungs; 1 way valve connecting right atrium to left atrium; blood flows from inferior vena cava → right atrium → left atrium (NOT RIGHT VENTRICLE TO LUNGS) → aorta (systemic system; AWAY from lungs!); relies on the fact that the fetus' heart has higher pressure on RIGHT side (opposite in adults) to push blood through; this reverses at birth and permanently shuts this 1-way valve
Ductus Arteriosus
1 of 3 fetal shunts, 1 of 2 for the lungs; leftover blood from pulmonary artery → aorta; relies on the fact that the fetus' heart has higher pressure on RIGHT side (opposite in adults) to push blood through; this reverses at birth and permanently shuts this 1-way valve
What happens to a female's primary oocytes every month menarche occurs?
1 primary oocyte per month completes meiosis I (forming a secondary oocyte AND a polar body; unequal cytokinesis leaving almost no cytoplasm for the polar body)
3 types of observational studies:
1) Cohort, 2) Cross-sectional, 3) Case-control
3 Classification of Magnetism of a Material
1) Diamagnetic, 2) Paramagnetic, 3) Ferromagnetic
2 Patterns of current flow
1) Direct Current (DC), 2) Alternating Current (AC)
Classifications of Hormones by Target Tissue
1) Direct Hormones 2) Tropic Hormones
The six simple machines
1) Inclined plane 2) Wedge 3) Wheel and axle 4) Lever 5) pulley 6) screw
What are the 3 places endosomes can send things to?
1) Lysosome (degradation), 2) Trans-Golgi, 3) Cell Membrane
2 Categories of Conductivity
1) Metallic Conductivity, 2) Electrolytic Conductivity
What are the 3 states of Na+ channels when an action potential fire?
1) Open (when depolarized to -50 ish mV) 2) Closed (when +35mV is reached) 3) Inactive (between the time the neuron is at +35mV until it returns to rest @ -70mV), briefly hyperpolarized into a refractory period as K+ close
Classifications of Hormones by Chemical Structure (3)
1) Peptide Hormones, 2) Steroid Hormones, 3) Amino-Acid Derivative Hormones
How to draw a convex Ray Diagram (3)
1) Rays parallel to the axis 'go through' the mirror to the focal point behind it (and reflect off diverging), 2) Rays hitting the axis point 'go through' to the centre of curvature, 3) Rays 'going to the focal point' behind the mirror do so, but technically reflect off parallel
PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)
1) an antagonist to calcitonin to raise blood Ca levels by a) decreasing excretion of calcium in kidneys, b) increasing absorption in gut via vit D, and c) increasing bone resorption which frees Ca; produced by Parathyroid Glands, 4 pea-sized structures on the posterior of the thyroid; decreased release as blood Ca increases obviously ; 2) Phosphate homeostasis via increasing resorption from bone (freeing up) AND reducing reabsorption from kidneys (peeing out), 3) Activates vit D (absorbs Ca)
Things our body would do to adjust to a low-O2 env (e.g., high altitude)(4)
1) breathe faster to get more O2 (since less O2/breath picked up), 2) oxygen gets lower affinity for hemogl and unloads at tissues easier due to decreased CO2 conc'n in blood, 3) Short-term: body makes more RBCs, 4) Long-term: body vascularizes (more vessels)
What are 2 ways a capacitor can discharge?
1) charge released ACROSS the 2 plates or 2) charge released through a conductive material the plates are in contact with (e.g., wires)
What 2 effects does stimulation of the nipple (sucking) have on a mother's hypothalamus?
1) it releases oxytocin from post. Pitui., which contracts smooth muscle of breast to eject milks; 2) hypo stops sending PIF to anterior pituitary to replenish milk supply
Collections of cells within organs that act as endocrine, but are not endocrine organs (4)
1) kidneys, 2) gastrointestinal glands, 3) heart, 4) thymus
2 Cases of Wires (flowing charge) & their magnetic fields on MCAT
1) long, straight wires & 2) circular wires (field strength in the middle)
8 Steps of the scientific method
1) make a testable questions, 2) gather data/resources (get big info), 3) form a hypothesis (if-then explanation) of our prediction, 4) Collect new data: experiment, observe, 5) Analyze data (mathematical trends), 6) Interpret data & hypothesis (new hypo needed?), 7) Publish (peer review too), 8) Verify (repeat experiments)
IN GENERAL how peptide, and steroid hormones work:
1) peptide are short-lived and bind to receptors to activate secondary messenger, 2) steroid bind to intracellular receptors (conformationally change and are active) and bind to DNA to alter transcription
2 Methods for Calculating Magnitude of Electric Field at a point in space
1) place test charge q at some point, and define it as the ratio E = Fe/q (sucks because you need a test charge present which isn't always possible); 2) using the magnitude of the source charge and picking a distance, use E = kQ/r^2
Properties of Resistors that affect resistance (4)
1) resistivity, 2) length, 3) cross-sectional area, 4) T; seen in equation R = pL/A
What are the 2 microtubule organizing centres of the cell?
1) the centrioles, 2) the BASAL BODY of flagella or cilia
What allows "recoil" of the lungs so they exhale smoothly? (2)
1) the elastic nature of the lungs and 2) the surfactant quality of the alveoli
What criteria make a cell "embryonic stem cell"?
1) they have the markers and 2) they can undergo several rounds of division and prove they've immortal
How long are 1) a string, 2) a pipe open at both ends, 3) a pipe closed at both ends relative to the wavelengths of the standing waves passing through them?
1)2): both a multiple of 1/2 𝜆 long, 3) an ODD multiple of 1/4 𝜆
Ferromagnetic Materials
1/3 magnetism labels unpaired electrons, so atoms have a NET magnetic dipole moment, but random orientation of them causes no net magnetic field PERMANENT atomic magnetic dipoles that are normally randomly oriented, but are STRONGLY magnetized in an external field/certain Ts; Fe, Ni, Co, Bar Magnets
Cortical Sex Hormones
1/3 steroid hormones from the adrenal cortex; 1) Androgens (lesser importance in males and the testes already produce lots of testosterone, but are sensitive in females because their ovaries produce little) and 2) Estrogens; e.g., if male females adrenal cortex was out of wack in fetus and produced more androgens, males would be okay, but females would get masculine genitalia; same situation for males and cortex estrogen production
Glucocorticoids
1/3 steroid hormones from the adrenal cortex; 1) regulate GLUCOSE LEVELS and 2) affect PROTEIN METABOLISM; include cortisol and cortisone; CRH from hypo and ACTH from ant.pit. control release
6 pulleys, effort is now ______ total load
1/6 total load (6 times amount of rope, efficiency will decrease due to weight of pulleys and friction)
For Lensmaker's Equation 1/f = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2), when the radii of curvature are equal length but on opposite sides, the equation becomes...
1/f = (n-1)(-2/r)
Mirror equation that connects focal length, object distance, image distance, and curvature radius
1/f = 1/o + 1/i = 2/r (all distances must be same units) SAME USED IN LENSES
How many layers of myelin do oligodendrocytes produce?
10-150 layers
Number of virion progeny assembled
100s-1000s
Lowest 'intensity' of sound humans can hear? perforates eardrums?
10^(-12) W/m^2 (produced by 1 billionth of a centimeter oscillation) 10^4 W/m^2
Prefix: deci
10^-1, d
1 Calorie = ? Joule conversion
1cal/4.184J (SMALL c)
Specific Heat of Water (MUST KNOW FOR MCAT!)
1cal/g*K = 4.184J/gK
Density of water
1g/mL OR 1000kg/m^3
1 Pound = ? Newton conversion
1lb/4.45N
First Trimester
1st part of gestation; major organs develop in first weeks, heart beats at 22 days, eyes/gonads/limbs/liver form, grows in length, cartilage skeleton hardens into bone (week 7), organs/brain ~done at 8 weeks; NOW A "FETUS"
Water Breaking
1st phase of birth; cervix things, amniotic sac ruptures
Number of Vocal Chords
2 of them; inside the larynx
When does a fetus begin moving in the amniotic fluid?
2nd trimester
When does a fetus' fingers and toes elongate?
2nd trimester
When in gestation does a fetus undergo extreme growth?
2nd trimester; ends up at about 30-36cm at week 7 AND 3rd trimester (grows even more)
Shunts (fetal)
3 blood vessels that carry blood AWAY from a fetus' liver/lungs (because they are underdeveloped and sensitive to high blood pressure) as they develop; 2 for the lungs, 1 for liver
How to draw a concave Ray Diagram (3)
3 important rays to draw: 1) Rays parallel to the axis/normal line FOR CONCAVE reflex back through the focal point, 2) Rays that pass through the focal point FOR CONCAVE reflect back parallel to the axis, 3) Rays that hit where the axis meets the mirror (centre) reflect back with 𝜃i = 𝜃r
Once a male reaches sexual maturity, what is the rate of sperm production until he dies?
3M/day
Parathyroid Glands? 2 roles?
4 pea-sized structures on the posterior of the thyroid; released PTH (parathyroid hormone, 1) an antagonist to calcitonin to raise blood Ca levels by decreasing excretion of calcium in kidneys, increasing absorption in gut via vit D, and increasing bone resorption which frees Ca, and 2) Phosphate homeostasis via increasing resorption from bone (freeing up) AND reducing reabsorption from kidneys (peeing out), 3) Activates vit D (absorbs Ca)
If in 2 liquids sitting on top of each other with air above, at the bottom of the first liquid the gauge pressure is 3atm, and at the bottom of the second liquid the absolute pressure is 8atm, what is the gauge pressure at the bottom of the second?
4atm; since Pg = Pa - Po; the atmospheric pressure from the perspective of the bottom liquid is 4atm (since the absolute/total pressure at the bottom of the 1st liquid is 4atm, 3atm gauge + 1atm atmospheric); 8atm - 4atm = 4atm
Length timeline of an embryo
5 weeks @ 10mm; 6 weeks @ 15mm
1 Mile = ? feet conversion
5280ft = 1 mi
Number of bacteria on earth
5x1030; outnumber all plants and animals combined
Log(A)1 =
= 0
Log(A)A =
= 1
Index of Refraction in a vacuum
= 1, since n = c/v = c/c = 1
Square roots of 2 and 3 (to memorize)
= 1.4, and = 1.7
Permittivity of Free Space (𝜀0)
= 8.85•10^(-12) C^2/N•m^2; used in the equation k = 1/4π𝜀0 that is used in Coulomb's Law Fe = kq1q2/r^2
LogA^B =
= BlogA
LogA / Log B =
= Log(A - B)
Log(A x B) =
= logA + logB
Scalar * scalar = Vector * scalar = Vector * scalar =
A scalar multiplied by a scalar will produce another scalar. For instance, distance divided by time is equal to speed, which is a scalar A vector multiplied by a scalar is representative of the scalar product or the dot product and will always produce a vector. Vector multiplied by a vector is representative of the vector product or the cross product and will produce a vector or scalar.
Cell Theory 3 original tenants + 1 molecular biology tenant added later
All living things are made of cells, Cells are the functional unit of life, Cells arise only from pre-existing cells + Cells carry genetic info as DNA; passed from parent to daughter cells
Cortical sex hormones & disorders
Androgens have lesser importance in males and the testes already produce lots of testosterone, but are sensitive in females because their ovaries produce little, e.g., if male females adrenal cortex was out of wack in fetus and produced more androgens, males would be okay, but females would get masculine genitalia; same situation for males and cortex estrogen production
Infinitely Long, Straight current-carrying wire Magnetic Field Strength equation
B = 𝝁0I/2πr; 𝝁0 is the Permeability of Free Space (4π • 10^-7 Tm/A), r is the distance from the wire, I is the current, B is strength in Tesla
If an object that usually appears red is under a pure green light, it will appear...
BLACK, because only green light is present, which is normally a colour it would absorb
What is Fahrenheit actually used for on the MCAT? What is the value?
BODY TEMPERATURE; 98.6F or 37C
Where do the white/grey matters of the brain/spine lie relative to each other?
Brain = grey outside, but spine = white outside; INVERTED
How does a synapse allow 2 neurons/cells (e.g., neuron to muscle) to communicate?
CHEMICALLY (neurotransmitters)
The trachea and bronchi are __________ to catch debris that made it past the nose/mouth
CILIATED
Motion Path of a charged particle in a magnetic field & equation
CIRCULAR! Can find the radius of this circle by equating Centripetal Force to Magnetic Force; Fc = Fb; mv^2/r = qvbsin𝜃
Divisions of the nervous system
CNS vs PNS; CNS = spine + brain, PNS = somatic + autonomic; autonomic = sympathetic + parasympathetic
Which cells produce myelin & in which division of the nervous system?
CNS: oligodendrocytes; PNS: Schwann Cells
What is the potential difference for an action potential in the same type of neuron?
CONSTANT; the same types of neurons need the same Vm to fire an AP
Intermediate Filament Roles
Cell-Cell Adhesion, Maintain cytoskeleton, ANCHOR organelles (e.g., nucleus); resist INSANE tension; cell rigid
Spherical mirrors have 2 important properties: ________________, the point on the optical axis located at distance equal to the 2nd property: ________________
Centre of Curvature & Radius of Curvature
Centrioles? major component? structure? function?
Centrioles found in the part of cell called CENTROSOME; structure: 9 TRIPLETS of microtubules with a HOLLOW centre In mitosis, migrate to either pole, organize MITOTIC SPINDLE KINETOCHORES connect microtubules to chromosomes; exert force and rip them apart
4 Regions of the Spinal cord (descending)
Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral
What is DNA condensed into?
Chromosomes are condensed DNA which exist within; wrapped around HISTONE proteins
First Law of Thermodynamics
Conservation of (mechanical) Energy; energy is never created or destroyed, just changed forms; accounts for all energy, not just Ek and Ep like total mechanical energy does (e.g., if something experiences friction, it loses its energy as heat and does not violate the law)
What is the structure of the Golgi Apparatus?
Consists of stacked membrane-bound sacs
What do Peroxisomes contain?
Contain HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
SI Unit of Charge
Coulomb (C); ampere•second
Epithelial Tissue (7)? 3 functions? joined by what? mostly constitute the?
Covers body and lines cavities protect against PATHOGENS and DISSICATION Certain organs do: absorption, secretion, sensation; Acts as a COHESIVE UNIT; joined by layer of CONNECTIVE TISSUE called BASEMENT MEMBRANE Diverse; fxn depends on organ; Mostly form PARENCHYMA; the functional part of the organ (E.g., nephrons in kidney = epithelial, E.g., hepatocytes of liver, E.g., acid-producing stomach cells); Polarized (1 side faces a lumen (hollow part of organ/tube/outside), 1 side faces underlying blood vessels/structural cells; E.g., Small Intestine, 1 side = absorption of nutrients in lumen; other = release them into blood)
In a Venturi system, how can you increase the pressure in the column (e.g., if you want to attach it to a piston)?
DECREASE speed; since according to Bernoulli's law (where you ignore pgh), you can decrease the dynamic pressure to increase the absolute pressure term!
In hypoxia, hemoglobin's binding affinity for O2...
DECREASES and unloads at tissues easier hypoxia = not enough oxygen in the blood (aka: hypoxemia) and thus not enough oxygen going to the organs of the body (too high CO2)
Portion of virus inserted
DIFFERENT depending on the virus; enveloped fused an insert whole virus, whereas bacteriophages insert only genes
What must a capacitor be able to do in order to be useful?
DISCHARGE
What does the Eukaryota nucleus contain?
DNA
Telomeres
DNA 'caps' on the ends that reduce loss of genetic info + DNA unravelling (high G and C makes them "knots")
How many membranes does ER have?
DOUBLE membrane
Magnitude of electric field on the perpendicular bisector of a dipole
E = 1/4π𝜀0 • p/r^3; vectors point OPPOSITE TO p-> as defined by physicists
Magnitude of an Electrical Field Equation
E = Fe/q = kQ/r^2 in N/C; Q is the magnitude of the source charge and q is the magnitude of the test charge in the field, k is the electrostatic constant; IT'S A VECTOR
Elastic Potential Energy Equation
Ee = 1/2 kx^2 (k is the spring constant, a measure of stiffness; x is the magnitude of displacement)
Efficiency (equation)
Eff = W(out)/W(in) = (load)(load d)/(effort)(effort d); can also x100% to get a percent; also analog for "USEFUL WORK" (any work lost/inefficiency is from non-conservative force) a machine produces; 100% = all its work is useful; DO NOT FORGET TO USE THIS IF EFFICIENCY IS <100%, BECAUSE THE EFFORT FORCE WILL BE GREATER!!!
Gravitational Potential Energy Equation
Eg = mgh
Kinetic Energy Equation
Ek = 1/2 mv^2
The maximum kinetic energy a photoelectrically ejected photon can have is equal to... =
Ekmax = hf - hft; hft = W, is the 'Work' function where ft is the threshold frequency
How do endosomes relate to lysosomes?
Endosomes transport, package, sort material from the membrane and cooperate with lysosome to destroy stuff
Electrical potenial energy
Energy presents in objects in which positively and negativley charged particals are seperated
Potential energy in centripetal motion
Ep is ALWAYS THE SAME; e.g., object circling earth has same Ep everywhere
4 TISSUE TYPES
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous
Meiosis II
Equational Division (SIMILAR AF TO MITOSIS): separation of sisters without a change in ploidy
If you double the amplitude of a sound wave, its intensity will increase by a factor of __________
FOUR, since I ∝ A^2
Liquid to solid name
FREEZING or solidification
An equation that describes circular motion is
Fc = (mv^2)/r m: mass v : speed r: radius of the circular path,
The FINER Method (acronym)
Feasible (financially/time-wise/ability to gather the resources)? Interesting (doesn't matter if no one cares)? Novel (if your researched answered the Q, don't experiment)? Ethical (keep needed methods ethical)? Relevant (outside of scientists, to REAL people)?
If the distance to lift something = the displacement to lift something, what force is required? What needs to change for less force?
Fg (lifting it against gravity); not that increasing the DISTANCE greater than the displacement will make it LESS THAN FG!!!
Gravitational force between two objects:
Fg = (Gm1m2)/ r^2 *G* = universal gravitational constant = 6.67x10^-11 Nm^2/kg^2 *m1, m2* = masses of the two objects *r* = distance between their centers of mass.
Weight (Fg) Equation using DENSITY
Fg = 𝜚Vg p = density V = volume g = acceleration due to gravity
What is the force required to push a block up a ramp?
Fgsin𝜃; the parallel component of gravity that becomes Fnet/Fa
How to find Binding energy?
Find mass defect (expected - actual mass) and plug into E=mc^2 equation c= 3*10^8 or c^2 = 932 MeV/amu
What is the Fnet of a sinking object?
Fnet is down, as Fg > Fbuoy
Relative Refractory Period
GREATER THAN USUAL amount of stimulation/depolarization needed to fire AP again (as the membrane starts more negative than it usually is, since it's hyperpolarized in refractory period)
In an airplane, why does the plane lift upwards in terms of pressure/fluid dynamics?
Greater pressure is created underneath due to lower velocity and higher velocity is on top and thus has lower pressure The pressure is greater underneath the wing and lower at the top -> the pressure moves upward from high to low pressures -> causes a lifting force upwards
What is on the outside of the brain: grey or white matter?
Grey matter (unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites)
Resistance level of insulators
HIGH
(The Doppler Effect) when the listener and emitter are moving towards each other, the pitch/frequency perceived is...
HIGHER, since sound waves are 'compressed'
What is contained in lysosomes?
HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES; breakdown MANY substrates; ingestions of endocytosis, cellular waste
Bacteria cell membrane location
INSIDE cell wall; phospholipids like a eukaryote
What happens if golgi tells something to be secreted?
If product is to be secreted, vesicles FUSES WITH CELL MEMBRANE and exocytose
Why will a baseball moving to the right spin counterclockwise instead of clockwise for best motion?
If the ball is moving to the right, the streamlines are moving to the left. By spinning counterclockwise, the spin and the streamlines match up to create a greater velocity on the top, but they cancel each other out on the bottom for a lesser velocity. Difference in velocity will result in difference in pressure. The baseball will experience a lower pressure on the top with the increased velocity and higher pressure from below with the reduced velocity, and hence the ball will experience an upward lift.
How to determine if an electron will be ejected?
If the frequency is greater than the threshold frequency OR Energy calculated (E=hf) is greater than the Work barrier and thus overcomes it
Work symbols for a gas-pressure chamber
If the gas expands, its work is positive and the surrounding's work is negative If the gas compresses, its work is negative and the surrounding's work is positive
Mendel's Second Law
Independent Assortment; inheritance of one allele of a gene has no effect (IS INDEPENDENT) on the inheritance of another allele of a gene on different chromosomes explained by cross-overs
Describe the relationship between intensity and distance
IntensityA/intensityB = (rB/rA)^2 Intensity is in W/m^2
_________________-sized nuclei are the most stable, implying their binding energy is...
Intermediate-sized; binding energy is the LARGEST (give off the most energy to become the most stable when their nucleus forms)
Friction
Is a force that opposes motion as a function of electrostatic interactions at the surface between two objects. friction forces always oppose an object's motion and cause it to slow down or become stationary.
Distance (d)
Is a scalar quantity that reflects the path traveled. *scalar*
Force (*F*) The SI unit for force?
Is a vector quantity pf any push or pull that has the potential to result in an acceleration. Newton which is equivalent to kg*m/s^2
Gravity
Is the attractive force between two objects as a result of their masses. is an attractive force that is felt by all forms of matter.
What are the 4 thermodynamic processes of gases the MCAT uses (and how does the 2nd law thermodynamic eqn change for them)?
Isobaric (constant P, no equation change) Isovolumetric (constant V, W = 0) isothermal (constant T, ΔU = 0) adiabatic (no heat exchange, Q = 0)
K+ and Na+ concentrations in a neuron relative to each other
K+ high conc'n inside neuron, Na+ high conc'n outside neuron
Scientific SI UNIT temperature scale?
Kelvin; an SI unit! (1 of 7)
4 proteins of intermediate filaments
Keratin, Desmin, Vimentin, Lamins
SI units: Length Mass Time Current Amount Temp Luminous Intensity
Length:........................meter (m) Mass (not weight): ........kilogram (kg) Time: ..........................second (s) Current: ......................ampere (A) Amount of a substance: mole (mol) Temperature: ...............kelvin (K) Luminous Intensity:.......candela (cd)
Columnar Epithelia
Long and thin
What is Lung Elastic Recoil? Why is it important?
Lung Recoil is the elastic property of the lung that allows exhalation to happen and opposes inhalation; it is important to exhale properly
LH and FSH in puberty
Luteinizing Hormone & Follicle Stimulating Hormone; released from anterior pituitary once the hypothalamus starts producing GnRH; they both trigger the production of other sex hormones that make/maintain the reproductive systems
What does the lysosomal membrane do to prevent enzymes from damaging cells?
Lysosomal membrane sequesters (keeps away) the enzymes to PREVENT DAMAGE to cell
What is the regenerative capacity of the human kidney?
Moderate; can replace nephrons with tubule damage, but CAN be overwhelmed and have kidney failure
Absolute Refractory Period
NO amount of stimulation can fire another AP
Viruses organelles
NO organelles or nucleus
Does the posterior pituitary produce hormones?
NO! ADH and oxytocin are produced in hypothalamus and simply released from PP
Do we need a test charge to calculate electric potential?
NO! V = kQ/r = U/q
Will the lungs fill passively?
NO, they require our skeletal muscles to generate negative pressure for them
Is low power a reason to reject a statistically significant result?
NO.
What happens to a dipole if the electric field its in is suddenly reversed?
NOTHING! the dipole moment vector is already in line with the field, is the field flips 180˚, it's STILL in line with the field!
Describe the force diagram for an object submerged in water and being held up by a string? If was accelerating upwards?
No speed: T + Fb - mg = 0 -> T + Fb = mg Accelerating: T +Fb - mg = ma
Can energy be transferred from a cooler to hotter object?
No, not spontaneously; not unless WORK is done on the cooler object
Do telomeres lengthen?
No, they are difficult to replicate; therefore each DNA division shortens them
What allows material exchange for nucleus?
Nuclear Pores allows selective 2-way exchange of material, cytoplasm --> nucleus
Monosynaptic Reflex Arc
ONE synapse between the sensory neuron and the responding motor neuron, e.g., knee-jerk reflex
When does a fetus use its lungs?
ONLY after it is born; never in the womb (it receive O2 from its mother via diffusion, but not blood mixing, instead)
Static Pressure (Bernoulli's Eqn)
P + 𝜚gh; same equation for absolute pressure except z is not h (below below/above a certain point)
Lens Power
P = 1/f, measure in diopters (1/meters)
When using Bernoulli's Equation and a question refers to something as "Pressure" what variable is it referring to?
P; the absolute pressure
How exhalation occurs
PASSIVE; just relaxing the muscles (diaphragm, external intercostal muscles) creates higher pressure in the intrapleural space, thus the lungs (at 1atm) push air out; made active using internal intercostal muscles & abdominal muscle to forcefully exhale
What is the charge (+ or -) of a flowing current?
POSITIVE! Must remember this for Right-Hand Rule for magnetic force on a wire
Prototherians (monotremes), e.g. buck-billed platypus and echidnas, e.g. spiny anteater both perform ________
Perform OVIPARITY; encase their developing embryos in hard-shelled amniotic eggs and lay them to be hatched
What is the ETC/Oxidative Phosphorylation? How does it happen?
Protons pumped Matrix --> IMS = PROTON MOTIVE FORCE, flow back through ATP Synthase to produce ATP in oxidative phosphorylation
The Cytoskeleton
Provides cell structure, shape + Transports material around cell
Continuity Equation
Q = v1A1 = v2A2; the linear speed of fluid flowing changes accordingly with the change in area it passes through to maintain a constant flow rate!; mass must be conserved in a fluid system
Further Cell History? what did they find about its structure? tissues?
Researchers learned you could separate cells distinctly; Found tissues were made of cells; function of tissue depends on functions of its cells
The Belmont Report's 3 modified 'ethical tenants' for human research:
Respect, Justice, Beneficence
To determine the direction of magnetic force on a moving charge...
Right Hand Rule #2; thumb in the direction of the velocity of the charge, fingers in the direction of the field, and your PALM points in the direction of the magnetic for a POSITIVE CHARGE, and the back of your hand is the direction for a NEGATIVE CHARGE
Sine, Cosine, Tangent mnemonic
SOH CAH TOA
What are the frequency equations for: String Open pipe Closed pipe
String: f = nv/2L Open pipe: f = nv/2L Closed pipe: f = nv/4L
What is the purpose of hydrophilicity/phobicity of membranes?
Surface electrostatically interacts with hydrophilic cytosol and interior of organelle; Inner membrane is hydrophobic; HIGHLY SELECTIVE passage
Gram positive cell wall structure
THICK peptidoglycan (polymer of AA and sugars)
2 types of dipoles
TRANSIENT (e.g., VDWF) or PERMANENT (molecular bond dipole)
Types of hormones (in general) that the hypothalamus releases
TROPIC hormones, because they do not cause action, but cause the release of other hormones that do it
What 4 factors affect speed of sound?
Temperature Pressure Composition Density
Potential energy (types)
The energy stored within a system. Types: 1) Gravitational 2) Electrical 3) Chemical 4) Elastic
Effort
The input force of a simple machine, which acts over an effort distance to determine the work input of the simple machine
on the graph of velocity vs. time the tangent to the graph at any time t, which corresponds to the slop of the graph at that time, indicates:
The instantaneous acceleration in other words, the derivative of the velocity function with respect to time is the instantaneous acceleration. because by definition the slope of the tangent line is the derivative.
Load
The output of force of a simple machine, which acts over a given load distance to determine the work output of the simple machine.
Power? unit? equation?
The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. The SI unit for power is watt (W) Power = Work/ time = Energy/time
Efficiency
The ratio of the machines work output to the work input when nonconservative forces are taken into account.
How do the object's mass/density tie into buoyant force?
They don't; buoyant force is only dependent on V of fluid displaced and the fluid's density; note that density affects whether or not the buoyant force produced will be enough to float the object (object must have a lower average density than the fluid) F = pVg
True Voltage (considering r(int)) equation
V = E(cell) - i•r(int); E(cell) is the emf of the cell, i the current through the cell, and r(int) is the internal resistance
Ohm's Law
V = IR; V is the voltage drop, I is the current, R is the magnitude of resistance; resistance causes a drop in electrical potential due to loss of energy; VOLTAGE LOSS IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE CURRENT
Liquid to gas name
VAPORIZATION or boiling or evaporation
Disturbing an object in any way will cause it to...
VIBRATE
To increase flow rate (Q), the __________ passing through the aperture must increase. (in a cylinder of fluid)
VOLUME ex: increasing the hole size ex: increasing velocity
In a Slit-Lens System, the narrower the slit, the _________________ the central bright spot
WIDER
A cell provides a current of 0.5A in a circuit with a 3𝛺 resistor. If internal resistance is 0.1𝛺, what is the voltage across the terminals when no current flows?
We know when 0.5A flows through this circuit normally with the 3𝛺 resistor, this would mean 1.5V exists using Ohm's Law V = IR. This INCLUDES the internal resistance. SO V = E(cell) - i•r(int) E(cell) = 1.5V + 0.5A•0.1𝛺 E(cell) = 1.55V
Other than the Strong Nuclear Force, the _________________ force also contributes to nucleus stability, but is _________________ (fraction) as strong as the former
Weak Nuclear Force; one one-millionth
What would be a reason to analyze 2 peaks of a bimodal distribution separately?
When there is something qualitatively different about them; e.g., this plot that shows difference b/t men and women
Male sexual development: fetal (9 weeks+)
Y chromo produces androgens, differentiating fetus as male; androgen production drops after
Do fetuses get any blood to their liver?
YES! Although Ductus Venosus shunts blood Umbilical Vein → inferior vena cava to bypass the liver, the HEPATIC ARTERTIES still supply some blood
Are lysosomes membrane-bound?
Yes
Can you see what sex your kid is early in pregnancy? How?
Yes; only BLOOD TEST for their DNA though; ultrasonography can find out but only at 16-17weeks where the res is high enough
Mature Ovum
a VERY large cell with large quantities of cytoplasm and organelles (1/4 viable ones from oogenesis); contributes nearly everything to the zygote (1/2 DNA, all of cytoplasm + organelles (including mitochondria! None from sperm, RNA for early processes)
Archimedes' Principle
a body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid with be buoyed upwards by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces; Fbuoy = 𝜚(fluid)V(fluiddisplaced)g OR = 𝜚(fluid)V(submergedV)g when an object is submerging, it will only submerge up to the point where the volume of fluid it has displaced has the same weight as it; if this does not happen by the time the whole object submerges, it is denser than the fluid and will accelerate to the bottom
Static Electricity
a buildup of static charge on the surface of something more significant in low humidity as the charges remain separated
Nerve
a bundle of neurons in the PNS; either SENSORY, MOTOR, or MIXED function; can carry diff types of info
Concave Mirror
a caved-in mirror centre of curvature & radius of curvature are IN FRONT OF the mirror Converging; because they cause parallel light rays to converge when they reflect
Critical Speed (Turbulence)
a certain speed of fluid flow depending on viscosity, diameter of tube, etc. that, when exceeding, will launch turbulent flow: vc = Nr𝜂 /𝜚D
G1 Restriction Point
a checkpoint (aka G1-S); check DNA of a cell before it passes from G1 to S Checks for: cell size, growth factors, nutrients, mechanical cues, dna damage
Circulatory System (from physics perspective)
a closed loop with non-constant flow rate due to valves, gravity, and elastic structure of vessels
If an outlier suggests that data won't follow a normal distribution...
a larger data set or repeated sampling will determine if this data actually DOESN'T follow normal
Equipotential Lines
a line on which the electric potential at every point is the same; ΔV = 0 between any 2 points and no work needed to move the charge (electric = conservative force); CONCENTRIC CIRCLES AROUND THE SOURCE CHARGE (i.e. spheres in real life); independent of path taken
Interkinesis
a possible short rest period between meiosis I and meiosis II; chromosomes may partially uncoil
Thermodynamic Processes
a process where P, T, and V of a system changes
Na+/K+ ATPase
a pump at returns K+ to the inside of the cell (high conc'n) and Na+ to outside of the cell (high conc'n) (AGAINST THEIR GRADIENTS)
Wedge
a simple machine that is 2 merged inclined planes
Screw
a simple machine that is a rotating inclined plane
What are the alveoli coated in? Why?
a surfactant (detergent) that lowers surface tension and prevents it from collapsing
Surface Tension
a thin, strong layer of liquid forms at the interface between a liquid and a gas due to cohesion
Productive Cycle (progeny release)
a virus that releases through extrusion, thus keeping the host productive
Travelling Wave
a wave that is moving/propagating, even if not physically moving anywhere (e.g., a string tied to something)
How can you increase the energy of a system?
add heat, do work from the surrounding on it ONTO the system(-W sign)
How to calculate the electric potential for any random point P when a dipole (2 equal and opposite charges separated by distance d) is present nearby
add the scalar electric potentials (V - kq1/r1 - kq2/r2); r1 is distance to +q1, r2 is distance to -q2, distance to the midpoint of d is r; 1) IF r >>> d, then r1 = r2 so r1r2 = r^2, and r1-r2 = dcos𝜃, so V = kqdcos𝜃/r^2 (where 𝜃 is the acute angle the r line makes with the horizontal)
Sensory Neurons
afferent; sensory info from receptors to spine and brain
Tumours
aggregations of cancer cells because of the rapid cell divisions
"3-organ systems"
aka "AXES" of the body; commonly involve the hypothalamus, pituitary, and a target organ that do NEGATIVE FEEDBACK (with the product of the organ having receptors in the hypothalamus to stop)
Generalizability
aka External Validity; some statistic from a Sample is generalizable to a WHOLE POPULATION
Dielectric Materials
aka INSULATION; air, glass, plastic, ceramic, metal oxides
Nares (respiratory)
aka the nostrils; where air enters the respiratory system; sends to nasal cavity
Resistance level of conductors
almost none
The number of electrons emitted by the photoelectric effect is directly proportional to the ________________ of the light wave (permitting the light is at the threshold frequency)
amplitude
Hyperthyroidism
an excess of thyroid hormones due to 1) tumour or 2) over-stimulation; OPPOSITE of hypothyroidism; increased body T, increased respiration/heart, heat intolerance, weight loss
The internal vs external intercostal muscles are ________ to each other...
antagonistic; internal = forced exhalation, external = regular inhalation
How is a fetus protected against pathogens that somehow get past the placental barrier?
antibodies may pass through and defend; fetus is immunologically naïve and can't do it itself (has never been exposed to/prepped against pathogens)
How to determine if a point is an outlier using IQR
anything more than 1.5xIQR below Q1 or above Q3 are outliers
Kirchhoff's Loop Rule
around any closed circuit LOOPS (not the whole circuit), the sum of voltage sources = the sum of voltage (potential) drops: V(source) = V(drop); i.e. energy must be CONSERVED, no excess energy appears, no electrical energy disappears that cannot be accounted for, just transformed between forms
If an object experiences friction, where is that kinetic energy lost?
as heat
5 Types of glial cells
astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, oligodendrocytes & Schwann Cells
Bacteria vs eukarya ribosomal subunits
bacteria 30S and 50S subunits, vs eukarya 40S and 60S
Bacterial Exponential Growth Phase (Log Phase)
bacteria adapted, and exponentially increase in number
Bacterial Lag Phase (Bacterial Growth cycle)
bacteria adjust to new environment
Number of flagella
bacteria can have 1, 2, many (depends on species)
Human cells number versus bacteria number
bacteria in our body outnumber our cells 10:1
the coefficient of static friction will always be _______ compared to the coefficient of kinetic friction
be larger than the coefficient of kinetic friction. It always requires more force to get an object to start sliding than it takes to keep an object sliding.
Why do salamanders and newts have crazy regenerative abilities (Complete Regeneration)?
because they retain LOTS of stem cells; they will migrate to the appropriate part of the body and trigger regrowing; can do Complete Regeneration!
The Menstrual Cycle
between menarche and menopause, estrogen and progesterone rise and fall cyclically and the endometrium forms and sheds; 4 phases (follicular, ovulation, luteal, menstruation)
Senescence
biological aging of an organism due to molecular and cellular changes, disrupted metabolism; cellular/organismal changes ACCUMULATE and lead to death
True Electric Vector direction vs Field Lines
can be the same or opposite; if the test charge is positive, then the 2 lines are the same (point away from a + source), if negative, they are opposite, the field lines point away from a + source, but the true vector directs it inwards
Closed Systems
can exchange ENERGY but NOT MATTER with the surroundings; e.g., gas and piston
Estrogen feedback loops
can have both + and -- feedback!
FSH in female puberty
causes secretion of estrogens from the ovaries; establishes the female reproductive system, thickens the ENDOMETRIUM of the reproductive tract each month and secondary sex characters (boobs, hips, fat distribution)
Overall things that lead to aging
cellular/organismal senescence + chemical/environmental insults
Metaphase
centrioles at opposite ends, chromosomes aligned by Spindle Apparatus at Metaphase (Equatorial) Plate
Anaphase II
centromeres divide, separating the chromosomes into sisters, pulled to the poles
Metaphase II
chromosomes line up at metaphase plate
Trachea
ciliated (dust-catching) cartilage tube that leads to the 2 bronchi
Supraspinal Circuits
circuit that require action from stuff HIGHER than the spine to function; i.e. the brainstem or brain
Viral genetic material
circular or linear; ss or ds; DNA or RNA
3 common classifications of bacteria by shape
cocci, bacilli, spirilli
Venturi Flow Meter & The Venturi Effect
combines Bernoulli + Continuity Equations (area vs pressure): 2 tubes with same average height (therefore constant 𝜚gh on both sides of Bern's Eqn); If the tube narrows, (1/2)𝜚v^2 (dynamic pressure) increases as speed increases, 𝜚gh stays the same as the average height of the tube stays the same, and therefore P (absolute pressure) must drop to compensate; thus, from point 1 to point 2, 2 colums sticking up go from HIGHER to LOWER fluid level since P lowers, which is an indicated of depth of liquid
Why are most organelles membrane bound
compartmentalize their function
first law of thermodynamics
conservation of mechanical energy, energy is never created nor destroyed it is transferred from one form to another
Fluids with LOW viscosity and LAMINAR flow are...
conservative (energy) systems! Technically all liquids have SOME viscous drag, but we ignore it in the calculations
Is electrostatic force conservative or non-?
conservative; moving a charged particle around the field of a source changes U and V independent of the pathway; no energy lost to outside, all kept in the system
Bacteria mitochondria
contain NONE; use their cell membrane from ATP synth
Bacteria cytoskeleton
contain cytoskeleton; much less complex than eukarya
Negative Controls
controls that check for NO CHANGE IN DEPENDENT variable when not expected (e.g., treating blood with no HIV with HIV drug to make sure no response OR checking a brain damage detector on ppl WITHOUT brain damage)
Positive Controls
controls that check for change in the dependent variable when expected (e.g., testing an HIV drug on cells known to have HIV, should produce result OR checking a brain damage detector on ppl with brain damage)
How is the datum/0J point of Eg chosen?
convenience; sort of just base it off where an object will fall (pencil onto desk, or person onto ground)
How to determine if a point is an outlier using SD
data more than 3 SD away from the mean are outliers
Prolactin
direct horm'n released by the anterior pituitary in response to nothing (PIF/dopamine inhibits from the hypo it tho); stimulates milk production in mammary glands (in males, this would be a disease)
Vector quantities include:
displacement velocity acceleration force others.
Scalar quantities include
distance, speed, energy, pressure, mass
Why does our circulatory system have non-constant flow rate?
due to valves, gravity, and elastic structure of vessels
When does temperature NOT change? (thermodynamics)
during a PHASE CHANGE
Fundamental Unit of Charge
e = 1.60•10^(-19) C; this is the charge of a proton (when q = +e) and the charge of an electron (when q = -e)
Maps (Data)
easily show geographic clustering for data; best ones = 1-2 pieces of information, any more is confusing CATEGORICAL
Motor Neurons
efferent; motor info from brain and spine to muscles and glands
𝛿-Islets of Langerhans
endocrine cell grouping in the pancreas; release SOMATOSTATIN
What happens when energy is distributed out of system at a given temperature
entropy decreases; ΔS < 0
What happens when energy is distributed into a system at a given temperature?
entropy increases; ΔS > 0
Retroviruses
enveloped ssRNA viruses in family Retroviridae; usually contains 2 identical RNA molecules; RNA --> DNA which integrates into host
Exhaustive Outcomes
exhaustive = there are defined possible outcomes, not infinite; e.g., flipping heads or tails is exhaustive because 2 outcomes
Continuous Variables
exist on a spectrum; e.g., weight, etc.
Work-Energy Theorem
expression of relationship between work and energy; ALL the forces acting on an object TOGETHER will work on it to change its kinetic energy: Wnet = ΔEk = Ek2 - Ek1; this is the same as the first law of thermodynamics: ΔEp = Q - W (MAKE SURE THE SIGNS ARE RIGHT IN YOUR WORK!!!)
Female Reproductive Anatomy
fallopian tube, ovary, endometrium, cervix, uterus, vagina
"FAST" and "SLOW" stress-response hormones
fast = EPINEPHRINE/NOR, slow = CORTISOL
Ovaries
female gonads; produce estrogen and progesterone
By default, what sex are all fetuses? How does it change?
female; SRY locus on Y chromo must activate to differentiate into a male (defeminize & masculize) at 6-8 weeks post-fertilization
What is the BIGGEST difference between the male and female reproductive organs?
females are INTERNAL, males are EXTERNAL
3 pieces of a flagella
filament, basal body, hook
Direction of current flow
from HIGH to LOW potential energy; i.e. "Positive Charge" flows from high to low potential, but true Negative Charge flows from low to high potential; direction of current IS OPPOSITE TO THE DIRECTION OF TRUE ELECTRON FLOW
Where do you measure a liquid with a meniscus?
from the BOTTOM if it's concave and from the APEX if its convex
The sun is powered by nuclear _________________; it fuses 4 _________________ nuclei in to 1 _________________ nucleus and produces _________________ joules/second via _________________
fusion; 4 hydrogen into 1 helium (2 H released); 3.85x10^26 J/s; mass defect energy
CCK and Gastrin + Glucagon
gastrointestinal hormones that INCREASE glucagon release
Transposon inserted in coding region causes the _____________ to be disrupted
gene is disrupted!
Factors affecting the impact of a teratogen
genetically-specific reaction to the embryo (not the same interaction with each), length of exposure, route of exposure, rate of placenta transmission of teratogen, identity of teratogen affect the outcome
-Sense rna
genome is a template
Cells that use telomerase
germ cells, fetal cells, tumour (cancer) cells
Islets of Langerhans
groupings of cells throughout the pancreas that perform endocrine/hormone release; e.g., alpha, beta, delta cells that each secrete their own product
What is the force of acceleration on an inclined plane?
gsin(theta)
What is the ploidy of germ cells?
haploid (n); one copy of each chromosome
Unenveloped virus hardiness
harder to sterilize; persist on surfaces for LONG time
Similarities between bacteria and eukarya and medicine relevance
have similar cells structures; therefore medicine can have trouble targeting them exclusively (although some have enough biochemical difference to target even if super similar, e.g. bact vs eu flagella chemically, e.g. target small bact ribosome)
Anaphase I
homologous pairs separated and pulled to opposite poles (DISJUNCTION)
Respect (ethical research)
honesty to the subject, Informed Consent (inform them of the procedures: means, risks/benefits, goal, choice to participate & have them consent), no coercion (e.g., from the power imbalance, financial incentive that's beyond compensation), let them stop participating, let them withdraw consent, keep things Confidential
All atomic nuclei exhibit mass defect except...
hydrogen
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
if object a is in thermal equilibrium with object b, and object b is in thermal equilibrium with object c, then objects a and c are also in thermal equilibrium (Transitive Property: if a = b and b = c, a = c); no NET heat flow between the objects
Cancer cells & proteases/angiogenic factors
if the cancer cell develops the ability to use proteases and factors that make blood vessels, they will digest the basement membrane or sequester a blood supply, the will invade local and distant (metastasis) tissue through blood and lymph vessels
Dipole Torque
in the absence of another electric field, a dipole axis assumes any random orientation, but in a uniform external electric field, the +q and -q of the dipole experience force by the field equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on each, causing TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM, not ROTATIONAL, and NET TORQUE ON THE CENTRE OF THE DIPOLE 𝛕 = pEsin𝜃 TORQUE WILL MAKE P ALIGN WITH ELECTRIC FIELD E AKA: An object with an electric dipole moment is subject to a torque τ when placed in an external electric field. The torque tends to align the dipole with the field. A dipole aligned parallel to an electric field has lower potential energy than a dipole making some angle with it.
PAX6 Growth Factor
in the ectoderm of the head; optic vessel releases PAX6 to develop the lens, which cascades a signal from the lens to develop the optic vesicle → cup → retina
Where does human egg fertilization occur?
in the fallopian tubes
In a parallel circuit, if 1 branch of current splits in 2, and 1 branch has double the resistance of the other, what is the division of current that will flow?
in the higher resistance branch: 1/2 the current; comes directly from Ohms Law V = IR as V is constant
As the density of a medium increases, the speed of sound passing through it...
increases
Purpose of bacterial genetic recombination
increases their genetic diversity, allowing EVOLUTION
Cortisol's effect on catecholamines
increases them; i.e. increase epinephrine/nor
Polydipsia
increases thirst in diabetics due to frequent urination because glucose is in pee (hyperglycemia causing it to be peed out), since glucose cannot cross cell membranes and thus the osmolarity drags water into the nephron with it
Virus Life Cycle when attacking - 4 steps
infection, translation, progeny assembly, progeny release
Plane mirrors can be considered curved mirrors with ________________ and ________________ ...
infinite radius of curvature & infinite focal length
How do chromosomes appear in interphase?
invisible to a light microscope; less condensed as CHROMATIN so they can be read by RNAP
Speed (v)
is the rate of actual distance traveled in given unit of time. *scalar*
What is Autolysis?
is the release of the enzymes --> results in APOPTOSIS of cell too; DIRECTLY degrade cellular components
Velocity (*v*)
is the vector representation of the change in displacement with respect to time. *vector*
During the first trimester of pregnancy, what happens to the production of progesterone?
it CEASES to be produced by the corpus luteum as it atrophies, and BEGINS to be produced by the placenta
If nuclear fission releases MORE neutrons, this means...
it can cause nuclear fission in OTHER nuclei; these are reactions important to nuclear power plants
How far will an object submerge according to Archimedes' Principle? What does it mean if it fully submerges?
it will only submerge up to the point where the volume of fluid it has displaced has the same weight as it; if this does not happen by the time the whole object submerges, it is (on average across its body) denser than the fluid and will accelerate to the bottom
Rectilinear Propagation
light travels in a straight line if passing through a homogenous medium
Fetal structures that do not function before birth
lungs and liver
Asters
microtubules that come off the centrioles during prophase and anchor the centrioles to the cell membrane
What is Cytoplasmic/Extranuclear Inheritance? (mito)
mito transmitting genes INDEPENDENT of the nucleus
What creates a magnetic field? (3)
moving charges; 1) single charged things (e.g., an electron), 2) a current (wires), or 3) by permanent magnet
What is the cell #/nucleus of eukaryotes?
multi or uni, nucleus present
Number of natural frequencies an object can have & relation
multiple; can be unrelated ('noise'-y sounds) or whole-number ratios (with a fundamental pitch, multiple overtones) that sound 'musical'
To calculate Q1...
multiply n (number of data points) by ¼, and if the result is an even number, Q1 is the value of this position & the next highest's mean; if that was a decimal, round up to the nearest whole number position, and take the mean of this and the next highest position
Pathogenic/parasitic relationship w/ bacteria
no advantage to us; cause disease
What do we assume about pulley systems?
no energy lost to external force (friction); it's very small anyways
Does damping affect the pitch of sound?
no, never, just the amplitude
Is work 100% efficient?
no, some is lost as heat (think about yourself heating up when exercising)
When non-conservative forces act on a system, is the law of conservation of energy broken?
no, the energy is simply transferred outside the system
Prokaryote organelles are membrane or non-membrane bound?
none membrane-bound
Are any processes truly reversible?
nope, we can only approximate them
Telophase II
nuclear membrane reforms around each nucleus, cytokinesis for 2 daughters
Case-control Studies
observational studies where you look at people with a certain Outcome, and look back to correlate with risk factors (e.g., look at cancer patients, and see that a lot of them smoked)
Theoretical Growth Line (Bacterial Growth cycle)
on the bacterial growth curve, represents what would happen if resources were not limited
Isovolumetric
or isochoric If volume stays constant as pressure changes then no work is done because there is no area to calculate on the P-V Curve
When 2 incident rays that are parallel to each other hit a plane mirror, when they reflect they are ________________ to each other
parallel to each other (still!)
Name endings of peptide/amino vs steroid hormones
peptide/amino = -in or -ine ex: oxytocin, calcitonin, GnRH, CCK gastrin, insulin, glucagon, ACTH, gastrin parathyroid hormone steroid = one/ol/oid ex: testosterone, progesterone, cortisol, aldosterone, estrogen,
Growth Factors
peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis of a certain tissue; common inducers; usually specific af to cells with certain competence and thus code for that tissue to grow (e.g., PAX6 in the ectoderm of the head that induces the optic vessel releases PAX6 to develop the lens, which cascades a signal from the lens to develop the optic vesicle → cup → retina)
Lungs: Blood pH Control
performed by lungs, which balance CO2 which dissolves in blood as carbonic acid: Bicarbonate Buffer System (CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-) to keep the blood at 7.35 to 7.45 pH
Observational Studies
performed when it would be unethical to experiment with something (e.g., does smoking cause cancer? - don't make ppl smoke, just observe the correlation between having smoked and cancer); NOTE: CANNOT DEMONSTRATE CAUSALITY, but can tend towards it
work done by a system
positive
Lungs: Gas Exchange Function
primary function; blood arrives to capillaries at alveoli from pulmonary arteries (away from heart, deoxygenated) and returns to heart via pulmonary veins (to heart, re-oxygenated) and gases exchange due to pressure differentials
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease caused by?
prion-caused disease in humans
Confidence
probability of correctly accepting null hypothesis
Power
probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis; equal to (1- β)
What is the equation to determine the amount of energy needed to get a substance to their melting/boiling/desired temperature?
q = mcΔT
What is the only mode of heat exchange that occurs in a vacuum?
radiation
The order of the electromagnetic spectrum, from low E/long 𝜆/low f
radio waves ➝ microwaves ➝ IR ➝ visible ➝ UV ➝ x-rays ➝ gamma rays
Purpose of F factor
rapid enabling of ability to pass genes (e.g., antibiotic resistance) because OTHER things other than the F factor also pass through the bridge
Nuclear fission is _________________ spontaneous, but it can happen by a nucleus absorbing a...
rarely; low-energy neutron
Polysynaptic Reflex Arc
reflex arcs with AT LEAST 1 interneuron between the sensory and motor neuron that cause a reflex, e.g., withdrawal reflex
Lenses differ from mirrors because lenses ________________ light whereas mirrors ________________ it
refract; reflect
CRF (Corticotropin-Releasing Factor)
released by hypothalamus; causes release of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) from anterior pituitary
Stationary Phase (Bacterial Growth cycle)
resources become limited, slowing reproduction
Insulin
secreted by 𝛽-Islets of Langerhans when blood glucose is high (antagonistic to glucagon); inducers MUSCLE and LIVER cells to uptake glucose and store it as glycogen, even fat and protein synthesis
first condition of equilibrium
simple a reiteration of Newton's First Law: states that an object will remain at rest or move with a constant velocity if there is no net force on the object
Nuclear Fusion
small nuclei combine into larger nuclei;
Viroids
small pathogens of a short, circular ssRNA; infects PLANTS; bind to many RNA sequences and silences plant gnome, preventing synthesis of proteins, metabolic/structural damage
According to dispersion of light, each wavelength of light have a slightly different ________________ when passing through a new medium, based on a difference in ________________ affecting them; this can be seen in equation...
speed; index of refraction; n = c/v, because if n changes, v must change
The only numbers you should not put in scientific notation on the MCAT are...
square roots
When 2 like waves travel towards each other and interfere....
standing waves produced when 2 like waves travel towards each other and interfere, creating antinodes (alternating amplitude) and nodes (always 0 amplitude)
Open Pipes support ________ waves, and both open ends form_______, and it follows the equation...
standing waves; antinodes; 𝜆 = 2L/n
LH in male puberty
stimulates interstitial cells to produce testosterone
Solids
substances that do not flow and are rigid; retain shape independent of their container
Zona Pellucida
surrounds the oocyte itself; acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and allow sperm to bind
Factors that can cause problems for embryo development
teratogens, mother's health
Hemizygous
term used to describe males for many genes on their X chromo; they only have 1 copy (if these are diseased, males automatically have the disease as opposed to females)
Hypothesis Testing
testing if a DIFFERENCE between 2 populations is true, starting w/ the null hypothesis (Ho) i.e. no difference, to be true; via z- or t-tests
Effector (nervous system)
the "postsynaptic cell" that receives signals that is NOT a nerve cell; e.g., glands muscle
The FINER Method (use)
the 'method' to determine if your scientific research will 1) add to scientific knowledge in a practical way and 2) if it will occur in a reasonable amount of time
To achieve mechanical advantage, what is increased?
the DISTANCE (NOT displacement) that the force is applied (think about W = F∙d; to increase W when F is lowered, DISPLACEMENT must be increased; pathway independent)
Despite flow rate being constant in a tube, what is variable?
the LINEAR SPEED of molecules; their speed can be different depending on where you are in the tube
Dual origin of the adrenal gland
the MEDULLA is from the ectoderm (contains nervous tissue that ectoderm makes) and the CORTEX is from the mesoderm; THE MCAT LOVES TO TEST THIS DIFFERENCE
Range
the absolute difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set; range = x(max) - x(min); note does not consider number of points or central tendency or outliers so it will be VERY affected by outliers MEASURE OF DISTRIBUTION
if slope is negative in a velocity-time graph,...
the acceleration is negative (deceleration) and is in the direction opposite of the velocity.
if slope is positive in a velocity-time graph,...
the acceleration is positive and is in the direction of the velocity
Summation
the additive effect of multiple excitatory/inhibitory signals acting on a neuron; the axon hillock will sum them up and decide whether or not to fire an action potential
Action Potential
the all-or-nothing message that decides to transmit a signal down an axon or not; if the threshold is simply reached, an action potential is launched, and the neuron transmits a signal
Sex pilli (cells)
the appendage that forms the conjugation bridge; comes from the donor male bacteria
Adhesion
the attractive force of molecules of a liquid to the molecules of another substance; e.g., windshield droplets, meniscus (greater adhesive than cohesive forces)
Instantaneous acceleration is defined as:
the average acceleration at Δt approaches zero. *a* = lim Δ*v*/Δt ......Δt—>0
Sound Intensity
the average rate of energy transfer per area (W/m^2) across a surface perpendicular to a wave
What embryonic structure becomes the anus in deuterostomes?
the blastopore (the opening to the archenteron in a gastrula); in deu's it becomes the place for "number deux"; pooping
Vertebral Column
the bone that protects the spine; holes between project spinal nerves out
Thermal Expansion (Solids and Liquids)
the change in VOLUME of liquid from change in temperature: ΔV = 𝛽VΔT (beta is the coefficient of volumetric expansion; constant per material that characterizes ΔV)
Synapse
the combined name for the nerve terminal, the synaptic left, and the postsynaptic dendrite
lever arm
the distance between the applied force and the fulcrum is termed the lever arm
Image Distance (i) (mirror)
the distance between the image and the mirror
Object Distance (o) (mirror)
the distance between the object and the mirror
Wavelength (λ)
the distance from crest-to-crest of a wave
Displacement (x) of a point on a wave
the distance it is from the equilibrium position (baseline of the wave), expressed as a vector
Effort Distance
the distance you must pull a rope to lift a pulley to a certain load distance; EQUAL TO TWICE THE DISPLACEMENT (i.e. 2 ropes on a pulley must BOTH come to that height)
Scrotum
the external pouch that holds the testes that hangs below the penis ; maintain a T of 2-4℃ below body temperature
Dielectric Constant (𝜅)
the factor by which capacitance goes up if you place a dielectric (insulative) material between 2 plates of a capacitor; directly measures INSULATING ABILITY = 1, by definition, of a VACUUM can take >1, since an insulator can never decrease the capacitance
Electric Field
the field of electric attraction/repulsion around a charged object (same thing as an object with mass exerting a gravitational field); Source Charge (Q) & Test Charge (q) (placed somewhere in the field around the source) used for drawings; Vector Equation E = Fe/q = kQ/r^2
Interphase
the first 3 stages of the cell cycle; G1, S, G2; 90% of the cell life (longest)
Axon Hillock
the first little bit of the neuron axon that comes off the cell body; it INTEGRATES the incoming signals; decides whether or not to transmit the signal as action potential (if the sum of the excitatory & inhibitory signals reaches the threshold)
Current
the flow of POSITIVE charge (technically negative charge is the only thing that flows); I = Q/ΔT (charge/second flowing) measured in amperes (C/s)
Seminal Fluid
the fluid sperm is mixed with as it passes through the male productive path
Buoyant Force
the force created by a liquid to push up a body that has displaced it to return to place; IT ONLY DEPENDS ON THE LIQUID, NEVER THE OBJECT'S DENSITY/MASS if 2 objects displace the same V of fluid, their Fbuoy is the same, regardless of mass/density
At terminal velocity
the force of gravity and air resistance are equal, leading to translational equilibrium
Effort
the force required to lift an object on a pulley; is evenly distributing among the ropes' tensions; in INPUT force necessary
Spermatogenesis
the formation of haploid sperm from spermatogonia via meiosis in the seminiferous tubules
Urethra
the fusion of the 2 ejaculatory ducts; carriers sperm out the penis as it exits the body
Archenteron? becomes what?
the invagination that forms in a blastula to from the gastrula; becomes the GUT; blastopore = opening of the Archenteron
Dynamic Pressure
the kinetic energy of a flowing liquid; this is a term in Bernoulli's Equation
'Real' reflected image
the light converges at the position of the image
Blastocyst
the mammalian name for a blastula (hollow ball of cells coming from the morula)
Pleurae
the membranes that surround each lung; closed sac which the lung expands against ; 2 layers: visceral (the one that touches the lung) & parietal (the one that faces out into thoracic cavity); has Intrapleural Space: the space between the lungs and the pleurae that contains fluid
How does viscosity correlate with energy loss?
the most viscous the fluid, the more energy it loses as it flows
Mucociliary Escalator
the motion of cilia pushing mucous up our airways to spit or swallow
Tetrad
the name for 2 homologous chromosomes with each their 2 sister chromatid forming a pair during synapsis in prophase I
Morula
the name for an embryo after several divisions; a solid mass
Pronucleus (reproduction)
the name of a sperm when it fuses to the ovum
Mass Defect (Atomic Nucleus)
the nucleus is NOT the sum of protons + neutrons, it's slightly smaller that mass is converted into energy according to E = mc^2, which reflects a drop in energy for stability of the nucleus in the form of mass AKA: Mass defect is defined as the difference between the mass of a nucleus, and the sum of the masses of the nucleons of which it is composed
When a force is applied to increase the amplitude of vibration of an object, but it hits the max amplitude and you try to force it above...
the object will break, like singing & glass shattering
Uniform circular motion
the only force is the centripetal force, pointing radially inward. The instantaneous velocity vector always points tangentially. in uniform circular motion, the instantaneous velocity vector is always tangent to the circular path
Resistance
the opposition in a material to the flow of charge (sort of like friction for electricity)
Kingdom of Monera
the original domain of life that contained for archaea and bacteria
Ectoderm
the outermost primary germ layer of the gastrula; becomes the "Integument": epidermis, hair, nails, epithelia of nose, mouth, lower anal cavity + the eye lens, the nervous system, the adrenal medulla, the inner ear; Mnemonic: ecto-attracto; becomes things that attract us to other people (looks, smarts via NS, a$$)
Homologues
the pairs of like chromosomes; 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in the cell (from mom and dad); THEY ARE SEPARATE CHROMOSOMES UNLIKE SISTER CHROMATID
Piston
the part of a gas cylinder that presses a gas to apply pressure
Primary Germ Layers
the part of the gastrula that used to be the blastocoel; now is 3 layers where cells migrated to; includes ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
What are the C and F temperature scales based on?
the phase changes for water
Total Internal Reflection
the phenomenon in which ALL incident light that should refract into a material are REFLECTED back into the original medium as their angle of incident > 𝜃c
Envelope (virus)
the phospholipid cover with virus-specific proteins that MAY surround the capsid
Sex factors in conjugation
the plasmids that allow a bacteria to form a sex pilus (have those genes)
Chiasma (pl. Chiasmata)
the points of contact of homologous chromosomes in prophase I where they may break apart and exchange DNA
Potency (stem cells)
the power of a stem cell to differentiate into different tissues
Differentiation
the process of changing cells types with selective transcription of the genome; genes for a particular cell type are transcribed via specific transcription factors
Dipole Moment
the product of the charge and separation distance of a dipole in DEBYE (D; C•m); p-> = qd->; a vector, physicists: direction is on the line between the charges with line pointing neg to pos chemists: direction is on the line but pos to neg, with a crosshatch at the negative side to indicate so
Kinetochore
the proteins at the centromeres of sister chromatid that hold them together; spindle fibers attach here in prophase
Timbre
the quality of sound, determined by the natural resonant frequency (a natural frequency that an object can vibrate with, often creating sound) of the object
Depolarization
the raising of neuron Vm from -70mV (closer to 0) by EXCITATORY inputs (as determined by axon hillock); MORE LIKELY TO FIRE AN ACTION POTENTIAL
Interquartile Range
the range (max-min) between the 2 quartiles of a data set; IQR = Q3 - Q1' determines outliers (points that lay more than 1.5 IQRs below Q1 and above Q3
Cleavage (Development)
the rapid cell divisions of the zygote as it moves fallopian tube → uterus after fertilization
Power
the rate of energy transfer from one system to another (e.g., electrical current to heat in your toaster!)
Capacitance (+Equation)
the ratio of magnitude of CHARGE STORED on one plate : VOLTAGE across the capacitor; C = Q/V; units farad The constant C is called the capacitance. It determines how much of a charge difference the capacitor holds when a certain voltage is applied. If a capacitor has very high capacitance, then a small difference in plate voltage will lead to a huge difference in the number of electrons (total charge Q) on the two plates. Once opposite charges have been placed on either side of a parallel-plate capacitor, the charges can be used to do work by allowing them to move towards each other through a circuit. This usually requires them to travel through a circuit (as current) and perform some task, like illuminating a light bulb, along the way. The total energy that can be extracted from a fully charged capacitor is also related to the capacitance and voltage,
Specific Heat (c)
the relationship between heat and temperature of an object; "the amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 gram by 1C or K": q = mcΔT (note T can be C or K it's the same change)
Ovulation (LH definition)
the releasing of an ovum from ovary to peritoneal cavity; occurs in response to a spike in LH during the ovulation phase
Incomplete Regeneration (bio)
the replacement of lost/damaged tissue with DIFFERENT structure/functional tissue
Complete Regeneration (bio)
the replacement of lost/damaged tissue with IDENTICAL tissue
What do the ovaries and testes develop from?
the same embryonic structure; idk what it is
Low generalizability/external validity means that...
the sample had VERY NARROW characteristics that would not make them representative of the Population (e.g., testing people with a disease and only testing people diagnosed recently)
Pressure? si unit?
the scalar ratio of force/area; P = F/A (F is the magnitude of the NORMAL FORCE!!!!); SI Unit: Pascal
Density
the scalar ratio of mass:volume; how we characterize fluids and solids; 𝜚 = m/V (SI unit: kg/m^3)
Metallic Bond
the sea of electrons that flows over a lattice of metal cations; "the equal distribution of the charge of free electrons across all neutrons atoms in a metallic mass"; i.e. how metals conduct electricity and flow electrons
When does hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) level decline?
the second trimester of pregnancy, because it is produced by the blastocyst to produce progesterone to maintain the uterine lining, but at this point the placenta is big enough to produce enough progesterone
What do membrane-bound organelles float in? What does it allow?
the semifluid CYTOSOL; allows the diffusion of molecules through cell
Dorsal Root Ganglia
the sensory neuron cell bodies at the BACK of the spine where the sensation enter the spine
Neuron shape variety
the shape of the neuron matches its function (dictated by how many cells it interacts with etc.); there are LOTS of different neurons (with shared features still)
Parietal Pleura
the side of the pleura (sac for the lungs) that FACES AWAY from the lung into the thoracic cavity; associated with chest wall
Visceral Pleura
the side of the pleura (sac for the lungs) that TOUCHES the lung
Monozygotic Twins (Fertilization Mechanism)
the single zygote formed splits into 2 (same DNA); monochorionic/monoamniotic twins vs dichorionic/diamniotic twins depending on WHEN the separation occur (later = share stuff); the more structures they share the more risks there are to the twins
Intrapleural Space
the space between the lungs and the pleurae that contains fluid to lubricate the lungs
Cell Specialization
the specializing of cells to do specific FUNCTION for the organism; also ordered in a logical way so they can function TOGETHER (e.g., pancreas makes BOTH endocrine hormones and digestive enzymes; producers of digestive enzymes are located where the product can empty into the duodenum, and hormones can dump into a blood vessel); specification, determination, differentiation
What structure BELOW the neck do sensory/motor communication with?
the spinal cord; above you don't need the spinal cord
Diffraction
the spreading out of light as it passes through a narrow opening/around an obstacle; light interferes in characteristic ways (also evidenced that light is a wave!)
Signalling Cascade & Amplification
the steps that occur after the SECOND MESSENGER in hormone action kicks into action; can AMPLIFY the signal (hormones can bind to multiple receptors before they degrade, which can activate several enzymes each, and each produce a secondary messenger, etc.)
Strong Nuclear Force? when is it only active?
the strongest fundamental force; only active at very short distances (couple of nuclei diameters)
Chorion
the structure that arises from the trophoblast of the blastula; extraembryonic membrane that becomes the placenta and cover the amnion
Placental Barrier
the structure that prevents the mixing of mother-fetus blood AND provides immunity
Thermodynamics
the study of flow of energy in the universe (+work, heat, entropy, forms of E)
Electrostatics
the study of stationary charges and forces created/acted by/on them
Total Mechanical Energy
the sum of all potential and kinetic energies of an object: E = Ep + Ek (Ep = Eg + Ee)
Mass Number (A)
the sum of number of protons + neutrons in a nucleus
Lorentz Force
the sum of the ELECTROSTATIC FORCE and MAGNETIC FORCE acting on an object at once
resultant of vectors
the sum or difference of two or more vectors
Amnion
the surrounding of the allantois (embryonic structure that exchanges early fluids between yolk sac and embryo); thin, tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid; absorbs shock (lessens impact of mother moving); covered by chorion for extra protection
Half-Life (T 1/2)
the time is takes for 1/2 of a radioactive sample to decay; asymptotically approaches 0; M - Mo x (1/2)^(# of half-lives)
The amount of time it takes for an object to get to its maximum height is equivalent to
the time it takes for the object to fall back down to the starting height.(assuming air resistance is negligible)
Work
the transfer of energy from one system to another (one of two ways to do so; other = heat), e.g., you roll a ball up a hill, your chemical energy is converted to that object's Eg
Residual Volume (RV)
the volume of air remaining in the lungs when you exhale completely
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
the volume of air the can be FORCIBLY exhaled after a normal exhale
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
the volume of air the can be FORCIBLY inhaled after a normal inhale
Beat Frequency
the volume of sound can vary when 2 sounds of slightly different frequency are produced next to each other; volume changes at a rate based on difference in pitch (periodically increases volume): f(beat) = |f1 - f2|
Ampulla (Fallopian Tube)
the widest part; where the 2˚ oocyte sits where fertilization occurs
Where are early blood cells for an embryo made?
the yolk sac
Remnants of what embryonic structures make the umbilical cord?
the yolk sac and allantois
Why do ships not sink?
their AVERAGE DENSITY (because of air etc., regardless of the steel) is LESS than water!
What determine the flow of heat between 2 objects?
their temperatures; they will try to attain equilibrium (heat flows from higher T object to lower T)
How do stem cells relate to biotechnology?
they are the cornerstone; you add transgenes and transplant and let the stem cells work in an organism
What is the problem created by there constantly being a net movement of Na+ and K+ in/out of the neuron?
they would eventually not be at the resting potential, so there needs to be pumps to keep it at resting potential
Does mean & median mean anything for bimodal distributions, or are they invalid because of the 2 clusters of data?
they're still good in some situations! DO NOT DISCOUNT THEM
Resistance & fluid dynamics continuity equation (A1V1 = A2V2)
this equation describes the change in cross-sectional area and volume; DOES NOT APPLY TO RESISTANCE SITUATIONS
Acrosomal Apparatus
tube-like structure the acrosome of a sperm makes with the cell membrane after penetrating corona radiata + zona pellucida; waits until oocyte completes meiosis II and then releases pronucleus through the cell membrane of oocyte via AcApp
to lift an object to a certain height in the air, one must pull through a length of rope equal to
twice that displacement (but half the force needed)
In lenses, light passing refracts ________________, those times being...
twice; 1st when the light enters the glass lens, 2nd when it exits
P-ring of flagella
under cell wall around basal body
Type III secretion system of flagella
under the inner cell wall
Male Reproductive Anatomy
ureter, urinary bladder, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, ejaculatory duct, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland, urethra, epididymis, testis
Archaea energy sources
use "ALTERNATIVE" sources of energy; some are photosynthetic, but others are chemosynthetic (generate energy from inorganic compounds; S, N/ammonia)
What are uses of conductors (2)?
used in circuits and electrochemical cell
Progeny Release (3 ways)
virions released via 1) cell death (lysing and releasing), 2) lysis from being filled with extreme numbers of virions, 3) Extrusion: fusion to plasma membrane (budding) keeping host a live
A convex diverging mirror forms ONLY images that are ________________, ________________, and ________________, and the farther away the object is, the ________________ the image appears regardless of...
virtual, upright, and reduced; SMALLER; regardless of WHERE the image is placed relative to F
For a concave mirror, an object placed closer than F (focal point) will have an image ________________, ________________, and ________________
virtual, upright, magnified
In general, convex mirror form ________________ images because the image appears ________________ the mirror, and concave makes ________________ images because they are reflected ________________ the mirror
virtual; appears behind; real; reflected in front In general, convex mirror form virtual images because the image appears behind the mirror, and concave makes real images because they are reflected in front of the mirror
Entropy water example
water and ice may have the same T at 0˚C, but water has its energy spread over more microstates, therefore is more entropic!
How Cohesion causes surface tension
water molecules underwater have cohesive force pulling from all sides and it balances out; on the surface, they are not pulled from above; this pulls them down to the centre producing tension in the plane of the surface of the water, and when there is an indentation in the water (from a water strider's foot), there is a net upwards force
What nutrients are transferred to the fetus via DIFFUSION?
water, glucose, AAs, inorganic salts; there are higher pressures of these in maternal blood than fetal blood to make a gradient
When light enters a new medium (new index of refraction), the ________________ changes but the ________________ does not
wavelength; frequency
Webbed fingers and apoptosis
webbing undergoes apoptosis during development to make normal fingers
Constructive Interference
when 2 waves' crests are PERFECTLY in line and add to make a higher wave
Partially Constructive/Destructive Interference
when 2 waves' crests/troughs are not perfectly in line, but there is some net gain/loss of amplitude, respectively
GPCRs and cAMP
when a GPCR is activated, it can activate OR inhibit adenylate cyclase which makes cAMP
When is meiosis II finished for an oocyte? What happens?
when a sperm cell's acrosomal enzymes penetrate both the zona pellucida and corona radiata of an oocyte; split into ONE OVUM and another POLAR BODY
Heat of Transformation
when an object changes phase, the energy is not used to change T (ΔT = 0), but a change in STATE until all of it has changed state (and then T will increase): q = mL (L is heat of transformation/latent heat) Q = THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY NEEDED TO CHANGE THE PHASE OF A SAMPLE W MASS M
terminal velocity
when an object is in free fall and the drag force biomes equal in magnitude to the weight of the object, and the object will then fall with *constant velocity* according to Newton's first law.
Dispersion of light (how it happens)
when different wavelengths of light separate due to difference in speed when refractions: all wavelengths travel at the same speed in a vacuum, but at different speeds through different mediums; index of refraction varies PER WAVELENGTH!
Anterior Pituitary at the start of puberty
when it receives new GnRH from the hypothalamus, it produces FSH and LH; those 2 trigger male and female sex hormones to make and maintain reproductive system
Poiseuille's Law
when laminar flow occurs in a confined space/pipe, rate of flow can be calculated via equation Q = πr^4ΔP/8𝜂L; Q is the rate (V/time), r is the radius of the tube, ΔP is the pressure gradient, 𝜂 is viscosity of the fluid, and L is the length of the pipe; USUALLY TESTS ON RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES
Single-Slit Diffraction
when light passes through a single slit (with width on the order of the wavelength), it will 'spread out' radially (no light/dark spots)
Thermal Equilibrium
when no net heat flows between objects in thermal equilibrium
Sonic Booms (Shockwaves)
when the source of a sound wave moves faster than the speed of sound; special 'Doppler Effect'; sound waves gets compressed in front of the object creating a pressure differential and higher amplitude; releases a high-pressure Shockwave that transitions low-pressure causing Sonic Boom; this can be heard the whole time the object travels faster than sound The sonic boom propagates in a cone shape (this is also called the "Mach cone"). The sonic boom wave can be found as the sides of the cone (the solid lines in the diagram above - the observer will hear the boom when the wave passes them).
What must be input to concentrate energy?
work; you are decreasing entropy (e.g., a fridge does not let energy spontaneously spread inside, it concentrates it outside)
How to estimate a logarithm
write the number being log'd in scientific notation: log(n x 10^m) = m + log(n) = m + 0.n (yes, take the number n and stick it behind a decimal): the closer n is to 0 the closer log is to 0 and the closer to 10 the closer to 1
Electron capture is essentially the reverse of...
𝛽- decay
Law of Reflection
𝜃1 = 𝜃2 the angle incident light hits a reflective surface at is the angle at which it will reflect back into the first medium (𝜃 measured from the NORMAL LINE; the line perpendicular to the boundary between the media)
Critical Angle Equation
𝜃c = sin(-1)(n2/n1)
Wavelength equation for strings & open pipes
𝜆 = 2L/n; vary each by 1/2 wavelength where strings have 2 nodes at the ends, and an open pipe has 2 antinodes at the ends
Typical TLC of the lungs
6-7L
What little structures wrap around each alveoli?
capillaries that exchange CO2 and O2
Conversion between J, Cal, BTU
1 Cal = 4184 J = 3.97 BTU
Least common group of hormones
amino-acid derivatives
Type of pressure that allows the lungs to expand
NEGATIVE pressure
Inviscid
fluids with NO viscosity
Myopia
near-sightedness
Non-disjunction
the failure of homologues to separate, causing genetic diseases
Glands
the organs of the endocrine system that secrete hormones
Capsid (virus)
the protein coat of a virus
How inhalation occurs
"NEGATIVE-PRESSURE BREATHING": active/controlled process: 1) diaphragm flattens 2) external intercostal (rib) muscle putt out → Intrapleural space increases against chest wall, INTRATHORACIC VOLUME INCREASES → Thus INTRATHORACIC PRESSURE DECREASES → Lungs were at 1atm which is now higher P than thoracic cavity, therefore they expand → Lungs DECREASE PRESSURE, thus air is sucked in from outside to equalize the pressure
"High CO2" in blood names
"hypercarbia" or "hypercapnia"
Electric Dipoles
"separation" of 2 opposite and equal charges are separated by distance d; TRANSIENT (e.g., VDWF) or PERMANENT (molecular bond dipole)
Ideal resistance of an ohmmeter
ZERO
Negative Skew
tail on negative/left
the direction (θ) of the resultant is given by:
θ = tan ^-1 (Y/X)
Prefix: deka
10^1, da
Absolute 0, Freezing of Water, Boiling of Water in F
-460, 32, 212
Binary Variables
which only take two values yes/no, better/worse
Only 2 ways energy can be transferred between systems
work and heat
2 ways to transfer energy
work and heat ONLY!!!!!!!!!!!
PV graph
work done on or by a system undergoing a thermodynamic process can be determined by finding the area enclosed by the corresponding pv curve
Closed-Loop P-V Graph
work is the area contained; you end up at your original P and V
What is the equation that related mass and weight:
*Fg* = m*g* Fg: weight of the object m: mass of the object g : acceleration due to gravity 10 m/s
In chemistry, the label 'p' on pH and pKa translated mathematically to...
-log; i.e. pH = -log[H] and pKa = -log(Ka)
Rotational motion
-occurs when forces applied against an object in such a way as to cause the object to rotate around a fixed pivot point
the equation that describes the magnitude of static friction:
0<= fs <= μsN Where μs is the coefficient of static friction N: is the magnitude of normal force.
What is the tension of a rope of someone pulling it with a tree at the other end?
0N
Dizygotic Twins (Fertilization Mechanism)
2 separate oocytes accidentally released and were fertilized by 2 different sperm; each implants on the uterine wall separately, with its own placenta, chorion, amnion; may grow onto each other if they implant too close
Anaphase
2 sister chromatid split apart, each with their own centromere now; Kinetochores depolymerize (shorten) to pull them to the poles
Bronchi
2 tubes that connect the trachea to the lungs
Anatomy/control of vocal cords in the larynx
2 vocal cords controlled by skeletal muscle/cartilage
Range of human hearing & trend across life
20-20kHz; the high end declines with age
Size of viruses (as compared to prokarya and eukarya)
20-300nm; prokaryotes are 1-10microm (larger) and eukarya are x10 larger than prokarya
How many cell divisions (human somatic cells) are performed by a cell before programmed death?
20-50
Third Trimester
3rd part of gestation; 7-8 months; RAPID growth, RAPID brain development, antibodies transported to fetus via highly selective active transport to prepare for protection in outside womb (HIGHEST RATE in 9th month/before birth); growth slows; fetus doesn't move as much (no room!)
Afterbirth
3rd phase of birth; the placenta and umbilical cord are expelled by the vagina after the live birth of baby
Luteal Phase (2)
3rd phase of menstrual; LH causes ruptured follicle shell forms corpus luteum which produces estrogen/progesterone (protects the endometrium) and endometrium maximizes; estrogen and progesterone both very high, progesterone negatively feedbacks GnRH/LH/FSH preventing any more ovulation via LH
Spermatids
3rd stage: what haploid sperm is called after meiosis II
Differentiation (cell specialization)
3rd stage; the cell ACTUALLY differentiates into the cell type with the determination factors, and has the structure/function/biochemistry of that cell type
Solid to liquid name
FUSION or melting
What is the ER continuous with?
CONTINUOUS with nuclear membrane
3 Types of systems
Isolated, Closed, Open
At was day does LH peak in the menstrual cycle? What happens?
LH peaks at day 14; oocyte released from follicle
How many inducers is the average tissue usually exposed to?
MANY as they develop
In a fluid system, ______________ is conserved
MASS
As a slit is narrowed, light diffracts _________________
MORE
Archaea flagella structure compared to bacteria
MUCH different than bacteria
Macroscopic vs microscopic entropy
Macroscopic = tendency towards disorder, Microscopic = dispersal of energy at a certain T increasing # of microstate
Stratified Epithelia
Many layers
8 state functions
P (pressure), p (density), T (temp), V (volume), H (enthalpy), Ep/U (internal/potential energy), G (gibbs free energy), S (entropy)
Power Equation in VOLTAGE/ELECTRICS
P = IV (current; voltage)
Meiosis I
Reductional Division: homologous chromosomes separate and create HAPLOID cells
Mechanical advantage
The factor by which a simple machine multiplies the input force to accomplish work.
Why do premature babies on a ventilator have positive (high) pressure added when they exhale?
This high pressure means that their lungs will also stay at high pressure to keep balanced with the outside. This necessary high pressure is necessary because they lack SURFACTANT that prevents alveoli collapse, which would happen if their lungs has lower pressure inside
Work Equation
W = F ∙ d = Fdcos𝜃 (dot product!) (theta = angle between the displacement and force applied)
Watt
W = J/s unit for power
When is the critical speed equation used
When discussing TURBULENT FLOW
The values of sine and cosine are...
[-1,1]
A good 'testable question' for science is...
a NARROW one that is an IF-THEN HYPOTHESIS, meaning it can be tested
Hypothyroidism
a deficiency of iodine to make T3/T4 OR inflammation of the thyroid; i.e. thyroid hormones are in insufficient amounts and thus cellular respiration is low; lethargic, decreased body T, slowed respiration, slowed heart rate, cold intolerance, weight gain (unburned energy)
Index of Refraction (n)
a dimensionless quantity; n = c/v (c is speed of light in a vacuum, v is speed of light in that medium)
Knee-Jerk Reflex
a monosynaptic reflex arc; patellar tendon is stretched and travels sensory-afferent to spine, synapses with efferent motor, which contracts quad muscles to kick and lessen tension on patellar tendon (done to protect the muscle because your body thinks the stretch means the muscle's gonna tear)
Absorption Spectra Graph
absolute absorption shown as a function of wavelength
𝛽-particle
an electron!; called 𝛽- or e-
Confounding (Research)
an error made during analysis of data, naming an incorrect relationship between 2 variables; sometimes the researcher is stupid, sometimes this is due to a Confounding Variable (third variable); e.g., if 'red hair causes pain tolerance', a third variable may cause both actually
Hyperglycemia? caused by? (3)
an excess of glucose in blood caused by 1) underproduction, 2) insufficient secretion, or 3) insensitivity to glucose, also known as Diabetes Mellitus
Internal Validity
an experiment is valid and reproduces the same results within samples; causality established
What type of system is the ENTIRE UNIVERSE considered?
an isolated system; there is no surrounding to give energy or matter to
Displacement (*x* or *d*)
an object in motion may experience a chage in its position in space, known as displacement (*x* or *d*) this is a vector quantity and, as such, has both magnitude and direction. *Is the vector representation of a change in position. It is path independent and is equivalent to the straight line distance between the start and end locations*
G0
an offshoot of the G1 phase that cells who DO NOT DIVIDE always live in; all just living, no preparation to divide
Torque
application of force at some distance from the fulcrum generates torque or the moment of force. -generate rotational motion. the equation for torque is a cross product: *T = r x F = rFsinθ* r: length of the lever arm F: is the magnitude of the force θ: the angle between the lever arm and the force vectors.
Prokaryote Domains
archaea and bacteria
Differences between archaea and eukarya
archaea have 1 circular chromosome, divide by binary fission / budding, structurally and reproductionly similar to bacteria
3 domains of life
archaea, bacteria, eukarya
Scalars
are quantities that have magnitude only and no direction.
Direct Current (DC)
current in which charge flows IN ONE DIRECTION; e.g., household batteries; ONLY ONE TESTED ON MCAT While DC circuits require single electrons to (slowly!) move through the circuit and carry energy thanks to the kinetic energy carried by electrons as they drift through the wire
2 molecules responsible for the cell cycle
cyclins and CDKs
Snell's Law
defines what happens to light as it passes between media: n1sin𝜃1 = n2sin𝜃2, where 𝜃 are the angles between the light rays and the normal, n are their indexes of refraction
Conservative vs Non-conservative force
definition as to whether or not a force applied keeps the energy IN THE SYSTEM (OBJECT) or not
In the absolute pressure equation, what usually is 𝜚?
density of the FLUIDDDDD NOT THE OBJECTTTTTTT
Coefficient of friction
depends on the two materials in contact. The coefficient of static friction is always higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Ammeters
devices that measures current at a point in a circuit using magnetic properties; devices must be ON or it will read 0A; must have LOW RESISTANCE to not mess with the existing current/drop voltage in wire
Meters (Circuits)
devices used to measure circuit quantities (current, voltage, resistance) has magnetic properties of the current-carrying wire
Ohmmeters
devices used to measure resistance in a wire; have their own battery and known voltage, act as an ammeter when inserted, which together can adjust & calculate Ohm's Law Resistance value
What are uses of insulators? (2)
dielectric materials in capacitors (A dielectric material is used to separate the conductive plates of a capacitor. This insulating material significantly determines the properties of a component. The dielectric constant of a material determines the amount of energy that a capacitor can store when voltage is applied) AND isolate electrostatic experiments from the environment so they don't ground
2 twin creating mechanisms
dizygotic (fraternal) and monozygotic (identical) twins
Isolated Systems
do not exchange 1) ENERGY or 2) MATTER with the surrounding; total internal energy of 0 ex: bomb calorimeter (insulates a reaction from the outside)
Relationship between pulley effort and distance
effort = load/n, where n is the number of ropes/pulleys acting, and distance = load distance x n, so the distance to pull is that many times the height the load is pulled
If a neurotransmitter acts on a ligand-gated channel, what happens?
either EXCITATION or INHIBITION
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves made of a _______________ and _______________ that are _______________ to each other and can travel through a _______________
electric field; magnetic field; perpendicular; vacuum
Gravitational Potential Energy
energy relative to object's position to the datum (0 Eg; ground level)
If the frequency of light that hits a metal is ________________ to the Threshold Frequency, the electron will JUST escape the metal; if it's ________________ ft, then the excess energy is converted into...
equal; greater than; kinetic energy
In a study where everyone is morally equal, the risk of the experiment should be... ...and where 1 group is more morally relevant (e.g., will benefit more from the trial), the risk should be...
equally distributed placed heavily on the benefiting group so they can reap the rewards
Unique electrostatic set-ups on the MCAT:
equipotential lines, electric dipoles
Heart Murmurs
error in the heart's circulation where blood does not pump properly, heard as turbulent flow occurs
What 2 hormones are responsible for developing + protecting the endometrium for a zygote?
estrogen (establishing) and progesterone (protecting)
Ovaries' hormones
estrogen, progesterone, inhibin
Dependent Events
events where the probability of 1 event has an effect on that of the other; e.g., in a bag with 5 blue balls and 5 red balls, the chance of pulling a blue is 5/9, and if you pull it out, the probability of pulling out a blue is now 4/9, and red is 5/9
Independent Events
events where the probability of 1 event has no effect on that of the other; probabilities will never change each other, doesn't matter on order, etc.
Kinetic friction (fk)
exists between two objects that are in motion relative to each other. constant value exists between a sliding object and the surface over which the object slides.
Field Lines of a magnetic field
exit at the NORTH pole, enter at the SOUTH pole (Circular); magnets are ALWAYS dipolar, never monopolar (i.e. "only a N side")
What substances do not follow the temperature vs resistance positive relationship?
glass, pure silicon, and semiconductors
Ependymal Cells
glia that line the ventricles of the brain & produce cerebrospinal fluid (physically supports the brain & is a shock absorber)
Gradient Signalling
gradients of morphogens (chemicals that cause determination of cells) diffuse as a gradient (high close to the origin, low = far); usually many overlap and a unique combo of exposure is made to differentiate all different cells!
2 Types of cell wall
gram positive and gram negative
How is bacterial cell wall type determined?
gram stain; strained violet = gram positive, stained red = gram negative
Lipoteichoic acid
gram-positive cell wall structure; no clear purpose, but activates our immune system inflammation
P-V Graphs
graphs with pressure on y and volume on x; graphically represents expansion and compression of gas; the work done on/by the system IS THE AREA BETWEEN P1, P2, V1, V2
What is the difference between electrical force and gravitational force?
gravitational ALWAYS attracts, but electrical can repel and attract!
2 most common MCAT conservative forces
gravitational and electrostatic; do not lose energy from a system, but convert it to potential
4 Forms of Potential Energy
gravitational, elastic, chemical, electric
Hypothalamus + Anterior Pituitary Interactions
hypothalamus secretes hormones into hypophyseal portal system (blood vessel system connecting hypothalamus to anterior pituitary and nowhere else), travel down the pituitary stalk into the pituitary, bind to receptors, triggering the release of other hormones
Where is the hypothalamus?
in forebrain above pituitary and below thalamus
Adrenal Medulla
inner layer of the adrenal glands; DERIVED FROM THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ITSELF; producers sympathetic NS hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine (catecholamines, derived from amino acids) which usually work with cortisol; specialized nerves secrete them directly into the bloodstream); increase glycogenolysis in liver/muscle, increase basal metabolic rate, increase heart rate, dilate bronchi, shunt blood to needed organs (vasodilation to skeletal muscle, heart, lungs, brain & vasoconstriction to gut, kidneys, skin)
Acceleration (a)
is the vector representation of the change in velocity over time. Average or instantaneous acceleration may both be considered, similar to velocity. is the rate of change of velocity that an object experiences as a result of some applied force, SI Units: m/s^2
What happens when gas pushes up on a piston?
it does work to move it up, volume increases
How does the heart use pressure to pump blood?
it empties of blood and expands, pressure decreases; blood is pulled it; pressure gradient created in thorax by inhalation and exhalation motivate pressure to pump the heart
What is the point of the an embryo dividing without changing its overall size (just increasing # cells)?
it increases the 2 ratios of Nuclear:Cytoplasm (N:C) and SurfaceArea:Volume (SA:V); thus it has greater SA for gas/nutrient exchange exchange relative to its volume
What is the overall lesson of mammalian development?
it is VARIOUS among species of mammal; oviparity, marsupium use
What does it mean when a "cell discharges"?
it is producing current, which flows from + to - potential
What is the pressure distribution within a closed container?
it is the same at ALL POINTS (neglecting gravity) Ex: if a surface is placed inside a closed container filled with gas, then the individual molecules which are moving randomly within the space will exert the same pressure at all points within the container
If only conservative forces act on a system, what happens to its energy?
its energy total (U) is always the same, just converted between Ek and Ep
How are peptide hormones created?
just like any other peptides; ALL DERIVED from larger precursors that are cleaved in post-translational modification; transported to Golgi for modifications to activate the hormones and then direct to the right location
The mnemonic ROYGBIV gives visible light starting from R @ _______________ frequency & _______________ wavelength, ending with V @ _______________ frequency & _______________ wavelength
low frequency, long wavelength to high frequency, short wavelength
Cervix
lower endo the uterus; connects to vaginal canal
Multipotent Stem Cells
lowest potency; stem cells of tissues that can differentiate into tissues of that group only (e.g., hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into ALL blood cells: WBC, RBC, platelets but never skin, muscle, etc.)
What are the only cells in the body without nuclei?
mature red blood cells
In a multiple-slit experiment, when light does constructive interference, it appears as _________________ (_________________ spots) and when is destructively interferes is appears as _________________ (_________________ spots)
maxima/bright spots, minima/dark spots
Anatomy of Pregnancy
memorize the diagram in general
Fg,|| = Fg,|_ =
mgsinθ [parallel] mgcosθ [perpendicular] Fg,|| : is the component of gravity parallel to the plane (oriented down the plane) Fg, _| : is the component of gravity perpendicular to the plane (oriented into the plane) m: mass g: acceleration due to gravity θ: angle of incline
What destroys waste & pathogens in the CNS
microglia cells
Chorionic Villi
microscopic projections off the chorion into the endometrium; allow maternal-fetal gas exchange when they become the placenta
M (Mitosis) Stage
mitosis and cytokinesis together; 1 cell creates 2 identical daughters; consists of PMAT stages
The 4 common measurements for wavelength are in:
mm, 𝝁m, nm, & Å (10^(-10)m)
To calculate Q3...
multiply n (number of data points) by ¾ , and if the result is an even number, Q3 is the value of this position & the next highest's mean; if that was a decimal, round up to the nearest whole number position, and take the mean of this and the next highest position
Diaphragm
muscle that divides the thoracic from abdominal cavities; can be controlled SOMATICALLY even tho breathing is usually autonomic
Uterus
muscular, site of fetal development; connected to fallopian tubes
How to determine how to fight a prokaryote
must consider its STRUCTURE
Convex (Backwards) Meniscus
n shape formed by a liquid when the cohesive forces are greater than the adhesive forces (e.g., mercury)
Provirus/prophage
name for virus genes added to host DNA in the lysogenic cycle
work done on a system
negative
Neuron structure
nucleus, cell body (soma), axon hillock, axon, terminal bouton, etc.
Spatial Summation
number and location of signals skew the summation by the axon hillock; e.g., more inhibitory signals in the cell body than excitatory signals at the dendrites at the same time will hyperpolarize a neuron more at that instant than depolarize it
Balancing nuclear equations
number of protons and neutrons (atomic number + mass numbers) must be equal between the 2 sides
Frequency (f)
number of wavelengths that pass per second in Hz (/sec) or cycles/sec
Glucose presence in urine
occurs because it's in extreme excess and the nephron is overwhelmed and cannot reabsorb it
Repulsive Electrical Force
occurs between particles of like charge
Attractive Electrical Force
occurs between particles of opposite charge
What sign is work DONE BY THE SYSTEM? What does this mean?
positive (+); means the system (gas) has expanded
Kidney Endocrine Function
produces Erythropoietin, which stimulates bone marrow to increase production of erythrocytes (RBC) when kidneys sense low O2 in blood
Human Subject Research
research on humans that cannot always be controlled properly, thus conclusions are weaker and controls cannot be implemented
What lung air volumes can a spirometer not measure?
residual volume AND total lung capacity (since TLC = vital capacity + residual, and it cannot measure residual)
Sympathetic Nervous System
responsible for "fight or flight" activated by stress (mild like schoolwork, or life-and-death emergency): heartrate, blood/nutrients to muscles, increases blood glucose, relaxes bronchi for more O2, decreases digestion, dilates eyes, Epinephrine release
Pressure differentials of CO2 and O2 that allow gas exchange in lungs/alveoli
since O2 is low in blood arriving at the lungs and CO2 is high (compared to the alveoli), O2 will diffuse in and CO2 will diffuse out accordingly to balance; THUS NO ENERGY REQUIRED, because the gases can flow along their gradients!!
How do neurons use potassium leak channels to maintain charge?
since [K+] is 140mM inside vs 4mM outside the neuron, K+ leaks out, slightly (+)-charging the outside of the neuron, but drawn back inside when the inside gets negative - this reaches EQUILIBRIUM at "equilibrium potential of potassium"
A wave formed w/ 2 fixed ends
since neither end is moving and both are interfering, they can interfere in such a way they make a STANDING WAVE
Electrolytic Conductivity? what does it depend on? what is measured?
solutions conduction electricity; depends on STRENGTH of the solution measured on the CONCENTRATION of ions (much more important than dissolved solids)!! E.g., distilled/de-ionized liquid = insulator, those with lots of ions (sea water) = good conductors
What types of cells perform mitosis? Not?
somatic cells; not germ cells
Pore formation via bacteriophage tail fibers
some bacteriophage tail fibers contain enzymes that produce pores in the membrane of bacteria to inject genes
What is Serial Endosymbiosis Theory?
some membrane-bound organelles are from endocytosis (e.g., chloroplasts, motility (flagella))
Ground(er) (Electricity)
something that absorbs excess charge and returns it to earth e.g., a doorknob when you've rubbed your feet on a carpet and get shocked
Infrasonic Waves
sound waves <20Hz, which humans cannot hear
Ultrasonic Wave
sound waves >20k Hz, which humans cannot hear
Newton's first law (Law of inertia)
states that an object will remain at rest or move with a constant velocity if there is no net force on the object [ *F*net = m*a* = 0] *F*net : the net force m: mass *a*: acceleration
Newton's third law:
states that any two objects interacting with one another experience equal and opposite forces as a result of their interaction. [*F*AB = -*F*BA ] more formally, for every force exerted by object A on object B, there is an equal but opposite force exerted by object B on object A.
Apoptotic Bodies
structures that break down from apoptotic blebs (membraned/self-contained protrusions that form from cells during apoptosis) AKA: Apoptotic bodies can be formed during the execution phase of the apoptotic process, when the cell's cytoskeleton breaks up and causes the membrane to bulge outward. These bulges may separate from the cell, taking a portion of cytoplasm with them, to become apoptotic bodies.
Prions and Viroids
subviral particles that cause disease under certain circumstances
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
system where: 1) decreased blood pressure caused Juxtaglomerular Cells of the kidneys to secrete Renin, 2) Renin cleaves inactive plasma protein Angiotensinogen to active Angiotensin I, 3) Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) converts A-I to A-II, 4) A-II stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete Aldosterone (Na into blood, thus water into blood) to restore blood pressure, and renin is negatively feedback'd
Exponential decay equation
t = time in hr or sec
Justice (ethical research)
the 1) selection of topic, 2) the selection of subjects and 3) the execution of research that takes does justice for 'Morally Relevant Differences' between people that give reason to treat them differently: e.g., give a transplant to a child instead of a granny because they'll benefit WAY more, e.g., selecting something applicable to a large population; NOT using race/gender/sexuality/financials as a reason; SOMETIMES religion (certain religions prevent certain medicine under autonomy), e.g., fairly distributing risk (if subjects are morally equal), OR giving that risk to the group that would benefit the most and is thus willing
What is constant in a current running through a set of connected resistors?
the CURRENT (I in V = IR) is constant; no charge is gained/lost, current passes through each resistor
Phase Difference
the concept of how far out of phase 2 waves are (whether 2 waves coincide or not) if 2 waves has crests and troughs in the same place at a point at 1 time, they are in-phase, and difference = 0, but if the 2 have a crest where the other trough is, they are out-of-phase by ½ a wave (λ/2, 180 degrees), or any other fraction of a wavelength
Conductance
the conductivity of a material; RECIPROCAL of resistance; measured in Siemens (S) or S/m
Umbilical Cord? number of vessels?
the connection of embryo to placenta; 2 arteries and 1 vein in gelatin-substance
Damping/Attenuation
the decrease in amplitude of a wave due to non-conservative forces (e.g., friction); usually causes a finite number of oscillation
Sexual Development
the development of the ability to reproduce directed hormones
Spirometer
the device that can measure volumes of air in the lung, EXCEPT residual volume + TLC
Voltage
the electric potential difference between 2 points in stage; ΔV = V2 - V1 = W(1-2)/q; W(1-2) is the work needed to move the test charge q to the new point, INDEPENDENT OF THE PATHWAY; aka electrostatic force is CONSERVATIVE
Beta Decay
the emission of a 𝛽-particle (an electron!); called 𝛽- or e-; overall, atom decays a 𝛽-particle, and a neutron in it becomes a proton to maintain charge; higher Z, but mass number doesn't change: X ➝ Y(Z+1) + 𝛽-
Fertilization Membrane
the name of the oocyte's membrane at the end of fertilization; it has been depolarized by a sperm's Ca2+ to 1) prevent further fertilization and 2) increase metabolic rate of the new zygote
Volts
the units of Electric Potential (V = J/C)
Tip of filament of flagella
tip of the flagella
Hill's Criteria (theory)
used to determine if observational studies are likely causal or not (NOTE: YOU CAN ONLY CALL OBSERVATIONAL CORRELATIONAL THO); 9 criteria, first one (Temporality) is NECESSARY but INSUFFICIENT
Right-Hand rule is used to?
used to determine the resultant vector's direction after two vectors have been crossed.
Alkalemia? body response?
when blood pH rises above 7.45 (ideal range 7.35 to 7.45) medulla will trigger the brain to breath slower to build CO2 and push Bicarbonate Buffer System (CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-) to the right via Le Châtelier's, dropping blood pH via gained CO2
Dielectrics in Circuit (Battery) Capacitors
when dielectrics are placed in a capacitor that is part of a circuit with a voltage source, STORED CHARGE IN CAPACITOR INCREASES, since V must be the same as it comes from a source; thus if C increases, Q must increase according to C = Q/V
At what point does a zygote become an 'embryo'?
when it does its FIRST division in the cleavage phase
T/F: Archaea have resistance to many antibiotics
TRUE
Tissue Formation/Division in Eukaryotas
Eukaryotes uniquely divide labour between different tissues; cells have diff fxns; E.g., heart: conduction, contractive, supportive structural roles of cells
What does the diaphragm do, in exhaling vs inhaling?
Exhaling = it relaxes, inhaling = it contracts
At the end of what stage of Meiosis are cells officially haploid?
Meiosis I
What are membranes made of?
Membranes are phospholipid bilayers
What law do cross-overs in prophase I explain?
Mendel's Second Law: Independent Assortment; inheritance of one allele has no effect on the inheritance of another; explained by cross-overs
3 components of The Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments
Microtubule Cilia
Microtubules are a major component of this Cilia = projects from cell that move material along cell surface, e.g., respiratory cilia sweep mucous
Microtubule Flagella
Microtubules are a major component of this project and move the cell itself, e.g., sperm moving through reproductive tract
When is water speed faster: narrow or wide pipe?
NARROW
Quartiles
Q1, Q2 (median) and Q3 that split the data into quarters
Resistance Equation
R = 𝜌L/A; 𝜌 is resistivity, L is length of resistor, A is cross-sectional area; unit OHMS (𝛺)
The gold standard for ensuring a sample is representative of the population is...
RANDOMIZATION of people you select for the sample
Why do peptide hormones act short-lived?
RAPID and SHORT-LIVED effects because the second-messenger cascades are transient (temporary)
Telophase
REVERSES PROPHASE; spindles disappear, nuclear membrane reforms, nucleoli reappear, chromosome de-condense
The electromagnetic spectrum spans from _______________ waves (_______________ wavelength, _______________ frequency, _______________ energy) all the way to _______________ waves (_______________ wavelength, _______________ frequency, _______________
Radio Waves: long wavelength, low frequency, low energy; Gamma Rays: short wavelength, high frequency, high energy
Elastic potential energy
Released to spring constant, k (a measure of the stiffness of the spring) and the degree of stretch or compression of a spring squared.
Right-Hand Rule #1 & #2
Right-Hand Rule #1: Direction of magnetic field in straight/circular wire; concentric ring around the wire: thumb in the direction of the current, wrap your fingers around the wire, and the direction your fingers wrap is the direction of the magnetic field around it Right Hand Rule #2: direction of magnetic force on a moving charge: thumb in the direction of the velocity of the charge, fingers in the direction of the field, and your PALM points in the direction of the magnetic for a POSITIVE CHARGE, and the back of your hand is the direction for a NEGATIVE CHARGE
Units of density
SI: kg/m^3; common ones are g/mL or g/cm^3 (mL = cm^3)
How fast/long does the kidney's control of blood pH last compared to the lungs' control of pH
SLOWER but LONGER-lasting!
Fahrenheit units size compared to C and K Celsius units compared to Kelvin
SMALLER; it has 180 units from freezing to boiling as opposed to 100 same unit size, Δ1 C = Δ1 K
Total Voltage for a series of capacitors equation
SUM of the voltages for each capacitor
Connective Tissue (3)? secrete what?? constitute the?
SUPPORTS body; FRAMEWORK for epithelial to function; Constitute the STROMA (support structure) or organs (E.g., bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue, BLOOD!); Most produce/secrete COLLAGEN and ELASTIN to produce the EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Mendel's First Law
Segregation; the separating of the 2 paternal-maternal homologous chromosomes during segregation; separate indifferent to the parent of origin AKA: The two alleles of a gene separate EQUALLY when forming gametes
What is the structure of Rough (RER)? What does it do?
Studded with RIBOSOMES; Translate peptides and secrete into lumen
What does peroxisome H2O2 Breakdown? What 2 other things does the peroxisome do?
Synthesize phospholipids, contains enzymes in PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY break down fatty acids to be used for forming membranes and as fuel for respiration; and transfer hydrogen from compounds to oxygen to create hydrogen peroxide and then convert hydrogen peroxide into water.
List of amino-acid-derived hormones
T3, T4 (based on tyrosine with iodine), epinephrine/norepinephrine (catecholamines)
Gram negative cell wall structure
THIN peptidoglycan; separated from membrane by PERIPLASMIC SPACE; OUTER MEMBRANE on top of the cell wall contains phospholipids, LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES (trigger SEVERE immune response; more than LTAs)
Electrical Circuit
a conducting path that has 1+ voltage source (e.g., battery) connected to 1+ passive circuit element (e.g., resistor)
Conjugation bridge (cells)
bridge forming between 2 bacteria to mate; genes transferred through
What does the nucleus do for transcription and translation?
compartmentalizes DNA transcription SEPARATE from RNA translation
Double-Slit System: dark spot location equation
dsin𝜃 = (n+1/2)𝜆; d is the distance between the slits, theta is the angle between the line from the midpoint of the slits to the dark spot & the normal, n is the # of the frindge, 𝜆 is wavelength of the incident wave
How does milk production progress in pregnancy?
ducts for milk are built in response to estrogen progesterone high in pregnancy; after pregnancy, dopamine (PIF) levels from hypo drop, allowing the release of prolactin from anterior pituitary, a direct horm'n producing milk
Plasmids
extrachromosomal/extragenomic pieces of DNA that ARE NOT REQUIRED TO SURVIVE/REPRODUCE for bacteria, but contain benefits (e.g., antibiotic resistance; degrade the enzyme, alter enzyme, efflux pump for antibiotic)
As compared to regular siblings, how genetically-related are fraternal twins?
exactly the same amount! Just like any brothers and sisters, fraternal twins will share about 50 percent of their DNA
Open Systems
exchange both ENERGY and MATTER with the surrounding (note: matter also carries energy and is transferred using heat/work); e.g., boiling pot of water, humans, combustion
Static Friction (fs)
exists between two objects that are not in motion relative to each other. exists between a stationary object and the surface upon which it rests. However, static friction is only as large as necessary for the object to stay static and counteract the opposing force until the force due to static friction reaches its maximum amount.
Pancreas
exocrine-endocrine dual-purpose organ; 1) secretes exocrine digestive enzymes into ducts, 2) contains groupings called Islets of Langerhans that produce endocrine hormones
Why is integration of phage to host genome beneficial to a host?
makes bacteria less susceptible to SUPERINFECTION (simultaneous infections) by other phages
How many pathways can make a cell undergo determination ? Examples?
many pathways; 1) mRNA and protein asymmetrically divided (in cleavage of embryo) between daughters to seal the fate of the determined cell; 2) Morphogens (secreted from nearby cells to send them down that specific path)
Bell Curves
marking scheme use based on a normal distribution
Ideal Pulley
massless, frictionless, W(in) = W(out); note that no pulley is 100% like this
Electrical Conductors
materials that allow the flow of electricity through them
Order of size of mean, median and mode in negative skew distribution
mean < median < mode
How does the mean compare to median in POSITIVE skew?
mean HIGHER than median because of so many data points above in the tail
How does the mean compare to median in NEGATIVE skew?
mean LOWER than median because of so many data points weighing it down in the tail
'Cellular' Senescence
means failure to divide; usually 50 divisions in vitro
Statistically Significant
means that data is not by random chance, there is causality involved; it does not measure SIZE, only TRUTH (e.g., 2 treatment plans may be statistically significant in results, but a treatment only making patients a lil' bit better than the other one)
Clinically Significant
means that data supports treatment that would make a worthwhile change in health if we used it (e.g., 2 treatment plans may be statistically significant in results, but a treatment only making patients a lil' bit better than the other one; this is not clinically significant)
Bulk Modulus (B)
measure of resistance to compression, increases from gas to solid as B increases disproportionally more than density; in speed of sound equation v = √(B/𝜌)
Measures of Central Tendency
measures of the 'middle' of data, defined in 3 ways: mean, median, mode
Apoptotic Blebs
membraned/self-contained protrusions that form from cells during apoptosis (CANNOT release harmful things into env); break into apoptotic bodies and are digested by cells AKA: Blebbing is one of the defined features of apoptosis. During apoptosis (programmed cell death), the cell's cytoskeleton breaks up and causes the membrane to bulge outward. These bulges may separate from the cell, taking a portion of cytoplasm with them, to become known as apoptotic blebs
Randomization (Research)
method used to control for difference subject-to-subject when you otherwise can't control randomized placement of various subjects into different groups; so long as each group ends up on average the same, data is legit
Similarities between mammals (7)
milk-producing mammary glands, 3 bones in the middle ear, 1 bone in the lower jaw, fur/hair, heterodont dentition (different kinds of teeth), both sebaceous (oil-producing) and sudoriferous (sweat-producing) glands
When processing light in our eye, the image is severely ________________ and ________________, although remains ________________; the ________________ system accounts for the remaining errors to make the picture sharp
minimized and focused; remains blurry; nervous system corrects
1600s Cell History
ppl though organisms could not be separated into smaller parts; Because we couldn't see these smaller parts
Metaphase (Equatorial) Plate
the middle of a dividing cell in metaphase equidistant from the 2 poles; kinetochores bound to here
What is the regenerative capacity of the human liver?
High; does COMPLETE (identical) regeneration of up to 50% of liver
Microtubules? what is it made of?
Hollow polymers of TUBULIN protein; Radiate through cell as the path for 2 proteins: Kinesin + Dynein, both carry VESICLES
Positive Skew
tail on positive/right
Bacteriophage structures
tail sheath (syringe to inject genetic material), tail fibres (recognize the host cell to attach to)
How do you make embryonic stem cells?
take an inner cell mass, attach it on feeder cells, cells that grow out are ES if they 1) they have the markers and 2) they can undergo several rounds of division and prove they've immortal
Follicular Phase (6)
1st phase of menstrual; 1) Menstrual Flow (shedding of uterine lining of previous cycle), 2) low estrogen and progesterone at end of cycle signal GnRH from hypot and thus FSH and LH, 3) FSH and LH mautre many follicles, 4) follicles grow and produce estrogen and negatively feedbacks GnRH/FSH/LH, 5) endometrium forms, 6) which stimulates Decidua to vascularize/glandularize
If an electrical cell is not driving current (i = 0), what is the r(int)?
ZERO; there is no internal resistance and the voltage of the cell = theoretical emf voltage
If you mix oil and water, what is the entropy change?
ZERO; they do not mix, so it is not considered more disordered
Correlation Coefficient
[-1,1] number that describes how closely 2 variables correlate; 0 = 0 NO RELATIONSHIP
Since the lungs are indirectly connected to the chest wall, what, in effect, is created during exhalation?
a SURFACTANT! The lungs cannot completely collapse when exhaling because they have something to keep them partially inflated at least
Z-Test (or T-Test) process
a Test Statistic from the sample is calculated and compared to a table to determine the likelihood that a difference between populations occurred by chance aka the P-Value; we compared P-Value to Significance Level (α) (usually 0.05): if P > α, we fail to reject the null hypothesis and there is no statistical significance, and if P < α we reject the null hypothesis and there IS a statistical difference between 2 populations The z score tells you how many standard deviations from the mean your score is
Tracts
a bundle of axons in the CNS; carry on ONE TYPE OF INFO
A relationship is said to be causal if...
a change in A always precedes the expected change in B, a change in B does not occur without the experimental change of A, and there is a suspected mechanism/explanation for this: the relationship is causal
Nucleus (nervous system)
a cluster of cell bodies of neurons in the CNS
Ganglion (nervous system)
a cluster of cell bodies of neurons of the same type (sensory, motor, mixed) in the PNS
Absorption spectra of a substance appears as...
a colour bar, with black lines showing what was absorbed
Pharynx
behind the nasal cavity at the back of the mouth; common area where AIR & FOOD both go
Prokaryote DNA
single circular DNA molecule in the NUCLEOID region
Archaea
single-celled, similar to bacteria, genes/metabolism alike EUKARYA
Bacteriophage Infection Stage
tail fibers anchor to membrane, tail sheath injects genes
Prefix: pico
10^-12, p
When does a baby's organs/eyes/gonads/limbs/liver form?
1st trimester
Log(1/A) =
= -LogA
Potential Energy of a Capacitor (Equation)
U = 1/2 • CV^2
Viral proteins made
capsid proteins for the capsid
Bacteria ribosomes
contain smaller ribosomes than eukarya
Primary Spermatocytes
1st stage: what sperm is called after replicated its DNA (S phase) before meiosis I
Vector addition may be accomplished using:
1. tip-to-tail method 2. or by breaking a vector into its components and using the pythagorean theorem
1 Electron-volt = ? Joule conversion
1.602x10^(-19)J/eV
1 Amu = ? kilogram conversion
1.661x10^(-27) kg
Specification (cell specialization)
1st stage; cell is reversible designated as a specific cell type (can still become any cell type technically)
Parts of gestation
1st, 2nd, 3rd trimesters
How many shunts reroute blood from lungs?
2
Inner Cell Mass
1 of 2 parts of the blastula; sits in the blastocoel and becomes the entire organism
Trophoblast
1 of 2 parts of the blastula; these cells surround the blastocoel and become the chorion + later placenta
Interstitial Cells of Leydig
1 of 2 parts of the testes; secrete testosterone and male sex hormones ("ANDROGENS")
Ductus Venosus
1 of 3 fetal shunts, the 1 for the liver; shunts Umbilical Vein (blood returning from placenta) → inferior vena cava; this allows blood to bypass the liver (and only get some from small hepatic arteries in systemic circuit)
Reuptake of Neurotransmitters
1 of 3 modes to get rid of neurotransmitter when no longer required; Reuptake Carriers take them back to the presynaptic neuron (e.g., Serotonin 5-HT, Dopamine, and norepinephrine do this)
Diffusion of Neurotransmitters
1 of 3 modes to get rid of neurotransmitter when no longer required; they literally just diffuse away from the postsynaptic cleft they should be acting on, e.g. Nitric Oxide
Autocrine Signals
1 of 4 types of cell signals; act on the same cell that secreted the signal
Juxtacrine Signals
1 of 4 types of cell signals; do not usually involve diffusion, but a cell DIRECTLY stimulating an adjacent cell's receptors
Endocrine Signals
1 of 4 types of cell signals; involve DISTANT hormonal communication
Paracrine Signals
1 of 4 types of cell signals; signals that act on a local area MOVE VIA DIFFUSION IN ECM
What 3 ways are neurotransmitters removed from the synapse when no longer required?
1) Breakdown, 2) Reuptake, 3) Diffuse away
What chemical signals cause contractions in birth?
prostaglandins and oxytocin (peptide hormone)
4 Things that can produce Voltage (electric potential difference)
1) Electrical Generator, 2) Galvanic (Voltage) Cell, 3) Cells wired into a battery, 4) Potato
one-dimensional motion can be fully described by the following equations:
(1) *v* = *v*o +*a*t (2) *x* = *v*ot + (*a*t^2)/2 (3) *v*^2 = *v*o^2 + 2*ax* (4) *x* = *v~*t *x* : displacement vector *v* : velocity vector *a* : acceleration vector *v~* : average velocity *vo* : initial velocity t : time
When do epiphyseal plates shut?
(special regions of bone where bones grow in response to GH) seal shut in puberty
Multiplying vectors to get another vector (Cross product):
*Cross Product* the cross product results in a vector quantity . The cross product is the product of the vectors' magnitudes and the sine of the angle between them. *A x B = |A||B|sinθ * used when generating a third vector like torque.
Multiplying vectors by vectors (Dot product)
*Dot product* the dot product of two vectors A and B results in a scalar value. The dot product is the product of the vectors' magnitudes and the cosine of the angle between them. *A . B = |A| |B| cosθ* or A = (a1, a2) B= (b1, b2) *A . B = a1b1 +a2b2* used when needed to generate a scalar quantity such as work
The X-component is given by:
*X* = *V*cosθ
the y-component is given by:
*Y* = *V*sinθ
If the value of f (focal length) for a mirror is positive, the mirror is ________________ (________________), and if negative, the mirror is ________________ (________________)
+ = concave, converging; - = convex, diverging
If the value of r (radius of curvature) for a mirror is positive, the mirror Is ________________ (________________), but if negative, it's ________________ (________________)(single mirror)
+ = concave, converging; - = convex, diverging
If the value of f (focal length) for a lens is positive, the lens is ________________ (________________), and if negative, the lens is ________________ (________________)
+ = convex, converging; - = concave, diverging
If the value of r (radius of curvature) for a lens is positive, the lens Is ________________ (________________), but if negative, it's ________________ (________________)
+ = convex, converging; - = concave, diverging
RNA Virus sense options
+ or -
Lensmaker's Equation
- need to use for lenses w/non-negligible thickness - 1/f = (n-1)(1/r₁-1/r₂) - for real lenses where we cannot ignore thickness of the length, 1/f = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2) where n is the index of refraction for the length, r1 is the radius of curvature at the first length surface, and r2 is the radius of curvature at the second
Absolute 0, Freezing of Water, Boiling of Water in C
-273, 0, 100
If ΔV = 0 for a gas system, how much work has been done?
0 J! no work; there is no area to calculate under a P-V curve; isovolumetric/isochoric process
Absolute 0, Freezing of Water, Boiling of Water in K
0, 273, 373
Hormones release by hypothalamus (5) & what they release from anterior pituitary
1) GnRH; causes releases of LH and FSH, 2) GHRH (growth hormone releasing factor); causes the release of GH, 3) TRH (thyroid-releasing hormone); causes release of TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), 4) CRF (Corticotropin-Releasing Factor); causes release of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) 5) PIF (prolactin-inhibiting factor aka DOPAMINE); INHIBITS prolactin release
Thickness of the alveoli & purpose
1 cell thick; allows diffusion of CO2 and O2
Bacterial DNA structure
1 circular strand, sometimes around histone-like proteins (real histones only found in archaea + eukarya)
What happens to our breathing CO2 and O2 concentrations if we forcibly hypoventilation or hyperventilate?
1) hypo = Increased CO2 in blood 2) hyper = decreases CO2, thus medulla overrides will override and counter it
The 8 Endocrine Glands
1) hypothalamus, 2) pituitary, 3) thyroid, 4) parathyroid, 5) adrenal, 6) pancreas, 7) gonads, 8) pineal
How do you determine if a force is conservative?
1) if it takes a round trip path (back to same starting position) and ΔE is 0, or 2) if ΔE is equal for taking ANY path between 2 points... = the force is conservative; it takes energy from 1 form and gives it back as another, E total remains the same, no loss to non-conservative force!
6 Simple Machines
1) inclined plane, 2) wedge (2 merged inclined planes), 3) wheel and axle, 4) lever, 5) pulley, 6) screw (rotating inclined plane)
The 3 types of radioactive decay questions on the MCAT
1) integer arithmetic of particle & isotope species, 2) radioactive half-life, 3) exponential decay curves & decay constants
The 3 causes of outliers:
1) it is a true statistical anomaly (e.g., a person actually is above 7ft), 2) a measurement error was made (EXCLUDE FROM DATA), 3) the distribution is not approximately normal, thus saying 3 SD away = outlier is invalid; the 1st and 3rd situations are not should not clearly be excluded in some cases
Somatostatin
1) secreted by 𝛿-Islets of Langerhans and inhibits BOTH insulin and glucagon, stimulated by high blood glucose and AA and 2) secreted by hypo to decrease GH secretion
Mathematical important stuff for a resistors in parallel
1) voltage of all pathways is the same (from + to -), 2) Resistances may differ, meaning 3) CURRENT MAY DIFFER BETWEEN PATHS as electrons favour path of least resistance! (current inverse to resistance), 4) the greater number of paths/area for current to travel DECREASES Equivalent Resistance
In the circuit on the flip of this card, what is the voltage drop at R=2/3𝛺?
1. First calculate total resistance: R = 1/2𝛺 + (1/2𝛺 + 3/2𝛺)^(-1) = 1 (DON'T FORGET THE ****ING INVERSE) 2. Get the current running through in total: V = IR, I = V/R, I = 10/1 = 10A 3. Proportion the current running through each parallel resistor: 7.5A in 2/3𝛺, 2.5A in the 2𝛺. 4. Ohm's Law for the voltage drop: V = IR = (7.5A)(2/3𝛺) = 5V Done
Thyroid: setting basal metabolic rate
1/2 functions; releases 1) Triiodothyronine (T3) and 2) Thyroxine (T4) (produced by iodination of the amino acid tyrosine in the follicular cells of the thyroid with 3 vs 4 iodine); make energy production more or less efficient (INCREASED T3/4 = INCREASED cellular respiration = INCREASED protein/FA turnover (synth AND degradation)); negative feedback to both TSH and TRH
What is the only thing a sperm contributes to a zygote?
1/2 its DNA
Intermediate Cleavage
1/2 types of zygote cleavage; resulting cells can still develop into complete organisms
Determinate Cleave
1/2 types of zygote cleavage; resulting cells have determined fates to differentiate into a certain type of cell
For light/slit systems, bright spots are located WHERE relative to dark spots?
1/2 way between them
Steroid Hormones? derived from?
1/3 categories of hormones by structure; derived from cholesterol; produced by GONADS and ADRENAL CORTEX; non-polar molecules that can cross the PLBL and use intracellular receptors or intranuclear receptors; when bound, the receptor undergoes conformational change and can bind to DNA to inc/dec transcription (e.g., Dimerization, pairing 2 receptor-hormone complexes); carried by SPECIFIC or NON-SPECIFIC (albumin) carriers in the blood as non-polar; longer-lasting
Amino-Acid-Derived Hormones
1/3 categories of hormones by structure; least common, but MOST IMPORTANT: epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine, thyroxine; 1-2 amino acids with some modifications to them; UNPREDICTABLE FUNCTION; e.g., epinephrine + norepinephrine bind to GPCR, vs thyroid hormones bind intracellularly
Peptide Hormones? how produced?
1/3 categories of hormones by structure; peptides that range from small (ADH) to large (insulin); ALL DERIVED from larger precursors that are cleaved in post-translational modification; transported to Golgi for modifications to activate the hormones and then direct to the right location; released via exocytosis in vesicles and dissolve in blood; charged and cannot pass the PLBL and thus bind to an extracellular receptor at the right tissue ("first messenger") and then transit the signal into the cell to a "second messenger" via signalling cascade; RAPID and SHORT-LIVED effects because the second-messenger cascades are transient; easy to turn on and off but effects do not lat without stimulation
Diamagnetic Materials
1/3 magnetism labels atoms with NO unpaired electrons and NO net magnetic field slightly repelled by a magnet thus "weakly antimagnetic" wood, plastic, glass, skin
Paramagnetic Materials
1/3 magnetism labels unpaired electrons, so atoms have a NET magnetic dipole moment, but random orientation of them causes no net magnetic field become WEAKLY magnetized in the presence of an EXTERNAL magnetic field, aligning the magnetic dipoles of the material with the field; removal of it causes thermal energy to reorient the dipoles randomly; Al, Cu, Au
Mineralocorticoids
1/3 steroid hormones from the adrenal cortex; SALT AND WATER HOMEOSTASIS mostly on the kidneys; includes aldosterone
Total Capacitance for a series of capacitors equation
1/C2 = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3...; Cs decreases as more capacitors are added
Equivalent Resistance of resistors in parallel
1/Rp = 1/R1 = 1/R2..., where each R is it's own path
Prefix: Centi
10^-2, c
Prefix: milli
10^-3, m
Prefix: nano
10^-9, n
[K+] inside & outside neurons at rest
140mM (in) and 4mM (out); potassium is able to move to the outside of the cell through potassium leak channels, slightly (+)-charging the outside of the neuron, but drawn back inside when the inside gets negative (these opposing forces are in equilibrium)
Cytokinesis I
2 cells split off from each other at the end of meiosis I
Sister Chromatids
2 exact copies of DNA bound at the centromere; still considered 1 chromosome!
A lens has ________________ focal points, located...
2 focal points; 1 located on each side; focal length can be measured from either
Kirchhoff's Laws (2)
2 laws (Junction & Loop Rules) that define law of conservation of charge & energy in a circuit
Umbilical Arteries
2 of them; carry deoxygenated blood and waste to placenta from embryo
Ovulation Phase (2)
2nd phase of menstrual; follicles secrete more and more estrogen until paradoxically a positive feedback threshold is reached spiking GnRH/LH/FSH, spike in LH causes ovulation (releasing an ovum from ovary to peritoneal cavity)
When does a fetus' heart start beating?
22 days gestation (1st trimester)
Determination (cell specialization)
2nd stage; irreversible commitment of a cell to a particular function (it is at this point that it goes from being able to become ANY cell to having its fate sealed as 1 cell type); many pathways; mRNA and protein asymmetrically divided; morphogens; CELL IS NOT ACTUALLY DIFFERENTIATED YET, JUST HAVING THE FACTORS THAT DIFFERENTIATE IT READY
When does a fetus' face look human-like?
2nd trimester
1 Litres = ? ounches conversion
33.8oz/L
Speed of sound in 20˚C air
343m/s
When does a fetus' brain rapidly develop?
3rd trimester
Speed of Light (c)
3.00x10^8 m/s; THE SPEED THAT ALL ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TRAVEL in a vacuum (but virtually the same not in a vacuum)!!!! NOT JUST VISIBLE LIGHT
When does a fetus receive protective antibodies?
3rd trimester; highly selective active transport to prepare for protection in outside womb (HIGHEST RATE in 9th month/before birth)
What is the end result of spermatogenesis?
4 functional sperm per 1 spermatogonium
Bacterial Growth cycle
4 phases; lag, exponential, stationary, death
Human somatic cell and germ cell number of chromosomes
46 and 23 (23 inherited from each parent)
Spermatozoa
4th stage: sperm cells that have MATURED after meiosis II
"All" of a radioactive sample is considered to decay after _______________ half-lives
7-8 half-lives; note radioactive decay technically should never leave 0
pH the blood wants to be at
7.35-7.45
What is the tension of the rope during a tug of war, one team pulls it left by 75N and the other team pulls it by 70N?
70N Tension is determined by the weaker of two forces. A helpful way to think about it is considering that if only one side of the rope is pulled, the tension in the rope is zero. It's only by having a weaker opposing force that tension is created.
When are a fetus' organs and brain mostly done developing?
8 weeks
Cohesion
the attractive force of molecules of liquid to the other molecules with the SAME PROPERTIES
Eukaryotes: Microtubule Cilia AND Flagella structure
9 PAIRS OF MICROTUBULES FORMING AN OUTER RING; 2 MICROTUBULES IN THE CENTRE; aka the 9 + 2 STRUCTURE ONLY seen in EUKARYOTIC ORGANELLES OF MOTILITY Bacteria/prokaryotes are different A tubule projects RADIAL SPOKES to the INNER SHEATH; nexin connects doublets and the central microtubules; dynein arms projects off A tubule
How much DNA is in G2 cell compared to G1?
96 chromatids as compared to 46; double
Refraction
the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another & changes speed!
Test charge
A particle (designated q) with either a positive or negative charge set down within an electric field generated by a point charge aka: A test charge is a positive charge of very small magnitude which gives the direction and strength of electric field in space without influencing the electric field, whereas a point charge has a finite charge only but no observable mass or size
Difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems (of the PNS), other than their functional difference
ANS contains TWO neurons for their signals (Preganglionic and Postganglionic), whereas SNS contains ONE (goes from spine to muscle with no other neurons/synapses)
Menopause
AS A WOMAN AGES (45-55) HER OVARIES BECOME LESS SENSITIVE TO FSH AND LH; OVARIES ATROPHY, thus estrogen and progesterone drop, thus the endometrium atrophies, thus menstruation ceases; FSH and LH have no negative feedback from est/prog so blood levels of them spike
Does the ploidy of a cell change when chromatids are synthesized?
NO; even though it has doubled, and has 92 chromosomes, it is still considers 46
Pseudostratified Epithelia
Appear to have multi layers because of high, but are ONE LAYER
Which has a more significant effect on impulse propagation, axon length of axon cross-section area?
Area!
Circular Loops of current-carrying wire Magnetic Field Strength @ centre of loop equation
B = 𝝁0I/2r; r is the RADIUS OF THE WIRE, 𝝁0 is the Permeability of Free Space (4π • 10^-7 Tm/A), I is the current, B is strength in Tesla; only gives field strength in the CENTRE of the wire
Are stem cells in embryonic or adult tissues?
BOTH
Which height has the greatest ejection speed in a cylinder filled with water with two spouts: at the top and at the bottom?
BOTTOM due to pressure increases w depth The Torricelli's equation is derived for a specific condition. The orifice must be small and viscosity and other losses must be ignored. If a fluid is flowing through a very small orifice (for example at the bottom of a large tank) then the velocity of the fluid at the large end can be neglected in Bernoulli's Equation. Moreover the speed of efflux is independent of the direction of flow. In that case the efflux speed of fluid flowing through the orifice given by following formula:
Spherical Mirrors (2)
Concave & Convex mirrors; have (C) centre of curvature and (r) radius of curvature
Formula for zygote cleave
C = 2^n; where C is the number of cells in the embryo and n is the number of cleavage divisions it has undergone
right-hand rule steps:
C = A x B 1. start by pointing your thumb in the direction of vector A. (The vector that is written first) 2. Extend your fingers in the direction of vector B. you may need to rotate your write to get the correct configuration of thumb and fingers. 3. Your palm establishes the plane between the two vectors. The direction your palm points is the direction of the resultant C. IF A IS FIRST, THEN A IS THE THUMB. IF B IS FIRST IN PROBLEM (EX: D=B x A), THEN B IS THE THUMB
1665 Cell History (Hooke)
CELL FIRST OBSERVED Hooke made microscope and tested on a cork and saw honeycombs - cells! (it's dead cells); Could not see cell structures (they were dead); Also made Hooke's Law of springs: F = -kx (elastic force, spring constant, displacement) (Elastic Potential Energy: U = 1/2kx2 (testable on MCAT)) Robert Hooke, an English scientist, discovered a honeycomb-like structure in a cork slice using a primitive compound microscope. He only saw cell walls as this was dead tissue. He coined the term "cell" for these individual compartments he saw.
Do capacitors store charge?
Capacitors do not store charge. Capacitors actually store an imbalance of charge. If one plate of a capacitor has 1 coulomb of charge stored on it, the other plate will have -1 coulomb, making the total charge (added up across both plates) zero. If you short circuit the capacitor by connecting the two plates with a wire of negligible resistance, you'll see a sudden rush of current (depending on the size of the capacitor, this can result in sparks) as the electrons on the -1 coulomb plate rush onto the +1 coulomb plate. This sudden rush of current releases all the energy that's stored in the capacitor. To help us understand parallel plate capacitors, consider this situation. Imagine you start with two metal plates with no difference of charge (Q= 0). You attach a battery, which at first adds a single electron to one side of the capacitor. The electron has an electric field that repels other electrons, and this field reaches through space and pushes on the electrons in the other plate, causing that plate to acquire an induced positive charge. Now your first plate has a charge of -1e, and the far plate has a charge of +1e, where e is the way we normally write the elementary charge of a single electron. Now imagine repeating this process over and over, until a considerable amount of negative charge has built up on one plate and induced an equal positive charge on the other plate. At some point, the existing negative charge on the first plate will be so repulsive that it prevents you from adding any more negative charges to that plate. In this case the capacitor is fully charged. This maximum charge Q corresponds to the final voltage of the charged capacitor in the relation Q= C V.
Many functions of cells examples
Conduction of Impulses in NS = learning, Contraction of Cardiac Myocytes = pumps blood
What are the 2 types of ER?
Smooth ER and Rough ER
What structures are formed by Inner Membrane and what does it hold?
Cristae are the folds; increase SA + Contains molecules/enzymes of ETC
Hill's Criteria (the 9 criteria)
Criteria for causation 1) Temporality (independent occurs before dependent variable) MUST BE SEEN, 2) Strength (the more outcomes explained by the independent, the better), 3) Dose-response Relationship (the more consistent an increase in ind v. with dep v., the better), 4) Consistency (relationships occurs in multiple settings), 5) Plausibility (reasonable explanation), 6) Consideration of Alternatives (better if alternatives have been eliminated), 7) Experiment (better if you can do an experiment), 8) Specificity (dep v. specifically caused by ind v.), 9) Coherence (coherent with current science, no contradictions)
In plane mirrors, the reflected image's apparent distance 'behind' the mirror is ________________ than/to the distance of the object actually in front of the mirror
EQUAL TO! They are the same distance
If 2 ropes hang an object AT REST, what is the value of the 2 tensions?
EQUAL; if they weren't, the object would rotate until they were; they each support 1/2 of the load
What sends stuff to Golgi? How?
ER --> Golgi via VESICLES
What are the BASIC steps of transcription to translation?
DNA --> hnRNA --> mRNA --> peptide
Pathways of viral genome for translation: DNA virus, +RNA virus, -RNA virus, dsDNA retrovirus
DNA viruses enter nucleus to make mRNA then to ribosomes outside; +RNA viruses stay in cytoplasm and used by ribosomes; -RNA viruses use RNA replicase in cytoplasm; Retrovirus dsDNA travels into nucleus
What is the membrane of the mitochondria?
DOUBLE membrane (outer, inner)
How was Fahrenheit developed?
Daniel Fahrenheit put a thermometer with mercury in ice, water, and NH3Cl; cold ice contracted mercury (marked as 0), the ice water (0C) it expanded and he marked as 32, under someone's tongue was marked as 100: overall mercury's physical properties were used as markers for temperature
What is the Relative Distribution of Organelles? Examples?
Differs per cells; E.g., cells that need energy for locomotion, like sperm, have LOTS of mito, E.g., cells for secretion (pancreatic islet cells, endocrine) have RER, golgi, E.g., transport cells (red blood), NO ORGANELLES AT ALL
Intermediate Filaments
Diverse group of filamentous proteins
(Uniform) Electric Field Equation & Direction
E = V/d, where V is the voltage difference between 2 plates in space, and d is their distance; FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE PLATE (+ test charge follows this)
Energy of a photon equation
E = hf (h is Planck's Constant 6.626 x 10^(-34)Js and f = frequency of light
What is the origin of the mito?
Engulfing of an AEROBIC PROKARYOTE by ANAEROBIC prokaryote; symbiosis achieved
Rate of binary fission is __________(slower/faster) compared to mitosis
FASTER than mitosis; since requires fewer steps; e.g., E. coli duplicate every 20min
Tropic hormones of the anterior pituitary
FLAT (FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH)
Overall hormones of the anterior pituitary (7)
FLAT PEG (FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH), (Prolactin, Endorphins, GH); first 4 are tropic, last 3 are direct
Units of Capacitance
Farad (F = C/V) Typical magnitude of capacitance in the micro to pico farads
Force on a Straight Current-Carrying Wire in a magnetic field
Fb = ILBsin𝜃; I is the current in the wire, L is the length of wire in the field, B is the magnitude of magnetic field, 𝜃 is the angle between L and B, & Right-Hand Rule determines direction (direction of magnetic force on a moving charge: thumb in the direction of the velocity of the charge, fingers in the direction of the field, and your PALM points in the direction of the magnetic for a POSITIVE CHARGE, and the back of your hand is the direction for a NEGATIVE CHARGE)
Magnetic Force Equation (charge moving through field)
Fb = qvBsin𝜃; q is the charge of the moving object, v is its speed, B is the strength of the magnetic field, 𝜃 is the smallest angle between the velocity of the charge and the magnetic field B (USUALLY 90); note that sine means there must be perpendicular velocity to the field or it will experience no force (sin0 = sin180 = 0; charge cannot move parallel or antiparallel)
Archimedes' Principle Equation
Fbuoy = 𝜚(fluid)V(fluiddisplaced)g OR = 𝜚(fluid)V(submergedV)g NOTE YOU ALWAYS USE THE DENSITY OF THE FLUID, NEVER THE FCKING OBJECT FLOATING
Conservative Forces
Forces that are path-independent and do not dissipate energy (E = Ek + Ep); associated with potential energy; includes gravitational and electrostatic forces
Non-conservative Forces
Forces that cause an object to not conserve its mechanical energy and LOSE energy (ΔE < 0); e.g., friction slowing it down rids it of all Ek and Ep, viscous drag, air resistance
G+ vs G- antibiotic susceptibility/caught first?
G+ are MORE susceptible because they lack the outer cell membrane that would protect their peptidoglycan
4 stages of the cell cycle
G1, S, G2, M
𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛿 Islets of Langerhans (in the pancreas) hormones, respectively
GLUCAGON, INSULIN, SOMATOSTATIN
Biggest producers of steroid hormones
GONADS and ADRENAL CORTEX
What type of tissue regeneration do humans use when tissues is damaged?
INCOMPLETE; but varies per tissue type
Ideal property of a voltmeter
INFINITE RESISTANCE so it does not mess with the current
PIF (prolactin-inhibiting factor aka DOPAMINE)
INHIBITS prolactin release from anterior pituitary
The element with the highest nucleon binding energy is _________________, meaning...
Iron; means that iron's nucleus is the most stable as it gives off the most energy when it forms
If an object vibrates at multiple frequencies that are whole-number ratios to each other, its sound...
Is 'musical'! It produces a fundamental pitch, multiple overtones
What is the benefit of mechanical advantage?
It allows you more easily accomplish a given amount of work because the input force necessary to accomplish the work is reduced. The distance through which the input force is applied increases by the same factor.
SI unit for photoelectric effect
J * s
Pressure Unit (Bernoulli's Eqn)
J/m^3; since N/m^2 • m/m = Nm/m^3 = J/m^3! Pressure is also the ratio of energy to volume; "Energy Density"
Units of entropy
J/molK
Unit of power
J/s, aka kgm^2/s^3
What 2 ions maintain the resting potential in neurons?
K+ and Na+
What must an ammeter have to not mess with the current/readings in a wire its testing?
LOW resistance to not mess with the existing current/drop voltage in wire
For a blackbody to appear completely black, its temperature must be...
LOWER than its surrounding
(The Doppler Effect) when the listener and emitter are moving away from each other, the pitch/frequency perceived is...
LOWER, since sound waves are 'farther apart'
Testosterone feedback loop in puberty
NEGATIVE feedback to the hypothalamus (GnRH) and anterior pituitary (LH) that keeps it in the right range
Feedback system of the hypothalamus
NEGATIVE feedback; when a hormone or downstream product of the hypothalamus is high, it will inhibit the hypothalamus to maintain homeostasis (doesn't waste energy keeping producing the stuff); e.g., cortisol (from hypo's CRF and AP's ACTH) will inhibit the hypothalamus' release via receptors in hypo
For a concave mirror, an object placed AT F (focal point) will have an image...
NO IMAGE; all rays are reflected parallel and theoretically converge to form the image at 'infinity' distance away (i = ∞)
How much work does it take to hold an object at height h?
NO WORK AT ALL lol, no displacement so now work
Do all metals transfer heat by radiating it?
NO; if a hot gas and a cold gas are separated by a metal wall, they do not necessarily have radiation in them; the hot gas heats the wall which heats the cold gas through CONDUCTION
Do neurons always fire an action potential when depolarized?
NO; the summation must depolarize the neuron to -55 to -40mV, any less and the AP won't fire
Does separating 2 sister chromatid from each other in division change ploidy?
NO; they are not considered separate chromosomes TRICK: PLOIDY DETERMINED BY NUMBER OF CENTROSOMES
Do objects have to touch to be in thermal contact (causing thermal equilibrium?)
NO; they can do this across space (and exhibit the 0th law), the limit is infinity theoretically (but maybe not practically)
Gamete stem cell difference between males and females
NOT never-ending stem cells for females; all oogonia form during fetal development already and are primary oocytes at birth
How are Na+ and K+ in a "tug of war" in neurons?
Na+ flows inside the neuron, K+ flows out, and they're trying to achieve their equilibrium voltages of +60mV and -90mV (respectively), landing at about -70mV resting potential (neither truly wins); this balance is the RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL of nerve cells
Apoptosis vs Necrosis; which can leak things into env?
Necrosis only; apoptosis contained everything in membranes to prevent this, whereas necrosis literally can have cells split open
Can you use the continuity equation for blood flow?
No; volume is lost because there is a difference between osmotic (oncotic) and hydrostatic pressures (as well as valves, gravity, and elastic structure of vessels); lymphatic flow restores it
The incident/reflected angles of light in reflection are measured relative to the ________________, which is defined as...
Normal Line; the line perpendicular to the boundary between the media
Centripetal Force and Work
Note Fc does NO WORK since it acts perpendicular to the instantaneous displacement of the object; cos90 = 0
What surrounds the nucleus?
Nuclear Membrane/Envelope surrounds (DOUBLE membrane)
What is the nucleolus? What % volume of the nucleus is it? what happens here?
Nucleolus is the compartment where rRNA is synthesized; 25% of the volume of the nucleus
Probability of 2 (or more) events occurring simultaneously
P (A∩B) = P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B); and = multiply
Power Equation
P = W/t = ΔE/t
Bernoulli's Equation
P1 + 𝜚gh1 + (1/2)𝜚v1^2 = P2 + 𝜚gh2 + (1/2)𝜚v2^2 (P is the absolute pressure of the fluid, 𝜚 is its density, v is the linear speed, g is gravity, h is the height of the fluid above the datum) The sum of the dynamic and static pressure are constant for a fluid in a closed contained that does not experience viscous drag AKA: the law of conservation of energy; the more dynamic pressure (moving energy) a fluid has, the less static pressure (sitting energy) a fluid has
Direct hormones of the anterior pituitary
PEG (Prolactin, Endorphins, GH)
The 1 exception to the hypothalamus' "releasing" hormones; inhibiting hormone to the anterior pituitary
PIF (prolactin-inhibiting factor aka DOPAMINE); INHIBITS prolactin release
Oxytocin feedback loop
POSITIVE (although most others of pituitary are negative); when oxytocin releases for uterine contractions, it releases MORE that increase them! Has a definitive endpoint (birth!)
Nonconservative forces
Path dependent and cause dissipation of mechanical energy from a system. 1) While total energy is conserved, some mechanical energy is lost as thermal or chemical energy
Microfilaments
Polymerized rods of ACTIN Cytokinesis (divide materials between daughters), Cleavage Furrow formed by microfilaments (ring of it at the site of division, contracts), Bundles/networks that resist COMPRESSION and FRACTURE; protect cell, Actin filaments + ATP + Myosin generate MOVEMENT (e.g., muscle contraction)
When is Q positive in the internal energy equation? negative?
Positive when energy is added INTO the system Negative when energy is done BY the system
What is the mitochondria?
Powerhouse of the cell
What does the Golgi do?
Products are modified inside (adds carbs, phosphates, sulfates)
What 3 examples of re-uptaken neurotransmitters were mentioned in the book?
Serotonin 5-HT, Dopamine, and norepinephrine
SRY
Sex-determining Region Y; on the Y chromo, codes for the transcription factor that differentiates the testes and forms the male gonads; thus only with a Y chromo will someone be male
When sound enters a solid medium, which variable of speed of sound is influenced?
Since frequency is only dependent on the initial sound source, it does not change with change in medium. Since sound travels faster in the solid, it will have a higher wavelength to account for the change in the speed (since frequency is unchanged).
Work-energy theorem
States that when work is done on or by a system. the system's kinetic energy will change by the same amount. In more general applications, the work done on or by a system can be transferred to other forms of energy as well.
The most important thing to remember about calculating resistance in parallel is...
TO GET THE ACTUAL RESISTANCE OF 2 THINGS IN PARALLEL, YOU NEED TO INVERSE THE SUM!!!! I.e. 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2... THIS NUMBER MUST BE INVERSED, ESPECIALLY IF THIS PARALLEL BIT IS IN SERIES WITH ANOTHER BIT PAY CLOSE ATTENTION TO HOW YOU WOULD FIND THE RESISTANCE OF THE R2-R3-R4... it's 20𝛺
What is the only space in the lung where fluid can enter (e.g., blood from stab)?
The intraplural space, because all other spaces are tightly connected to each other (e.g., visceral-lung, parietal-chest)
If a patient has stiffer lungs (less elastic recoil), what will happen? What 2 important lung volumes will change?
The patient will not exhale properly (no recoil/elastic exhalation); 1) Their residual volume will increase (more air leftover) and 2) Their TLC will increase (again, less elastic force constricting their lungs)
Work
The process by which energy is transferred from one system to another. work is dot product, function of the cosine of the angle between the vectors
Energy
The property of a system that enables it to do something or make something happen, including the capacity to do work. SI units= joules (J)
Electric Potential
The ratio of the magnitude of a charge's electric potential energy to the magnitude of its charge; V = kQ/r = U/q (V is electric potential is Volts); sign is determined by source charge Q An electric potential is the amount of work needed to move a unit of charge from a reference point to a specific point inside the field without producing an acceleration.
What are the force and work applied to a parachuter at terminal velocity?
They are in translational equilibrium (no acceleration); Fnet = 0 and Fg = Fair resistance; since both forces work on the parachuter on the same displacement, they do EQUAL WORK (plug it into the calculator with the right signs and degrees - they're equal!)
In a cylinder with 2 immiscible fluids, what is the gauge pressure of the top liquid? bottom liquid?
Top: Pg = pgh Bottom: Pg = pgh(a) + pgh(b)
What is Torricelli's Theorem? How is it derived from Bernoulli's?
Torricelli's law, also known as Torricelli's theorem, is a theorem in fluid dynamics relating the speed of fluid flowing from an orifice to the height of fluid above the opening v = square root(2g[h1-h2]) h1 = top of the water level and h2 = height of the spout
6 Important Lung Volumes
Total Lung Capacity (TLC), Residual Volume (RV), Vital Capacity (VC), Tidal Volume (TV), Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV), Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Stem cells in order of decreasing potency
Totipotent, Pluripotent, Multipotent
Concave Meniscus
U shape formed by a liquid when the adhesive forces to the walls are greater than the cohesive forces
The variability of amino-acid derivative hormone function & the 4 ones to memorize
UNPREDICTABLE FUNCTION; e.g., 1) catecholamines epinephrine + norepinephrine bind to GPCR and act fast & short-lived (adrenaline rush), vs 2) thyroid hormones bind intracellularly and act for a long time
How many gametes are formed per gametocyte meiosis?
UP TO 4; 'up to' being in oogenesis, fewer than 4 cells remain if an egg is unfertilized
Fluorescent substances when excited with _________________ light will emit _________________ light; this is because an electron is excited to a higher state which then drops in separate 2+ steps, where each drop step releases _________________ light with _________________ energy than was absorbed; depending on the energy, the _________________ of light emitted will be different
UV; visible; visible; less energy; colour of light
Image types follow the mnemonic UV NO IR, meaning:
Upright images are always VIRTUAL, No image is formed when the Object is at the focal point, Inverted images are always Real
How to convert mol to nuclei?
Use Avogadro's number (6.02 * 10^23 nuclei/mol) and multiply it to moles
Center of the brain that controls breathing
Ventilation Center in medulla: fires rhythmically to control the respiratory muscles; it contains chemoreceptors that read [CO2] and [O2]
1850 Cell History (Virchow)
Virchow showed that diseased cells arise from normal cells/tissues
Viruses challenge by cell theory
Viruses violate tenants 3 and 4 (they cannot replicate and they use RNA); NOT LIVING
The _______________ of the EM spectrium is the only electromagnetic waves the human eye can detect
Visible Region
Vm (Neuron)
Vm = membrane potential symbol
If ΔP = 0 for a gas system, how much work has been done?
W = PΔV joules of work; on a P-V graph, this makes a rectangle; Isobaric Process
Non-conservation of energy equation
W(non-conservative) = ΔE = ΔEp + ΔEk; the work done on the object by the non-conservative force is the change in energy it experiences, equal to the energy lost from the system (converted into something else)
Magnetization strength of the diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic materials in external field
WEAK/NONE (slightly antimagnetic) WEAK (unpaired electrons = dipole moment = strongly align with field and magnetize) STRONG (unpaired electrons = dipole moment = strongly align and magnetize)
When is static pressure greater: narrow or wide pipes? dynamic?
WIDE PIPES FOR NARROW NARROW PIPES FOR DYNAMIC Bernoulli's equation states that "For incompressible, inviscid flow, Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure + Hydrostatic Pressure = CONSTANT along the STREAMLINE". That means when a liquid is flowing through the pipe, if velocity is increased, its STATIC pressure will decrease but that is along a streamline. In your case (for water), hydrostatic pressure will play an important role. If diameter of a pipe is reduced, the STATIC pressure in the line will decrease unless your pressure gauges are faulty or elevation of line is decreasing (pipe has a negative slope). Moreover, it is also depend upon which pressure you are talking about. If you are talking about DYNAMIC Pressure (kinetic energy per unit volume), with the increase in the velocity, DYNAMIC pressure will increase. So the proper JUSTIFICATION of your answer is: In a water flowing pipeline, if the diameter of a pipe is reduced, the DYNAMIC pressure in the line will increase. Bernoulli's theorem says that there should be a reduction in STATIC pressure when the area is reduced.
What is performed on an object by non-conservative forces?
WORK
If you calculate doing work in 2 different ways (that should incur mechanical advantage), what will be different between calculations? What will be the same?
WORK will be the same in both, but the FORCE and DISPLACEMENT will be different
Why does hyperventilating into a bag help?
When hyperventilating, you are quickly blowing off CO2, and your blood becomes basic. If you breathe into a bag, the bag catches some CO2, and returns it to your blood to acidify it.
If you are doing research and your (valid, correctly working) algorithm puts WAY more girls in one group than the other, how do you proceed?
YOU DO NOTHING; the standard is to continue with research as normal, don't manipulate it and try to get a lot of guys in the group or something
What sex chromosome do sperm carry?
X or Y
How much blood is in venous circulation as opposed to arterial circulation?
X3 as much in venous circuit
Exponents: fractional exponents
X^(a/b) = b√x^a, where the denominator changes to the b'th root
Can we consciously control breathing?
YES! Slower, faster, but medulla will override eventually
Can ammeters, voltmeters, and ohmmeters be used at the same time?
YES! They are designed to minimally impact a circuit
Do 𝛽-particles penetrate things?
YES! They're VERY small (x1836 smaller than a proton)
Is discharging current through wires attached to a capacitor a "normal" function?
YES! Unlike if charge discharges from 1 plate to another
Are Na+ and K+ constantly having net movements in/out of the neuron? Why?
YES!; because they keep ruining each other's equilibrium voltage in which there would be no net movement of the ions; Na+ is driving for +60mV and K+ for -90mV, and thus they keep moving to achieve that while ruining it for the other; this would cause a net change in charge without ion pumps
Does separating homologous chromosomes from each other in division change ploidy?
YES; although the homologues can be made of 2 sisters, this does not make them diploid TRICK: PLOIDY DETERMINED BY NUMBER OF CENTROMERES
standard deviation
a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean MEASURE OF DISTRIBUTION
Aldosterone
a mineralocorticoid (produced by adrenal cortex) in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system that INCREASES SODIUM REABSORPTION IN DISTOL CONVOLUTED TUBULE and COLLECTING DUCT OF THE NEPHRON, and decreases that of K/H so they're peed out; water follows the Na into blood to increase blood volume/pressure; PLASMA OSMOLARITY UNCHANGED since they flowed together (concentration unaffected), unlike ADH, which only affects water to decrease osmolarity/conc'n
What common mutation causes cancer? Why?
a mutation in TP53 (codes p53); this means cell cycle continues without checking DNA integrity
Placebo
a negative control used for drug trials (controls that check for NO CHANGE IN DEPENDENT variable when not expected) & checking for placebo effect
Reynolds Number
a number depending on the size, shape, surface roughness of any objects in the fluid in the critical speed equation (vc = Nr𝜂 /𝜚D) that is the tipping point before turbulent flow The Reynolds number is used to study fluids as they flow. The Reynolds number determines whether a fluid flow is laminar or turbulent. Flowing fluids normally follow along streamlines.
Normal Distribution
a perfectly symmetrical unimodal distribution; mean median and mode are right at the centre, and data is 68% within 1 SD, 95% 2, and 99% 3
When an electron falls from a high to lower orbit, _________________ is emitted
a photon a light
tip-to-tail method
a way to find the sum or resultant of two vectors A and B, is to place the tail of B at the tip of A without changing either length or direction of either arrow. The vector A+B is the vector joining the tail of A to the top of B.
Random Error
a way to give error in experiments that is hard to avoid; usually overcome with LARGE SAMPLE GROUPS
When measuring with a ruler that goes down to the millimeter, the number of digits we can use for a) the calculation and b) the answer are...
a) calculation: can keep it down to the tenths-of-millimeters for math, but in b) the answer, must reduce down to the millimeter, because that's all we can be certain of
deceleration
acceleration in the direction opposite the initial velocity.
What can pressure cause...?
acceleration, because it can result in unbalanced forces
Bias affect the ______________ of research, but not ______________. It is usually caused by errors during...
accuracy, not precision this means that the data collected is skewed in 1 direction that does not accurately represent the truth; usually occurs during data collection when you collect data from a group that does not accurately represent what you're looking for
What neurotransmitters (and at pre/postganglionic neurons) activate parasympathetic NS?
acetylcholine at both!
What neurotransmitters (and at pre/postganglionic neurons) activate sympathetic NS?
acetylcholine at preganglionic, epinephrine at postganglionic
Plane-Polarized Light
aka linearly polarized light; light in which the (by convention) electric fields of all the waves are oriented in the same direction (vectors are parallel); note magnetic fields also are but the convention is to refer to the electric fields
Fertilization
after the 2˚ oocyte ovulates from the follicle (day 14), it sits in fallopian tube ampulla for 24 hours waiting to be fertilized; sperm makes contact and acrosomal enzymes allow it to penetrate corona radiata + zona pellucida, forms acrosomal apparatus, THEN oocyte completes meiosis II, then pronucleus enters the cell membrane via AcApp, then cortical reaction (Ca2+ release to depolarize membrane to prevent further fertilization as "Fertilization Membrane" and increases metabolic rate)
Fallopian Tube
aka Oviduct; location where cilia draw an egg from the peritoneal sac into itself during ovulation; connected to uterus
Induced Decay
aka Position Emission; a positron has the mass of an electron but (+) charge; overall, atom decays a 𝛽+ particle, and a proton in it becomes a neutron to maintain charge; lower Z, but mass number doesn't change: X ➝ Y(Z-1) + 𝛽+
Type I Error
aka Significance Level (α); likelihood to reject the null hypothesis when it is true; yes-no
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
aka Vasopressin; released by posterior pituitary via nerve firings from hypothalamus; increases permeability of reabsorption of water through ducts in kidneys ("anti-diarrhea"); secreted in response to increased osmolarity or low blood volume (increase solutes in blood, meaning not enough water as sensed by baroreceptors/vessel stretch receptors)
Type II Error
aka β; likelihood of accepting the null hypothesis when it is false; no-yes
Common teratogens
alcohol, prescription drugs, viruses, bacteria, chemicals (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)
Bacteria
all contain cell membrane, cytoplasm, some have flagella, fimbriae (similar to cilia)
Important fluid dynamic assumptions for the MCAT
all containers are rigid, all liquids are uniform density ASSUME CONSERVATION OF ENERGY FOR LOW DENSITY AND IDEAL DENSITY SUBSTANCES
What is included in the PNS?
all nerve fibers outside brain & spine; 31 pairs of spinal nerves, 10 of 12 cranial nerves (optic & olfactory are outgrowths of the CNS)
Lungs: Immune Function?
all of the cilia etc. stop invaders from getting to the blood (sine airway is highly vascularized); 1st Line of defense: nasal cavity (vibrissae hair trap particles & lysozyme destroys peptidoglycan of G+ bacteria), 2nd Line: internal airways lined with mucous & cilia properly it to the oral cavity ("Mucociliary Escalator") to spit or swallow, 3rd Line: immune cells 1) macrophages engulf invaders and signal that it's here, 2) IgA antibodies in mucosal surfaces bind & 3) mast cells in lungs with antibodies launch inflammation/immune response (overreaction = allergies)
Vulva
all of the external female reproductive anatomy
The photoelectric effect is '________________', meaning only if the frequency of the incident photon >ft (threshold frequency), then this gives the wave enough ________________ to eject the electron
all-or-nothing; energy
Purpose of being a retrovirus
allows infection to continue indefinitely; host replicates with and constantly produces virions
Direction of Electrostatic Force
along the line between the centers of 2 charged particles; AWAY if like charge, TOGETHER if opposite charge
Hypophysis
an alternate name for the pituitary; i.e. why Hypophyseal Portal System is the name of the thing that connect the hypothalamus to the pituitary
Blackbody
an object that absorbs all wavelengths of light, which makes it appear black so long as ITS TEMPERATURE IS LOWER THAN ITS SURROUNDINGS
Slit-Lens System: single-slit dark spot location equation
asin𝜃 = n𝜆; a is the width of the slit, theta is the angle between the axis of the lens & line from the centre of the lens to the dark spot, n is the number indicating the # dark spot it is, and 𝜆 is the indecent wavelength
When is an embryo considered a fetus?
at 8 week, when the organs, auxiliary structures, brain, bone skeleton have formed
Dendrites
appendages off the cell body of a neuron that receive incoming signals
For thin spherical lenses, the focal lengths of either side of the lens...
are EQUAL; thus we refer to there being 1 focal length
Inclined planes
are another example of two-dimensional movement. it is often easiest to consider the dimensions as being parallel and perpendicular to the surface of the plane.
Vectors
are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction. can be represented by arrows. the direction of the arrow indicated the direction of the vector. the length of the arrow is usually proportional to the magnitude of the vector quantity.
Kirchhoff's Junction Rule
at any point/junction in a circuit, the sum of currented directed into the point = the sum of currents directed away from that point; I(leaving) = I(entering); e.g., if 1 wire brings 5A to a junction, and it forks into paths A and B, and path A carries 3A, path B must carries 2A
In the absolute pressure equation, what usually is Po?
atmospheric pressure in day-to-day problems (1 atm); but BE CAREFUL, it's "pressure at the surface of the fluid" (e.g., pressure inside a pressure cooker, higher than the outside world!)
What is the molecular setup of conductors? Thus, why type of elements/compounds are they?
atoms are in seas of electrons that are loosely associated with nuclei (thus generally metals & ionic electrolyte solutions)
Why does total capacitance drop in a series of capacitors?
because they share the voltage drop and cannot store as much charge; if we were to pretend this was 1 capacitor, it would have a greater DISTANCE between plates (the sum of distance to each capacitor added together), thus dropping C according to C = 𝜀0(A/d)
Why do we consider pressure scalar?
because think about a gas in a box; if exerts force on all sides; there is no 1 direction
Categorical Variables
belonging to a category; province, socioeconomic group
Why does adding a dielectric material between the plated of a capacitor decrease capacitance?
because voltage across the capacitor DECREASES because the dielectric material SHIELDS THE OPPOSITE CHARGES FROM EACH OTHER, thus increasing C according to C = Q/V
Obligate Anaerobes (bacteria)
bacteria that CANNOT live in oxygen; oxygen produces O-CONTAINING RADICALS that kill them
Facultative Anaerobes (bacteria)
bacteria that can toggle between aerobic/anaerobic depending on their environment
Aerotolerant Anaerobes (bacteria)
bacteria that do not require oxygen, but can tolerate its presence
Anaerobes (bacteria)
bacteria that require no oxygen for metabolism; ferment or do something else
Obligate Aerobes (bacteria)
bacteria that require oxygen for their metabolism
Why is work pushing down on piston 1 in the hydraulic system equal to work pushing up on piston 2?
because W = F1d1 = F2d2; although F and d are different on both sides, from piston 1 to piston 2, F1 is scaled up to F2 by the same factor that d1 is scaled down to d2; = 1!
Why is sound intensity lost over distance traveled?
because energy is lost to damping from friction (lower amplitude) and dissipates (negligible usually) & sound expands in a larger and larger spherical area, over which its energy spreads
Why is the respiratory system able to partake in thermoregulation?
because it is high vascularized, so it can detect heat changes!
Why is the left lung indented and smaller than the right?
because it makes room for the heart, which is also in the thoracic cavity!
Blinding (Research)
because the subject OR researcher knowing what treatment is applied may bias causing no Placebo Effect in the control groups, thus you Blind this info from them; 'Single' means only experimenter or patient is blind, 'Double' means both are
Why are enveloped viruses easier to kill?
because their envelopes are very sensitive
Why is there a loss of volume from our circulation system? How do we restore this volume?
because there is a difference between osmotic (oncotic) and hydrostatic pressures; lymphatic flow restores it
Why is the second law of thermodynamics called "time's arrow"?
because there is a unidirectional limit on the movement of energy; known as before and after (or old-new); energy constantly disperses: ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings > 0; entropy always increases in the universe because the universe is expanding and spreading its energy
Why are metals good heat conductors? Why are gases poor heat conductors?
because they form 'metal bonds' with metal atoms in seas of electrons; easy molecular collisions and heating of metal too much space between molecules; can't collide to effectively transfer
Larynx
below the pharynx/ only air enters; achieved as glottis (opening) is covered by the epiglottis (cartilage piece) when swallowing food; contains 2 vocal cords controlled by skeletal muscle/cartilage
X-Ray Diffraction
bending of x-rays to create a model of molecules; often combined with protein crystallography for protein analysis in a light-dark 2D image
The 4 Core Ethical Tenants of Medicine
beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy, justice
Prokaryote reproduction
binary fission (asexual) = DNA attaches to cell wall and replicates, cell grows; grows inward at midline/pinches producing 2 identical daughters
How does cAMP act as a secondary messenger?
binds to things like Protein Kinase A, which phosphorylated transcription factors to alter gene expression, like cAMP-Response-Element-Binding-Protein (CREB), thus completing the effects of the hormone
Hypophyseal Portal System
blood vessel system connecting hypothalamus to anterior pituitary; how hypo sends tropic hormones to AP and NO WHERE ELSE in the body's blood
To cause the photoelectric effect, the frequency of light needed is...
blue to UV
Uses of Ca by our bodies (4)
bone structure/strength, releases neurotransmitters, regulates muscle contraction, a cofactor to clotting factors
What happens to voltage/energy as current passes through each resistor in series ?
both DROP in an ADDITIVE fashion; Vs = V1 + V2 + V3...
Mutualistic symbiotic relationship w/ bacteria
both humans and bacteria benefit; e.g., bacteria produce our vitman K and B7 (biotin) and prevent the growth of harmful bacteria
Anencephaly
brain does not develop (no complete closure of neural tube); occurs due to low folic acid in pregnancy; consistently fatal as opposed to spina bifida
How is a baby blood detoxified/metabolism regulated?
by the MOM'S LIVER; baby's liver does nothing yet
Wave Equation (EM waves)
c = f𝜆
Organizing Cells
cells that release inducers to induce differentiation in neighboring cells in induction
To change the natural frequency of an object...
change some aspect of the object! E.g., filling glasses with different amount of water makes them vibrate at different frequencies and produce different pitches
Properties shared by solids and fluids
can exert force perpendicular to their surface; e.g., a falling fluid (water) can hit you just as hard as a solid
How does flow rate change if: 1) radius of tube is increased, 2) pressure increases, 3) viscosity increases, 4) length of tube increases?
can get this ALL from looking at Flow Rate Equation; 1) increases 2) increases 3) decreases 4) decreases
Turbulent Flow w/o an obstacle
can occur when the speed of a fluid exceeds its Critical Speed (Turbulence)(depends on viscosity, diameter of tube, etc.); the fluid will demonstrate complex flow patterns with thin laminar flow adjacent to the tube walls (Boundary Layer); high energy loss due to friction
Other 'systems' the respiratory system interacts with
cardiovascular, immune, renal, nervous
Why are steroid hormones carried by carriers in the blood? What problems can this cause?
carried by SPECIFIC or NON-SPECIFIC (albumin) carriers in the blood because they are non-polar and won't dissolve; these carriers inactivate the hormone, which if you produce too much, will inhibit hormones (e.g., thyroid hormones & thyroxine-binding globulin)
Umbilical Vein
carries oxygenated-nutrient blood to the embryo from placenta
Negative (-) RNA Viruses
carry RNA Replicase in virion; synthesized its own complementary strand of +RNA
Pulmonary Arteries
carry blood AWAY from heart to lungs, deoxygenated
Pulmonary Veins
carry blood TO from heart to lungs, re-oxygenated
Epiglottis
cartilage piece that blocks the glottis (opening of the larynx) to prevent food in when swallowing, only allowing air Epiglottis is open when food is not passing, and it is covering the glottis when food IS passing
Bar Charts
categorical data with data proportional to bar length; usually exclude breaks to not distort scale CATEGORICAL
Correlation ≠...
causation
Prokaryote relevance to medicine
cause INFECTIONS
Cell Cycle Control
cell checks if it should go into mitosis at G1-S and G-M checkpoints
G2 (Postsynthetic Gap) Stage
cell cycle; 96 chromosomes; cell checks that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm for 2 daughters and that DNA was replicated correctly
G1 (Presynthetic Gap) Stage
cell cycle; cell creates and increases size of organelles for ENERGY and PROTEIN PRODUCTION (mito, ribo, ER)
S (Synthesis of DNA) Stage
cell cycle; cell duplicates genetic material so daughters have identical copies (sister chromatids)
Necrosis
cell death as a result of injury (NOT programmed); internal substances CAN leak and irritate env
Prokaryotes cell structure
cell wall, flagella
Neural Crest Cells
cells at the peaks of the neural folds; becomes PNS (sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla cus it has nerves, Schwann Cells) & disparate tissues (calcitonin-producers of the thyroid, melanocytes of the skin, dorsal ganglia)
Cancer & cell cycle control
cells damaged, cell cycle deranged, and cells somehow still do mitosis (usually damage to gene TP53)
Cell Migration & development
cells disconnect from adjacent structure and move to correct location; e.g., anterior pituitary originates from oral ectoderm and must migrate to top of mouth just below hypothalamus
Responsive Cells
cells that accept inducers from neighboring cells to be differentiated in induction
Stem Cells
cells that have not differentiation OR give rise to other cells; exist in embryonic AND adult tissues; potency determines that they can differentiate into
Hfr (higher frequency of recombination) Cells
cells that have the sex plasmid transformed into their genome
Maternal Health (impact on baby)
changes in mother can under or overexpose embryo/fetus to certain chemicals; e.g., hyperglycemia of mother leads to fetus too large to deliver and causes baby to over-produce insulin; e.g., low folic acid prevents complete closure of neural tube (= spina bifida; nervous system exposed to outside world, OR anencephaly; brain does not develop)
Multiplying a vector by a scalar:
changes the magnitude of the vector and may reverse the direction. *B* = n*A* To find magnitude of the new vector B, you multiply A by |n| to determine the direction of the new vector B, we must look at the sign on n. If n is positive, then B and A are in the same direction. if n is negative, then B and A are in opposite directions,
Vetor subtraction is accomplished by:
changing the direction of the subtracted vector and then following the the procedures for vector addition. *A*-*B* = *A* + (-*B*)
Law of Conservation of Charge
charges cannot be created or destroyed, just transferred
Changes in _________________ will shift the absorption of light of a substance.
chemical structure
Prophase
chromatin condense to chromosomes (visible!) centriole pairs from the centrosome region (outside nucleus) to the poles and divide DNA correctly via Spindle Fibers at the Kinetochore (microtubules) and Asters nuclear membrane dissolves nucleoli fade/disappear
For the acid-base indicator phenolphthalein, it appears _________________ when acidic and _________________ when basic; this difference is because its _________________ changes as a titration takes place, which changes the _________________ pattern exhibited
clear; pink; chemical structure; (light) absorption
Means are good estimators when values are _____________, but when not, '_____________' are values that skew the mean and make it inappropriate
close; outliers
Cell-Cell Communication (differentiation) is based on _____________
communication based on the location of a cell and the identity of the surroundings cells can affect differentiation; organizing cells send signals, then the receiving cell also sends signals
Direction of magnetic field in straight/circular wire
concentric ring around the wire; Right-Hand Rule #1: thumb in the direction of the current, wrap your fingers around the wire, and the direction your fingers wrap is the direction of the magnetic field around it
Regulation of Breathing
controlled by ventilation center in medulla: fires rhythmically to control the respiratory muscles VC contains chemoreceptors that read [CO2] and [O2]: 1) when CO2 raises ("hypercarbia" or "hypercapnia") respiratory rate increases to exhale it, 2) when O2 drops (hypoxia) it increases breathing (hyperventilation)
Farsighted glasses have lenses that are ________________ with ________________ power
converging (concave); positive power
How an ultrasound machine works to heal
creates friction/heat in tissue, which increases blood flow, promoting healing
How is the gram stain performed?
crystal violet stain, then counterstain safranin
Resistors in "Parallel"
current divides and can pass through resistors individually; there is 1 COMMON HIGH POTENTIAL TERMINAL & 1 COMMON LOW POTENTIAL TERMINAL; there is a "choice" for where electrons will flow
Alternating Current (AC)
current in which charge flows IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS, CHANGING PERIODICALLY; e.g., electricity supplied long distances to homes when an AC circuit is activated, the power source starts shoving on electrons at one end of a wire. This shoving is periodic: the closest electron to the source gets pushed forward a tiny amount, but then it gets pulled back. Overall, the electron doesn't go anywhere. But remember that electrons can't stand to get too close to each other---as soon as the electron in the back of the line gets pushed forward by the power source, the electron right in front of him in the line gets pushed forward a little bit, too
By ejecting an electron in a the photoelectric effect, a ________________ is created; it is strengthened by a higher ________________ of light, meaning more ________________ are emitted
current; INTENSITY; electrons
(The Doppler Effect) when the listener and emitter are both moving, the pitch/frequency perceived...? equation?
depends on their RELATIVE speeds, use the equation f' = f (v ± vD)/(v ∓ vs) TIP: SIGN CONVERSION: TOP SIGN = TOWARD, BOTTOM SIGN = AWAY
Unit vector notation
describes vectors by breaking them into there x, y and z components and are denoted by "i-hat", "j-hat" and "k-hat"
Lysozyme in immune respiratory function
destroys peptidoglycan of G+ bacteria
Hypothesis tests & confidence intervals are used to...
determine conclusions about the POPULATION based on data from SAMPLES; each have a 'risk' of being wrong
Sex of the zygote is determined by ____________? (gene/chromosome)
determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes; XX F and XY M
Cretinism
developmental and intellectual delays/disability due to low thyroid hormones; THEY ARE CRITICAL TO PROPER DEVELOPMENT
Estrogen in fetal development produces the __________
develops the reproductive tract
Voltmeters
devices that measure voltage drop across TWO POINTS in a wire; wired in parallel to the 2 points; ideally INFINITE RESISTANCE so it doesn't mess with the current
Endorphins
direct horm'n released by the anterior pituitary in response to pain; = high/rush/euphoria; pharmaceuticals like morphine mimic it
Is host lysis advantageous or disadvantageous for a virus?
disadvantageous; lose the luxury of using the host cell for its life cycle
When a cell is discharging vs recharging, what "electrochemical" labels do we give it?
discharging = "galvanic/voltaic cell", recharging = "electrolytic cell"
Chromatic Aberration is a ________________ effect with a ________________ lens where, depending on the ________________ of the lens, white light may be ________________ significantly which can result in a ________________ around images; this is corrected in cars/lenses with a ________________ that has different dispersive qualities than the lens at the edges
dispersive; spherical lens; depending on the thickness; split significantly; rainbow halo around; coating
Relationship between pulley load and pulley effort
effort = load/n, where n is the number of ropes/pulleys acting on the mass
If a neurotransmitter acts on a GPCR, what happens?
either inc/dec of cAMP or inc in Ca2+
Secondary Batteries
electrical cells that can be recharged by applying an EXTERNAL voltage to drive current pack to + end of the voltage
What is the molecular setup of insulators? Thus, what type of elements are insulators?
electrons are closely linked to their nuclei (i.e. non-metals)
What is the relative strength of electrostatic to gravitational force?
electrostatic is always waaaayyyyy STRONGER; you can see this by punching in the electrostatic vs gravitational equations for 2 charged particles
Allantois? what does it eventually become?
embryonic structure that exchanges early fluids between yolk sac and embryo; umbilical cord made from its remnants
Gamma Decay
emission of 𝛾-rays (high frequency/energy rays); simply lower the energy of the parent nucleus; equation notes high energy nucleus by an asterisk (X✹➝ X + 𝛾); NO CHANGE TO Z OR A OF THE ATOM!!!!!
Open Boundaries
end of a wave's medium that allow maximal wave oscillation and correspond to antinodes; e.g., the end of a string you swing with your fingers, the the end of a flag waving in air
Closed Boundaries (wave)
end of a wave's medium that does not allow wave oscillation and corresponds to a node; e.g., the end of a string pinned in 2 places
Posterior Pituitary
endocrine gland connected to axons from the hypothalamus that releases 1) ADH and 2) oxytocin; they are PRODUCED IN HYPOTHALAMUS and simply coordinated to fire/release from posterior pituitary
Electric Potential Energy
energy dependent on the relative position of charges in space; the WORK REQUIRED to bring a charge from infinitely far to that point in the field of a source charge; U = kQq/r Electric potential energy is the energy that is needed to move a charge against an electric field. You need more energy to move a charge further in the electric field, but also more energy to move it through a stronger electric field; ex: you need more electric potential energy to move a positive particle away from a negatively charged plate (which the particle is going to want to gravitate to) The energy that you used to move the particle away from the plate is stored in the particle as electrical potential energy. It is the potential that the particle has to move when it's let go.
Electric Potential Energy if charges are OPPOSITE
energy is negative; attractive; the closer they are, the more stable they are (the number will become more and more negative which means smaller and smaller energy, REGARDLESS OF ABSOLUTE VALUE OF THOSE NUMBERS)
Electric Potential Energy if charges are LIKE
energy is positive; attractive; the farther they are, the more stable they are (if they move closer, the magnitude of the positive energy increases, meaning more energy and less stable; but if they move apart, magnitude goes down, and more stable)
Elastic Potential Energy
energy when some elastic (e.g., spring) is stretched form its characteristic equilibrium length
Second Law of Thermodynamics (Entropy)
energy will be dispersed from localization to spread out if it is not stopped from doing so; spontaneous! (increase entropy)
Potential Energy
energy with the POTENTIAL to do work; energy associated with 1) an object's position in space or 2) the qualities of a system (chemical bonds, electrostatic attraction, gravity, elastic)
When an electron is hit by a photon, the photon has to have EXACTLY enough _________________ to launch an electron from 1 orbit to the next; this is equal to...
energy; the energy difference between the orbits
Reverse Transcriptase
enzyme carried by retroviruses to synthesize DNA from their ssRNA
Archaea are historically known as ________________
extremophiles; lived in isolated/harsh environments (high T, high salinity, no light); HOWEVER, some now known to live in other places, like human body
if P > α, we ________________ the null hypothesis, and if P < α we ________________ the null hypothesis between 2 populations
fail to reject (there is no statistical significance); reject (there IS a statistical difference)
Where does the zygote travel after fertilization?
fallopian tube → uterus (as it becomes the blastocyst, not immediately)
Fetal Immunity
fetus is immunologically naïve (has never been exposed to/prepped against pathogens); the Placental Barrier blocks them (most are too large to cross), but accidental exposure happens in utero; mother's antibodies will cross into
Sperm Midpiece
filled with mitochondria; generates the energy to swim through female reproductive tract (to the ovum in fallopian tubes)
Polarizers
filters that allow EM waves polarized only in 1 direction to pass
the equation that gives the magnitude of kinetic friction is:
fk = μkN μk: coefficient of kinetic friction N: is the normal force this will only equal one constant value, where as the fs equation can be a range of values.
Squamous Epithelia
flat and scale like
Plane Mirrors
flat reflective surfaces; in general, create the appearance that the 'virtual' image is coming from behind the mirror
Nerve Terminal (Synaptic Bouton/Knob)
flattened end of the axon to allow for maximal transmission of neurotransmitters
Does flow rate depend on cross-sectional area of the pipe? Does linear speed?
flow rate NO (constant in a pipe, volume/time) but linear speed YES (to maintain a constant flow rate, narrow parts of the pipe must move liquid faster than wider ones)
Profound physical symptoms and physiological change of menopause
flushing, hot flashes, bloating, headaches, irritability
4 phases of the menstrual cycle
follicular, ovulation, luteal, menstruation
Second Harmonic (first overtone)
for a standing wave, where 𝜆 = 2L/n where n = 2; 1 more 1/2 wavelength fits on the wave in the string
Pascal's Principle
for incompressible fluids (almost all liquids; V cannot change), a change in pressure is transmitted undiminished to points of the system: ALL of the fluid and to the walls of the container (e.g., if a milk carton is pressed on, the same pressure is applied to the milk inside as to the walls)
Polyuria
frequent urination because glucose is in pee (hyperglycemia causing it to be peed out), since glucose cannot cross cell membranes and thus the osmolarity drags water into the nephron with it
In which direction do waste and CO2 move from a fetus?
from the fetus' blood to mother's
Progeny Assembly Stage
genes (COPIED INTO THEIR ORIGINAL FORM!) packaged into capsid proteins (e.g., ssRNA retroviruses must make ssRNA again from the dsDNA to continue on)
Transposons
genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from genomes; in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Virus Structure
genetic material, protein coat, SOMETIMES envelope of lipids
+Sense rna
genome acts act mRNA; can be translated into protein
Astrocytes
glia that nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier; controls the transmission of solutes from bloodstream to nervous tissue
List of steroid hormones
glucocorticoids (cortisol, cortisone), mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), Sex cortical steroids (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone)
Cortisol & Cortisone
glucocorticoids (produced by adrenal cortex) that regulate blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis in "times of stress", increasing blood sugar so body can react; decrease inflammation and immunity
Neural Crest Cells cell migration
go from edge of neural fold to ALL over the body to make all sorts of structure (sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla, Schwann cells, specific calcitonin producers of the thyroid, melanocytes)
Trigonometric Function Graphs
good for getting a quick angle based on the value of the trig function; MEMORIZE
Controversy of stem cell harvesting/therapy & solution
harvesting embryonic stem cells kills an embryo, but their totipotency can be used for regenerative medicine (spinal cord, heart) & the different genetics may cause immune rejection and even cancer; instead researcher look into adult multipotent stem cells and use transcription factors to induce them to make other tissues FROM THE SAME PATIENT (isn't unethical doesn't risk rejection) although challenging to induce because of the cocktails of TFs and signals from other tissues needed; research continues
Human viroids
hepatitis D virus (HDV), usually okay; BUT if infected also with HBV, HDV will silence human hepatocytes
How an ultrasound machine works to image
high frequency and shorter wavelength waves; transmitter generates a pressure gradient, which is also a receiver for REFLECTED sound (but never function that way at the same time): using known speed & travel time of the sound wave, the machine draws the borders/angles by calculating distance; requires an interface to visualize anything as sound must reflect back The ultrasound machine transmits high-frequency (1 to 5 megahertz) sound pulses into your body using a probe. ... The machine displays the distances and intensities of the echoes on the screen, forming a two dimensional image like the one shown below.
Temperature (Resistance)
higher T = higher resistance since atoms thermally oscillate, resistant electron flow
Totipotent Stem Cells
highest potency; embryonic stem calls that can differentiate into ANY cell type (fetus OR placenta)
Functions of the human nervous system
homeostasis, sensation and perception, motor function, cognition, problem solving, executive function/planning, language, memory, emotion, balance, endocrine signals, heart rate, breathing, vascular resistance, temperature, exocrine glands
Metaphase I
homologous pairs (tetrads) align at metaphase plate (INSTEAD OF EACH CHROMOSOME!), each chromosome attached to only 1 spindle fibre
ACTH
horm'n released by the anterior pituitary in response to CRF from hypo; acts on adrenal cortex
TSH
horm'n released by the anterior pituitary in response to TRH; acts on thyroid
Erythropoietin
hormone of the kidneys; stimulates bone marrow to increase production of erythrocytes (RBC) when kidneys sense low O2 in blood
Melatonin
hormone of the pineal gland; acts through an unknown mechanism to produce Circadian Rhythm & the sensation of sleepiness; releases when retina sends signals of reduced light
Thymosin
hormone of the thymus that triggers T-cell development/formation; thymus atrophies by adulthood and drops thymosin
First and second messengers in terms of hormone action
hormones are charged and cannot pass into cell via PLBL, so they bind to a receptor as the fire messenger, and activate a signal inside known as the second messenger via signalling cascade
Direct Hormones
hormones that are secreted and act DIRECTLY on the target tissue (e.g., insulin released cause direct uptake of glucose)
Tropic Hormones
hormones that require and INTERMEDIATE to act; e.g., GnRH from hypothalamus causes releases of LH and FSH which then act on gonads for testosterone/estrogen; GnRH and LH do not directly cause this, they activate the things that do, so they're tropic; USUALLY ORGINATE IN BRAIN/ANT PITUITARY to coordinate multiple effects around the body
Lytic Cycle
host cell swells with virions, lyses, and infect other
Bicarbonate Buffer System
how the respiratory system controls blood pH; CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-; the body will use Le Châtelier's Principle (e.g., wants to raise blood pH, will exhale CO2, thus push eqn left, thus drop blood carbonic acid, thus raising pH)
Dichorionic/Diamniotic Twins
identical twins that share different chorion and amnion structures; separately early; low risk of problems
Monochorionic/Monoamniotic Twins
identical twins that share the same chorion and amnion structures; separated late; high risk of problems
Increased cross-section of flow for an INCOMPRESSIBLE fluid
if a fluid moves through a pipe that increases cross sectional area, the rate of volume/mass FLOW RATE passing at any point is the same (identical flow rate) SINCE A INCREASES, V DECREASES -> CONSTANT FLOW RATE
Pregnancy and the menstrual cycle
if, before menstruation, a zygote is created: zygote → blastocyst, blastocyst implants in the uterine lining, Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) (analog of LH) released by blastocyst and maintain corpus luteum/progesterone as LH would
In a multiple lens system where they are not in contact, the ________________ of 1 lens becomes the ________________ of the next; the image from the last lens is considered the...
image of 1 lens becomes the object of the next; last image = 'Image of the entire system'
3rd line of immune defense by the airway (3)
immune cells: 1) macrophages engulf invaders and signal that it's here, 2) IgA antibodies in mucosal surfaces bind & 3) mast cells in lungs with antibodies launch inflammation/immune response (overreaction = allergies)
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy? aka? caused by?
mad cow disease; caused by prions
Disjunction (meiosis)
in anaphase I; aka segregation; homologous pairs are pulled to opposite poles of the cell (as opposed to the sisters of each); the paternal and maternal chromosomes can end up IN ANY CELL
Hypothalamus (endocrine)
in forebrain above pituitary and below thalamus; bridges nervous to endocrine system; regulates pituitary via tropic hormones that it releases into a portal between them; organism-wide effects; receives input from all over (e.g., Suprachiasmatic Nucleus of the hypoth receives light from retina to control sleep; some respond to blood osmolarity; some appetite); interacts DISTINCTLY with anterior/posterior pituitary
If the value of i (image distance) is positive for a mirror, the image is ________________ of mirror (real), but if negative, it's ________________ (virtual)(single mirror)
in front; behind
If the value of o (object distance) is positive for a mirror, the object is ________________ of the mirror, and if negative, it's ________________ (single mirror)
in front; behind
How does the male reproductive and urinary systems interact? In females?
in males, they share a pathway - THEY DO NOT IN FEMALES
How are neurotransmitters stored before release?
in membrane-bound vesicles
Microstates
in statistical mechanics, = the number of potential states a molecule can take on; increases with heat/potential energy AT THE PHASE CHANGE POINT: e.g., water gains heat at 0˚C, moves apart increasing Ep instead of Ek, gains microstates (possible rotations, movement etc. it can be in!), but same amount of movement (keeping Ek and T the same)
Gastrointestinal Endocrine Tissue
in stomach/intestine; peptide hormones of gastrin, secretin, CCK produced in the presence of specific nutrients
Linear motion
includes free fall and motion in which the velocity and acceleration vectors are parallel or antiparallel the object's velocity and acceleration are along the line of motion, so the pathway of the moving object continues along a straight line. example: a ball being dropped from some height. (free fall)
What kinds of chemicals guide the formation of nearby cells to differentiate into particular cell types?
inducers!
Prions
infections proteins (non-living); disease by triggering misfolding of proteins (usually a-helix to b-sheet), reducing solubility and the ability to degrade the protein; protein aggregates and interferes with cell function
Errors with _______________ in the lab may lead to inaccurate readings
instruments
To determine things like '68% of data falls within 1 SD', we use the process of...
integration
Transformation (cells)
integration of foreign genes into the host (e.g., integration of other bacteria's DNA into a bacterium when they lyse and spill their DNA close to the other to be absorbed)
Light that contains all colours in equal _______________ is perceived as...
intensity; white!
Beneficence (ethical research)
intent to cause net positive change for the study & general populations & minimize harms; can be personal satisfaction to participants, future benefit to target pop'n, etc.; not it doesn't have to be ALL positive, just leave invasive/painful/traumatic & you must act properly with clinical equipoise
2nd line of immune defense by airway
internal airways lined with mucous & cilia propel it to the oral cavity ("Mucociliary Escalator") to spit or swallow
Location of pathogenic bacteria in body
intra OR extracellular; e.g., chlamydia trachomatis (STI) lives inside the cells of reproductive tract; e.g., clostridium tetani (tetanus) lives outside of cells and produces toxins into blood
Exponents: negative exponent
inverse the number
Cross-Sectional Area (Resistance)
inversely proportional to Resistance (R = 𝜌L/A); the bigger the cross-section, the lower the resistance; because this increases the number of CONDUCTION PATHWAYS, thus more current can flow (like a river!)
Using the magnification equation m = -i/o, if it's negative, the image is ________________, and if its positive, the image it ________________
inverted; upright
When a travelling wave hits a fixed end, the wave...
inverts! (e.g., string tied to a fixed point w/ your hand moving it); your hand creates 1 wave, and when it reaches the end IT INVERTS AND COMES BACK, interfering with the wave your hand is producing
Weight (Fg)
is a measure of gravitational force (usually that of the earth) on an object's mass. *vector* SI units for force N newtons
Projectile motion
is a motion that follows a path along two dimensions. (the velocities and accelerations in the two directions [usually horizontal and vertical] are independent of each other and must, accordingly, be analyzed separately. Contains both an x- and y-component. Assuming negligible air resistance, the only force acting on the object is gravity. On the MCAT you will be able to assume that the horizontal velocity *v*x will be constant.
coefficient of static friction μs
is a unitless quantity that is dependent on the two materials in contact. [always higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction]
If an object vibrates at multiple frequencies that have no relation to each other, its sound...
is awful, called 'noise'
The identity of intermediate filament protein is specific to ____________
is specific to CELL TYPE
F (fertility) factor (cells)
is the E. coli sex factor that allows it to form a sex pilus; those that possess are "F+ Cells"; without "F- Cells"; is replicated and donated from F+ to F- cell in conjugation, making it F+ and thus it can transfers copies to another cell!
Normal force
is the component of the force between two objects in contact that is perpendicular to the plane of contact between the object and the surface upon which it rests.
Instantaneous Speed
is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity. *scalar*
How does a fetus' skeleton form?
it begins as cartilage and hardens into bone at week 7
What happens when a piston pushes down on a gas?
it does work on the gas, compressing it
What happens to androgen production after a male is born?
it drops
1 J is represented by SI units of...
kgm^2/s^2
Only way to kill a retrovirus
kill the host cell that harbours the DNA; makes it difficult to kill them (like HIV)
Using the magnification equation m = -i/o, if |m| > 1 the image is ________________ than the object is, and if |m| < 1 the image is ________________ than the object is, obvious if = 1 the image is...
larger smaller = 1 the image and object appear the same size
Hyperglycemia of mother in pregnancy
leads to fetus too large to deliver and causes baby to over-produce insulin
Hydraulic Lift System
left and right columns filled with water connected by a tube; a pistons on each side that press on areas A1 on left (smaller piston) and A2 on right (larger piston); Piston 1 presses on A1 with pressure P1, and displaces distance d1 a liquid of volume A1d1; THE SAME VOLUME OF LIQUID MUST BE DISPLACED ON THE OTHER SIDE BECAUSE LIQUID IS INCOMPRESSIBLE; Piston 2 has a larger area A2 and is pressed on by the same pressure P1 (PRESSURE IS CONSTANT, NOT FORCE) according to Pascal's Principle; therefore F2 of Piston 2 pushing up MUST BE GREATER than what was used to push down on Piston 1 by the factor of the difference in area using equation P = F/A! NOTE THE EQUATIONS IN PIC
What physical properties of matter change with T?
length, volume, solubility, conductivity; all ƒ of temperature; note these relationships were used to make the T scales
In tube-y instruments, pitch of sound is determined by the ________ of the column, which can be changed by covered __________
length; holes
The speed of light in any medium other than a vacuum is always ________________ c
less than c c = 3.00x10^8 m/s
Field Lines
lines drawn that represent how a positive test charge would move if placed in an electric field of a source charge; basically the same as electric field vectors; show the STRENGTH of the electric field as the proximity between lines (i.e., closers to the source, the lines are radially together, but far away, there's distance between them); NOTE THEY NEVER CROSS
Peritoneal Sac
lines the abdominal cavity; where 1 egg per month is ovulated into
Thymus Endocrine Function
located behind the sternum; releases hormone Thymosin which triggers T-cell development/formation; thymus atrophies by adulthood and drops thymosin
Conversion between logs & lns and why you should use it
logx = lnx/2.303; log uses base 10 so convert to it and its easier to estimate stuff
Differences between fetal and adult circulation systems
lungs/liver don't do much, gas/nutrient/waste exchange at placenta (not baby's lungs), detoxification/metabolism done by mother's liver
2 types of virus life cycle
lytic and lysogenic, depending on growth conditions; mirror the lysis and productive cycles
In multiple lens systems where the lenses don't touch, the magnification equations is:
m = m1 x m2 x m3... etc.
Order of size of mean, median and mode in positive skew distribution
mode < median < mean
Conduction
mode of heat transfer in which DIRECT CONTACT of molecular collision transfers energy (higher Ek/faster molecules transfer to lower)
Inducers (cell-cell communication/differentiation)
molecules released to induce something in an adjacent cell; USUALLY GROWTH FACTORS (peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis of a certain tissue)
Cyclins
molecules that increase and decrease conc. during cell cycle; bind and activate specific CDKs; CDK-cyclin complex then phosphorylate transcription factors that activate genes for the next stage in the cell cycle
Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (CDKs)
molecules that phosphorylate transcription factors that activate the genes for the next step in the cell cycle; must be bound to time- and conc-dependent cyclins to work
How does CROSS_SECTION AREA of the axon affect impulse propagation?
more area = lower resistance = high conduction
How does LENGTH of the axon affect impulse propagation?
more length = high resistance = low conduction
Overall pathway of airflow in the respiratory system
nares → nasal cavity (w/ vibrissae) → pharynx → larynx → trachea → 2 bronchi → many bronchioles → alveoli
1st line of immune defense by airway
nasal cavity: vibrissae hair trap particles & lysozyme destroys peptidoglycan of G+ bacteria
Vibrissae (respiratory)
nasal hairs (along with mucous membranes) that filter air coming from the nares
Radioactive Decay
natural spontaneous reaction where certain nuclei decay & emit certain particles
Categories of processes
natural, irreversible, unnatural, reversible
OTHER muscles (than diaphragm) that can participate in breathing
neck, chest, and back muscles
What sign is work DONE ON THE SYSTEM? What does this mean?
negative (-); means the system (gas) was compressed
During pregnancy, what feedback loop is active by estrogen and progesterone?
negative feedback of estrogen and progesterone on GnRH; therefore no LH and ovum will be triggered to release
Feedback of T3 and T4
negative feedback to both TSH and TRH in hypo/ant.pit.
Spina Bifida
nervous system exposed to outside world (no complete closure of neural tube) with thin membrane (e.g., the spine); occurs due to low folic acid in pregnancy; variable effects (profound disability OR just hair covering the area)
Types of cells of the nervous system
neurons, glial cells, neuroglia
What is the charge of most matter?
neutral; + & - charges balanced
In beta decay, a _________________ decays into 3 particles:
neutron; 𝛽-particle, proton, and antineutrino ( ̅ν)
Uniform circular motion
no work is done because the displacement vector and the force vector are always perpendicular potential energy is constant
How steroid hormones exert their effect
non-polar molecules that can cross the PLBL and use intracellular receptors or intranuclear receptors; when bound, the receptor undergoes conformational change and can bind to DNA to inc/dec transcription (e.g., Dimerization, pairing 2 receptor-hormone complexes)
Do neurons physically touch?
nope, they're separated by the synaptic cleft and just release neurotransmitters into it
Anaerobic bacteria vs aerobic
not requiring oxygen vs requiring it
Phase change graph
note how at certain Ts (the transformation points), T does not increase as energy increases, demonstrating phase change
What happens to an embryos size during the first divisions of cleavage?
nothing; it literally stays the same size overall, just divided into different cells
When protons & neutrons come together (_________________), they are attracted by the _________________ force, which compensates for the electromagnetic repulsion between _________________; for the force to hold nuclei together, they must be at a very close distance for it to be effective; the bonded system's energy is _________________ that when they're non-bonded, & the difference in energy (called _________________ energy) is radiated off as some form of _________________, then _________________ becomes apparent, where the energy radiated off comes from a fraction of the _________________ of the nucleus
nucleons; Strong Nuclear Force; repulsion between protons; lower; Binding Energy; EM radiation; mass defect; fraction of the original mass When protons & neutrons come together (nucleons), they are attracted by the Strong Nuclear force, which compensates for the electromagnetic repulsion between protons; for the force to hold nuclei together, they must be at a very close distance for it to be effective; the bonded system's energy is Lower than that when they're non-bonded, & the difference in energy (called Binding energy) is radiated off as some form of EM radiation, then mass defect becomes apparent, where the energy radiated off comes from a fraction of the original mass of the nucleus
What does the mother exchange with the baby?
nutrients, gas, waste
Capacitor
objects able to HOLD/build-up charge at a particular voltage via charge separation, storing energy; e.g., defib, thunderclouds Capacitors store energy by holding apart pairs of opposite charges. Since a positive charge and a negative charge attract each other and naturally want to come together, when they are held a fixed distance apart (for example, by a gap of insulating material such as air), their mutual attraction stores potential energy that is released if they are re-united. The simplest design for a capacitor is a parallel-plate, which consists of two metal plates with a gap between them: electrons are placed onto one plate (the negative plate), while an equal amount of electrons are removed from the other plate (the positive plate).
Second Law of Thermodynamics
objects in thermal contact but not equilibrium will exchange heat so the higher T gives to the lower T until they have the same T ("thermal equilibrium")
Viruses
obligate intracellular pathogens; cannot reproduce outside host cell
Longitudinal Study
observational study following the same subjects over time, e.g. cohort studies
Translational Equilibrium
occurs in the absence of any net forces acting on an object. An object in translational equilibrium has a constant velocity, and may or may not also be in rotational equilibrium. -exists only when the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object is zero.
Rotational equilibrium
occurs in the absence of any net torques acting on an object. Rotational motion may consider any pivot point, but the center of mass is most common. An object in rotational equilibrium has a constant angular velocity, On the MCAT the angular velocity is usually 0. -exists only when the vector sum of all the torques acting on an object is zero.
Circular motion
occurs when forces cause an object to move in a circular pathway.
If the value of o (object distance) is positive for a lens, the object is ________________ of the lens, and if negative, it's ________________
on the same side of the lens as the light; on the other side of the lens as the light
Adrenal Glands
on top of the kidneys; ("ad-renal", next to kidneys); 2 of them with a cortex and a medulla, each makes different things
Pituitary Stalk
once hormones are released from the hypothalamus into Hypophyseal Portal System, they travel down this to the pituitary; OR nerves from hypo to posterior pituitary travel through here
Forced Oscillation
oscillations caused by some periodic force; the vibrations and the force have the same frequency obviously
Irreversible Process
one that cannot be undone (e.g., heat leaving a cup cannot really come back)
Unnatural Process
one that cannot happen without intervention (e.g., heat spontaneously coming back into a coffee cup)
Bifocal have 1 lens with 2 areas:
one that corrects for nearsightedness (diverging, negative power) and one for farsightedness (converging, positive power)
Natural Process
one that happens without intervention (nature does it); e.g. heat leaving a cup
Between which pieces of DNA does crossing-over occur?
only BETWEEN the homologous chromosomes, never the sisters because they're identical and that would do nothing
Magnetic Force Creation
only created when a field is present, i.e. you must be in the presence of A MOVING CHARGE (note they are not affected by their OWN field), and they only affect MOVING CHARGES; assume the charged is fixed
Primary Oocytes
oocytes that have replicated DNA before meiosis I (2n); already has occurred for all at birth of the female; arrested in anaphase I
Blastopore
opening of the Archenteron; becomes the anus in deuterostomes (like humans), or the mouth in protostomes
If the value of i (image distance) is positive for a lens, the image is ________________ of lens (real), but if negative, it's ________________ (virtual)
opposite side of the light source; same side as the light source
What 2 cranial nerves are NOT part of PNS?
optic & olfactory; are outgrowths of the CNS
Most acid-base indicators contain _________________ compounds that have different _________________ patterns, based on the _________________ bonds & _________________ rings which absorb light from the _________________ range
organic compounds; absorption patterns; double bonds & aromatic rings; visible range
'Organismal' Senescence
organism's body stops being able to respond to a changing environment
What is the "reach" of the hypothalamus?
organism-wide effects; receives input from all over (e.g., Suprachiasmatic Nucleus of the hypoth receives light from retina to control sleep; some respond to blood osmolarity; some appetite)
Anterior pituitary cell migration
originates from oral ectoderm and must migrate to top of mouth just below hypothalamus
Confounding Variables
other variables that may change the dependent variable in research; thus researcher analyze other variables about patients to see if any other correlation exists
Mutually Exclusive Outcomes
outcomes that cannot occur at the same time; e.g., flipping heads AND tails: probability is 0%
Adrenal Cortex
outer layer of adrenal glands; secretes CORTICOSTEROIDS (steroid hormones) that belong to 3 functional classes of 1) Glucocorticoids, 2) Mineralocorticoids, 3) Cortical Sex Hormones
Bacterial cell wall function
outer structure to protect from env and host immune system
If the mean & median are far from each other, this means...
outliers are skewing the mean / the distribution is skewed
L-ring and rod of flagella
outside cell wall around basal body), rod (outside cell wall around basal body
Female Sexual development outline
ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone via FSH and LH, endometrium and 2° sex characters form
G+ vs G- bacteria flagella
overall SIMILAR, but slight differences due to physical structures/chemicals of envelope
Protein used at the cell-cycle checkpoints
p53 (to check if DNA is good); guardian of the genome
Gonads
partially endocrine glands, and include the testes and ovaries
Observation Bias (Hawthorne Effect)
participants in a study change behavior because they know they're being watched; e.g., people being monitored for a drug's weight loss increase their exercising because they feel embarrassed even though they'd NEVER exercise, inflating the perceived effect of the pill
Positron
particle with the mass of an electron but (+) charge
CDK-cyclin Complex
phosphorylates transcription factors that activate genes for the next stage in the cell cycle
Closed Pipes: node & antinode placement & equation
pipe is closed at one end and open at the other; the closed end forms a node, and the other forms an antinode, following harmonic equation 𝜆 = 4L/n WHERE N (the # harmonic) IS AN ODD INTEGER B/C ONLY ODD HARMONICS ARE PERMITTED TO RESULT IN A NODE AND ANTINODE
What is the potency of the embryonic stem cells?
pluripotent
What is the potency of the gastrular cells?
pluripotent
If the Image Distance (i) from a mirror is positive (i>0), it produces a ________________ image and the image appears ________________ the mirror, and if it's negative (i<0), it produces a ________________ image and the image appears ________________ the mirror
positive = real image; in front of mirror negative = virtual image; behind mirror (equal distance behind as object is in front)
When 2 neutral metal plates are connected to a voltage source...
positive charge builds on the plate connected to positive/high-potential terminal, and negative charge builds on the plate at negative/low-potential terminal; THIS IS A FORM OF A CAPACITOR
Histograms
present NUMERICAL data rather than exact categories; show the modes of data CATEGORICAL
Low folic acid in pregnancy
prevents complete closure of neural tube (= spina bifida; nervous system exposed to outside world with thin membrane, OR anencephaly; brain does not develop)
Familial Fatal Insomnia caused by?
prion-caused disease in humans
Reversible Process
processes that can spontaneously reverse course: SLOW (key) processes in which the system is in equilibrium and no energy is lost/dissipated, e.g., a cup of ice + water put into a thermostat, thermostat gives infinitesimal amounts of heat and the ice melts to water (increasing entropy, not T), net entropy change = 0 (entropy gained by ice was lost by thermostat)
Bulbourethral (Cowper's) Glands
produce a clear, viscous fluid that cleans out urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal (pre-cum)
Secondary Oocyte
produced alongside a polar body each month after menarche; ARRESTED IN METAPHASE II and does not proceed with meiosis unless fertilization occurs
Polar Body
produced alongside the secondary oocyte in females; almost no cytoplasm, never makes gametes
Male sexual development: Testosterone
produced by the testes (interstitial cells) via LH; increases dramatically in puberty, sperm production begins, reproductive system up, make male secondary sex characteristics
Heart Endocrine Function
produces ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide), a hormone that regulars water-salt balance; promotes excretion of Na, thus water follows, thus increases urine volume; antagonistic to aldosterone, lowering blood volume without affecting osmolarity
Oogenesis
production of female gametes
Deletion Bias (research)
professionals use their knowledge in an inconsistent way; e.g., if high blood pressure & diabetes occur in obese people, they are screened for those more, inflating the amount of correlation there seems to be
Apoptosis & development
programmed cell death; occurs across development; e.g., fingers are webbed and the webbing undergoes apoptosis; occurs via SIGNALLING or PROGRAMMING
Between real and virtual reflected images, real images can be distinguished because they are able to be...
projected onto a screen
HIV Life Cycle
protein called "envelope" binds to CD4 and CCR5 of host (coreceptors), fuses envelope with host cell, reverse transcriptase copies ssRNA to dsDNA; ERRORS ARE COMMON WHICH GENERATE DIVERSITY, then INTEGRASE adds to the host genome; host makes the RNA, proteins, which go together and bud off; after, PROTEASE enzyme matures the immature virus into a form ready to infect a cell
Electrical Measure of "Power" in a resistor (equation)
rate of energy release from the resistor (e.g., heat from coils of a toaster); P = IV = I^2 • R = V^2/R; I is the current flowing through the resistor, V is the voltage drop, R is the resistance
For lenses and mirrors, the 'real' side is where the ________________ goes, but the 'virtual' side is the other
real = where light actually goes, virtual = where the light does not; since mirrors reflect, the real side is always in front, and for lenses, the real side is always behind since the light refracts to behind the lens
For a concave mirror, an object placed farther than F (focal point) will have an image ________________, ________________, and ________________
real, inverted, magnified
In general, images created by a mirror are either ________________ or ________________
real; virtual
Reciprocal Development
reciprocal induced differentiation of tissues (they send inducers to each other); e.g., PAX6 Growth Factor in the ectoderm of the head; optic vessel releases PAX6 to develop the lens, which cascades a signal from the lens to develop the optic vesicle → cup → retina
Linked genes vs recombination and its purpose
recombination can unlink genes on a chromosome, increasing genetic diversity; this gives gametes and offspring diversity that allows evolution!
Bacterial envelope
refers to both CELL WALL + CELL MEMBRANE
For thin films, interference is creates not because of _________________, but _________________!
refraction; reflection!
Kinetic energy's relation to speed/velocity
related to SPEED, not VELOCITY (direction does not matter); and its related to speed squared (make sure to know the relative increases type logic; if speed doubles, Ek quadruples)
TRH (thyroid-releasing hormone)
released by hypothalamus; causes release of TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) from anterior pituitary
Oxytocin
released by posterior pituitary via nerve firings from hypothalamus; 1) stimulates uterine contraction in labor, 2) stimulates milk release during lactation, 3) causes 'bonding'
As blood flows away from the heart, what happens to resistance in the vessels? How is this negated?
resistance in the vessels INCREASES until the capillaries; however, total resistance of the circulation system decreases as it is spread over many parallel vessels (therefore lower in those capillaries than the aorta)
Parasympathetic Nervous System
responsible for "rest & digest" via ACETYLCHOLINE at the pre and postganglionic neurons; constricts bronchi, increases peristalsis
Vagus Nerve (Cranial Nerve X)
responsible for the parasympathetic action of the thoracic and abdominal cavities
Hypothalamus at the start of puberty
restriction on it released GnRH lifted; GnRH triggers Anterior Pituitary Gland to synthesize Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) which trigger the production of sex hormones in males/females to develop/maintain the reproductive system
Hypothalamus/GnRH before puberty
restricts production of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
What type of enzyme is telomerase?
reverse transcriptase
Notochord
rod of mesoderm cells that forms along the axis of the organism (primitive spine; persists in invertebrate discs between vertebrae!) during neurulation
Bacilli (bacteria)
rod-shaped; e.g., E. coli
Turbulent Flow
rough and disorderly fluid flow; causes the formation of Eddies (swirls of fluid of various size usually downstream of an obstacle to flow)
Multiplication Estimation trick for the MCAT
round all numbers to 2 SD (rounding different numbers in OPPOSITE directions to balance: if you rounded 1 up, round the other down); if the numbers are VERY far apart (powers of 10), round one of them to 1 SD and just get the size range the number should fall into
Division Estimation trick for the MCAT
round all numbers to 2 SD but in the SAME DIRECTION (higher or lower) as this adjusts for each other
Is electric potential vector or scalar?
scalar
In a Hydraulic Lift System, how much greater is F2 (pushing up) than F1 (pushing down)?
scaled larger by the factor A2/A1 (ratio of the area of the pistons), seen in equation F2 = F1(A2/A1)
Progesterone
secreted by corpus luteum (remains of follicle after ovulation); protects the endometrium (does not thicken it)
Which 2 structures basify the seminal fluid?
seminal vesicles and prostate gland
What makes seminal fluid? (3)
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland
Virus envelope sensitivity
sensitive to heat, detergent, desiccation
X-Linked Disorders
sex-linked, mostly recessive; therefore males (hemizygous) express more than females
The Doppler Effect
shift in perceived frequency of sound compared to the frequency when its emitted due to the 'listener' and the 'emitter' moving relative to one another
Lung Volumes Graph
should be able to identify the 6: TLC, RV, IRV, ERV, TV, VC
Box Plot
show range, median, quartiles and outlier: Box = Q1 and Q3, median is the line in the box, whiskers = maximum and minimum values (OR instead the 1.5xIQR, with data outside placed as dots); good to line up multiple pieces of data on 1 line CATEGORICAL
Linear Graphs
show relationship between x and y as directly measured; can be a line, but not a straight line (linear, parabolic, exponential, logarithmic); have axes spaced by the same amounts; can have breaks in the axes; slope = rise/run NUMERICAL
Pie Charts? issue?
show relative amounts in different categories (values, %s); usually used for demographics; issue = a lot of stuff in it becomes confusing CATEGORICAL
Nuclear Equations
show what happens to protons/neutrons/electrons in a nuclear reaction; must balance number of nucleons on both sides by balancing the atomic numbers & mass numbers
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin^(-1) aka arcsin, cos^(-1) aka arccose, tan^(-1) aka arctan they SWAP 𝜃 and SOH CAH TOA in the equation; e.g., sin^(-1)(O/H) = 𝜃 = arcsin(O/H)
Bacterial diversity (assuming no genetic recombination) and replication rate compared to each other
since their reproduce by binary fission, all of them in a colony are exactly the same (assuming no mutation/recombination) AND that none replicate faster than others
Laminar Flow
smooth and orderly fluid flow, fluids flow parallel; but different layers can have different speeds (e.g., layer of fluid close to the outside of a pipe flow faster)
What is the point of basifying seminal fluid?
so it can survive in the female reproductive tract
Order the phases of matter through which sound propagates the faster to slowest
solid (preferably with low density) > liquid > gas (slowest if the gas is dense) Sound travels faster in liquids than in gases because molecules are more tightly packed. ... Sound travels fastest through solids. This is because molecules in a solid medium are much closer together than those in a liquid or gas, allowing sound waves to travel more quickly through it.
Metallic Conductivity
solid metals and molten salts conducting electricity (& thermal); metal atoms easily lose 1+ electrons that can move around in metallic bonds
Epiphyseal Plates
special regions of bone where bones grow in response to GH; seal shut in puberty
Neurons
specialized cells of the nervous system that transmit electrical impulses and translate them into chemical signals
Semilog Graphs
specialized representation of logarithmic data; change in 'Axis Ratio' makes them linear; x axis usually same scale, but y axis assigned spaced like 10-100-1000 jumps in a CONSISTENT RATIO; note how the spacing decreases as you move up the graph NUMERICAL
Isotope Decay Arithmetic & Nucleon Conversion
species X decays into Y + emitted decay particles: X ➝ Y + emitted decay particle
Kinetochore Fibers
specific fibers that come off the Spindle Apparatus (centrioles etc.) during prophase that attach to kinetochores
3 steps of cell specialization
specification, determination, differentiation
Order of cells 'names' during developmental
sperm + oocyte → zygote → (1 division) embryo → (several divisions to 16+ cells) morula → blastula → gastrula
Ejaculation
sperm travel through the vas deferens into ejaculatory duct at posterior of prostate, out the urethra
Cocci (bacteria)
spherical; e.g., streptococcus pyogenes
Spirilli (bacteria)
spiral-shaped; VERY FEW; e.g., Treponema pallidum (syphilis)
How fast does a fetus grow in the 3rd trimester?
starts VERY fast, slows at birth
How can neutral matter attain a charge?
static electricity! (e.g., rub on carpet, negatively-charged particles spread over the surface of your body)
For a new treatment to be worth implementing, it must have...
statistical significance and clinical significance compared to the old treatments
Estrogen in female reproduction
stimulated by FSH; establishes the female reproductive system, thickens the ENDOMETRIUM of the reproductive tract each month and secondary sex characters (boobs, hips, fat distribution)
Cell wall function
structure and trafficking solutes in/out; gradient maintained relative to env
Glial Cells? types?
structure/supportive cells of the nervous system; 5 types (astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, oligodendrocytes/Schwann Cells)
Bronchioles
subdivisions of the bronchi that branch in the lungs; end in alveoli
Selection Bias (research)
subjects selected are not representative of the target population; e.g., volunteers might not be a randomized fit, one gender may volunteer more, ages may different
Fluids
substances able to FLOW and CONFORM SHAPE to their containers; include both liquids and gases
Insulators
substances that DO NOT EASILY DISTRIBUTE a charge over its surface (keep it at a point on the surface), thus it will not transfer charge, especially not to another insulator; electrons are closely linked to their nuclei (i.e. non-metals); dielectric materials in capacitors; isolate electrostatic experiments from the environment so they don't ground
Conductors
substances that EVENLY DISTRIBUTE charge over its surface, and transfer/transport charge; molecularly, atoms are in seas of electrons that are loosely associated with nuclei (thus generally metals & ionic electrolyte solutions); used in circuits and electrochemical cells
Teratogens? its effect depends on?
substances that interfere with development (birth defects, death of embryo); genetically-specific reaction to the embryo (not the same interaction with each); length of exposure, route of exposure, rate of placenta transmission of teratogen, identity of teratogen affect the outcome
Purpose of having SO MANY alveoli
supremely increase SA for gas exchange; it's 100m^3!
What are the MAIN physical thermoregulatory methods of the body?
sweat glands & shivering
Shortcut to find out how much (%) of an object is submerged in a fluid of 1g/cm^3
take its density/SG in g/cm^3 as a PERCENT; this is the % volume of the object that will submerge note = 100% means it will be submerged but won't sink, 0 ≤ % ≤ 100 means that if will be partially submerged and float, % ≥ 100% means it will sink
2 types of Summation
temporal and spatial
Equilibrium Position
the "middle" of a wave; the point about which they oscillate
Significance Level (α)
the 'risk' level used in hypothesis tests
In cases where a drug must be tried on a group that does not have the illness, this group's risk... ...and this is permissible so long as...
the MOST risk permissible so long as the group is respected & informed
What chemical gradient in your body requires the most ATP to maintain?
the Na+/K+ gradient in your neurons; to keep resting potential, the Na+/K+ ATPase pump returns K+ to the inside and Na+ to the outside of the neuron (AGAINST THEIR GRADIENTS)
At rest, what side of the neuron is more positive?
the OUTSIDE; the outside is positive
What happens if a P-V graph has 3 points that go back to the same point?
the P and V have changed throughout and gone back to the original; work has still been done and is the area enclosed by the consecutive points
Part of the blastocyst that becomes the chorion + later placenta
the Trophoblast (outer cell shell)
Zygote
the UNICELLULAR 1st structure that is formed when a sperm and oocyte fuse; loses this status when it undergoes the first cell division in cleavage phase
Load
the WEIGHT of an object in a pulley system; the OUTPUT force necessary
What parts of a circuit does Ohm's law apply to?
the WHOLE circuit, any part of it, or a single resistor
Fluorescence
the ability of 'fluorescent' substances to be excited with UV & emit visible light
Chemotaxis
the ability of a cell to detect chemical stimuli and move towards or away from it (via flagella in bacteria)
Induction
the ability of a group of cells to influence the fate of nearby cells; release inducers that diffuse form Organizing Cells to Responsive Cells; allows proximity of different, related cell types that work together in an organ
Regenerative Capacity
the ability of an organism to regrow certain body parts (varies species-to-species)
Validity (Accuracy)
the ability to measure TRUE value; e.g., a scale should measure someone as 170 if they're 170, sweating should constantly correlate with anxiety, etc.
Reliability (Precision)
the ability to measure consistently (narrow range)
Bacterial Genetic Recombination?
the acquiring of DNA from outside the cell
What structure absorbs mother's movement shocks for the embryo?
the amnion
What structure covers the allantois?
the amnion
Tidal Volume (TV)
the amount of air inhaled/exhaled in a regular breath
In forced oscillation, if the Force Frequency is close to the natural frequency of the material...
the amplitude of the oscillations becomes much larger! E.g., parent + child on swing, if parent pushes forward while kid is swinging forward, the amplitude increases
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
the analog of LH released by a blastocyst in the uterine lining; acts like LH and maintains the corpus luteum/progesterone
Implantation
the blastocyst moves through the fallopian tube and finally into the uterus; burrows into endometrium; trophoblast creates interface from maternal blood to embryo (chorion → placenta)
Oligodendrocytes
the cells that produce myelin in the CNS
Schwann Cells
the cells that produce myelin in the PNS
What is the microtubule organizing centre of mitosis?
the centrioles
Thermal Expansion (Solids Length)
the change in VOLUME of a solid as it increasing in temperature (decrease will decrease length): ΔL = 𝛼LΔT (ΔL is the change in length alpha is coefficient of linear expansion units 1/K or 1/C, ΔT is change in T)
Myelin Sheath
the combined myelin on an axon that maintains the electrical signal for that single neuron and increases the speed of signal transmission ("hopping")
Most important muscle for lung expansion
the diaphragm
Vital Capacity (VC)
the difference between TLC (max air in lungs) and RV (min air in lungs)
Why does adding heat not raise T when changing states?
the energy becomes POTENTIAL energy, not KINETIC; low Ep = the molecules are close and stable (e.g., frozen water w/ its H-bonds), high Ep = the molecules are in unfavourable configurations (moving around; melted/gaseous!); adding T at the freezing point makes the molecules move apart and have greater potential, NOT move faster; but lowers the amount of movement but increases microstates (keeping Ek and T the same)
fulcrum
the fixed pivot point around which an object rotates.
Blastocoel
the fluid-filled inner cavity of a blastula
Angular Frequency (ω) & equation
the frequency of something moving sort of circularly (pendulum, spring) in rad/sec; ω = 2πf = 2π/T; not rly important for the MCAT
Gastrulation
the generation of 3 cell layers after implantation in pregnancy; we only know about RELATED organisms' versions; Sea Urchins: first, the blastula invaginates a little, cells move towards the invagination erasing the blastocoel, forming a tube (Archenteron) through the blastula (a "Gastrula"), then the 3 layers form
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is dependent on...
the geometry of the 2 conduction surfaces (DISTANCE between the plates) and AREA Distance: The further apart the two plates are, the less the free electrons on the far plate feel the push of the electrons that you're adding to the negative plate, making it harder to add more negative charges to the negative plate. If the plates were infinitely far apart, you would just be adding negative charges to an already negative metal surface, which would be pretty hard. If the plates were very close to each other or even touching, you essentially would be making current flow through a short circuit, which would be easy. This means that the capacitance of a parallel plate must be inversely related to the plate separation. Area: It's a lot easier to add charge to a capacitor if the parallel plates have a huge area. Two wide metal plates would give two repelling like charges a greater range to spread out across the plate, making it easier to add a lot more negative charge to one plate. Likewise, a very small plate area would cause the electrons to get cramped together earlier, making it harder to get a large difference in charge for a given voltage. From this we can guess that the capacitance of a parallel plate must be related to the plate areas.
Synaptonemal Complex
the group of proteins that hold together homologous chromosomes in prophase I
What happens when an oocyte finishes meiosis 2 when a sperm penetrates?
the haploid pronucleus of the sperm and the ovum join into a diploid ZYGOTE
Load Distance
the height to which you want to lift an object on a pulley into the air
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
the hypothesis that there IS some difference between 2 populations (can be DIRECTIONAL, e.g. A > B, or NON-DIRECTIONAL, just stating that the 2 populations are different)
Endoderm
the innermost primary germ layer of the gastrula; becomes epithelia of digestive and respiratory tracts (lungs) + the pancreas, thyroid, bladder, distal urinary tract, and liver; Mnemonic: endo-endernal (internal) linings of the systems
Metastasis
the invasion of cancer in distant sites (after protease basement-digestion or angiogenesis)
Equipoise
the knowledge that one treatment option is better than other; once this has been established, the inferior treatment must stop to maintain Beneficence
Pattern of gestation time & offspring number
the larger the animal, the longer the gestation, and the fewer offspring (e.g., elephants = 22 months with 1 calf; mice 20 days and 12 offspring)
What is the first law of thermodynamics a reiteration of?
the law of conservation of energy; energy is not created or destroyed, just changed forms (transferred etc.)
'Virtual' reflected image
the light only appears to be coming from the position of the image, but does not actually converge there
Length (in Resistance)
the longer the resistor, the more resistance to current flow it is (longer distance traveled); linear directly proportional according to equation R = 𝜌L/A
Fundamental Frequency (first harmonic)
the longest wavelength (lowest frequency) of a standing wave a string can support, n = 1 in 𝜆 = 2L/n
Hyperpolarization
the lowering of neuron Vm from -70 (further from 0) by INHIBITORY inputs (as determined by axon hillock); LESS LIKELY TO FIRE AN ACTION POTENTIAL
Mesoderm
the middle primary germ layer of the gastrula; becomes the SYSTEMS of: musculoskeletal, circulatory, most excretory + the gonads, muscle/connective of digestive and respiratory tracts, the adrenal cortex; Mnemonic: meso-means; means of moving around and moving things around inside and "getting around" lol with the gonads
Postsynaptic Neuron
the neuron after the synaptic cleft that receives neurotransmitters
Presynaptic Neuron
the neuron before the synaptic cleft that releases neurotransmitters
Postganglionic Neuron
the neuron in the autonomic nervous system that synapses and comes after the preganglionic neuron; it actually takes the signal and stimulates the automatic tissue function
Where are the ovaries located?
the pelvic area
Gauge Pressure
the pressure difference between the absolute pressure in a system (like a tire) and the atmospheric pressure outside (as measured by a gauge); how much more pressure it has than the outside world!; Pgauge = Pabs - Patm
Synapsis
the process in prophase I where homologues chromosomes come together and intertwine in a Tetrad
Ovulation (monthly definition)
the process in which 1 egg per month is released into the peritoneal sac lining the abdominal cavity
Blastulation
the process of changing a morula → a blastula; a hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled inner cavity (blastocoel); 2 cell types: trophoblast and inner cell mass
Virions
the progeny of viruses produced using the ribosomes of a host cell; released to infect others
Exponential Decay
the rate of radioactive decay is proportional to the amount that remains (n); Δn/Δt = 𝜆n; 𝜆 is the decay constant & n = no x e^(-𝜆t), where no is the original amount
The easiest way for bias to be incorporated into an experiment from the start is...
the researcher sees data and forms a faulty hypothesis to fit it
Telomerase
the reverse transcriptase used to synthesize the ends of telomeres/chromosomes, preventing senescence and granting immortality; used by germ cells, fetal cells, tumour (cancer) cells
Pyknosis
the shrinkin the nucleus during apoptosis
Endometrium
the thick lining of the female reproductive tract; established by estrogen, protected by progesterone
Impulse Propagation (+mechanism)
the travelling of the whole process of depolarization-hyperpolarization-repolarization down an axon; occurs because when Na+ influxes, is also depolarizes the surrounding areas of the axon (to the threshold) and open their voltage-gated Na+ channels; the part "behind" the signal does not get excited as it is in refractory period (hyperpolarized!), thus info flows in 1 direction
Neural Tube
the tube that forms from the fusion of the 2 neural folds over the neural groove; becomes the CNS
At what side of the spine do motor signals exit?
the ventral (sides) of the spine
How is sound produced/transmitted?
the vibrating material has microscopically areas of rarefaction and compression, allowing sound to propagate
Electromotive Force (emf, 𝜀, Ecell)
the voltage where NO CHARGE is moving between 2 terminals of different electric potentials; I.E. JUST THE VOLTAGE OF A CIRCUIT; UNITS OF VOLTS (J/C), NOT NEWTONS, IT IS VOLTAGE
Cortical Reaction
then end of fertilization where Ca2+ releases from the sperm to depolarize oocyte membrane to 1) prevent further fertilization and 2) increase metabolic rate of the new zygote
How is oxygen transported into a fetus?
through diffusion from the mother with the help of HbF (Fetal Hemoglobin); it has greater affinity for oxygen than the hemoglobin of the mother (HbA)
Noise-cancelling headphones & the principle of superposition
they capture the environmental noise and produce a perfectly out-of-phase wave to counter it, causing destructive interference of environment-headphone noise, causing silence in your ears
Why do slopes lower force required?
they distribute work over a larger distance
What are the potential energies and kinetic energies of LIQUID and SOLID water at 0˚C?
they have different potential energies (liquid is higher; more microstates) but same kinetic energy (as seen by T)
Why must the maternal and fetal blood not mix?
they may be different blood types!
For each metal to produce the photoelectric effect, a ________________ frequency must be met specific to it
threshold
Where can sound propagate?
through ANY MATTER, just not a vacuum!
How do electrical cells provide energy?
through spontaneous oxidation-reduction reactions where potential energy is converted into kinetic energy for electrons
Thyroid: calcium homeostasis? how influence these levels (3)?
thyroid releases calcitonin (tones down calcium) when Ca in blood is too high; decreases plasma Ca in 3 ways: 1) increased Ca excretion from kidneys (pee out), 2) decreases Ca absorption in gut, 3) increases storage of Ca in bones
Why does the cell condense DNA in mitosis?
to avoid losing/damaging DNA
Capacitors in Series
total capacitance DECREASES as the number of capacitors INCREASES (in the same way resistance decreases in parallel capacitors) as they share the voltage drop and cannot store as much charge; if we were to pretend this was 1 capacitor, it would have a greater DISTANCE between plates (the sum of distance to each capacitor added together), thus dropping C according to C = 𝜀0(A/d)
Absolute (Hydrostatic) Pressure? EQUATION?
total pressure exerted on an object submerged in a fluid; P = Po + 𝜚gz (P is abs.pres., Po is incident/ambient pressure/pressure at the surface, 𝜚 is density of the liquid, g is g, z/h is depth of the object)
Most important values to find right off the bat in circuit problems
total voltage, total resistance, total current: then you can figure it out depending on whether it's series or parallel
According to Snell's Law, when light enters a medium with a HIGHER index of refraction (n2>n1) (slower speed of light), it the light ray bends ________________ the normal
towards; sin𝜃2 < sin𝜃1
Virulence Factors
traits on plasmids that increase pathogenicity; toxin production, projections to attach, evasion features
Male Secondary Sex Characteristics? triggered by?
triggered by testosterone in puberty; facial and axillary hair, deepened voice, increased muscle and bone mass
What does the placenta develop from?
trophoblast (outer blastula) → chorion → placenta
FSH and LH
tropic horm'n released by the anterior pituitary in response to GnRH from hypo; act on the gonads
Coulomb's (Electrostatic) Constant
units depends on the units in the equation Fe = kq1q2/r^2: k = 1/4π𝜀0 = 8.99•10^9 N•m^2/C^2; 𝜀0 is the Permittivity of Free Space, 8.85•10^(-12) C^2/N•m^2
If the value of m for a lens is (+), the image is ________________, but if (-), the image is ________________
upright; inverted
If the baseball is spinning vertically, according to Bernoulli's, it will either experience an ______________ or _____________ ________. If the baseball is spinning horizontally can it experience a _____________ or __________________ ___________
upward or downward lift leftward or rightward shift.
Special Triangles
used to get the sin/cos/tan value for the angles of 30-60-90 and 45-45-90; MEMORIZE BOTH OF THESE
'Focused' Ultrasound
using a parabolic mirror, you can focus ultrasound using constructive interference at the focal point of the mirror, creating a higher energy wave which can break up things like kidney stones, tumours, dental cleaning, & cataracts
G2-M Checkpoint
using p53 again, cell checked if it is good size and organelles replicated to support 2 cells
G1-S Checkpoint? what protein is used?
using p53, cell checks if DNA is good to copy, if not, it cell cycle arrest until repair; aka "The Restriction Point"
Confidence Intervals
using the mean and SD, we use the a Confidence Level's z- to t-value (usually 95% confident), multiply by SD, subtract & add it from the mean, and these are the upper and lower limits of the CI; then you can say '95% confident that the true population value is in this CI'
Telomeres & senescence
usually the shortening of these chromosome caps leads to cellular senescence; cell is no longer able to replicate
Speed of a Wave (v) equation
v = f λ
Speed of sound equation
v = √(B/𝜌), where B is the bulk modulus (measure of resistance to compression, increases from gas to solid) and rho is the density
Ways to treat bacteria infections
vaccines; if not, antibiotics and antiviral therapy
Parturition? parts? caused by?
vaginal birth of a fetus; rhythmic contraction of uterine smooth muscle (coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin (peptide hormone)); 3 parts: Water Breaking, Contractions/Birth, Afterbirth
Critical Speed (Turbulence) Equation
vc = Nr𝜂 /𝜚D; vc is the critical speed before turbulence, Nr is the dimensionaless Reyonals Number (depending on the size, shape, surface roughness of any objects in the fluid), 𝜂 is viscosity of the fluid, 𝜚 is density of the fluid, D is the diameter of the tube AKA: Critical velocity is defined as the speed at which a falling object reaches when both gravity and air resistance are equalised on the object. The other way of defining critical velocity is the speed and direction at which the fluid can flow through a conduit without becoming turbulent.
Lungs: Capillary Thermoregulation (2)
via 1) vasodilation (more blood, more heat release) or vasoconstriction (less blood, less heat release) of the NASAL AND TRACHEAL CAPILLARIES and 2) evaporation of water from mucous (like hopping out of a pool)
Electrostatic Force vs Gravitational Force Equations
virtually the same!; Fe = kq1q2/r^2 & Fg = Gm1m2/r^2
Infection Stage (virus)
virus binds to SPECIFIC cells via SPECIFIC receptors; binding brings the virus close to interact; enveloped viruses fuse and enter, sometimes cell endocytoses thinking it's nutrients
Translation Stage
virus genome translated to reproduce
Lysogenic Cycle
virus integrates into the host genome without lysing the host; virus gene replication as host bacteria reproduces; environmental factors (light, radiation, chemicals) cause provirus to leave genome and enter lytic cycle
Obligate Intracellular Parasites
viruses CANNOT REPRODUCE INDEPDENDENTLY; they must reproduce IN A HOST CELL; lack ribosomes for protein synth and hijack host's
Bacteriophage Transduction
viruses that infect bacteria; can trap some host DNA into them, releasing it into a new host which can INCORPORATE into the host = transduction
Bacteriophages
viruses that target bacteria; DO NOT ENTER; inject their genetic material and leave their structure on the outside of the cell
What happens when a cell reaches the threshold for action potential? (full thing)
voltage-gated Na+ channels open in response to depolarization, surging Na+ into cell along its electrochemical gradient (more (-) inside AND less sodium inside), shoot Vm to +35, INACTIVATED in response to +35mV (only DEINACTIVATED when the potential returns to rest), +35mV triggers voltage-gated K+ channels to open and K+ effluxes along its electrochemical gradient (outside of the cell is now more negative AND less K+ outside) and the cell is REPOLARIZING; Na+/K+ pump returns it to resting potential
Standing Waves
waves formed when 2 waves travelling through the medium (at a perfect frequency) interfere in a way that makes the wave appear still/stationary with constant nodes and fluctuating antinodes nodes are where the wave has 0 amplitude, antinodes are the point between nodes that fluctuate w/ maximum amplitude
Longitudinal Waves
waves which oscillate (compress/rarefaction) parallel to the direction of propagation/energy transfer (like a slinky); e.g., sound SOUND IS A PRIME EXAMPLE OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Transverse Waves
waves which oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation/energy transfer (classic wave); e.g., EM waves
Dielectrics in Isolated Capacitors
when dielectrics are placed in isolated, charged capacitors (NOT CONNECTED TO A CIRCUIT), voltage across the capacitor DECREASES because the dielectric material SHIELDS THE OPPOSITE CHARGES FROM EACH OTHER, thus increasing C according to C = Q/V
Electrical Instability
when matter is NOT neutrally charged
Doppler Effect Equation
where f' is perceived frequency, f is the actual emitted frequency, v is the speed of the sound, vD is the speed of the detector (listener), and vs is the speed of the source; for the sign, you must consider this independently for the top (detector) and bottom (source): use the top sign if moving towards the other party, bottom sign if not e.g., if you are driving in front of an ambulance away, but it is driving behind you towards you, the numerator uses the - sign and the denominator uses the + sign; then use a judgment of relative speeds to get f' (listener is going AWAY from the source and source is going TOWARDS the listener
How would you determine the volume (by volume displacement) of an object with density less than water?
you put it in a liquid with any lower density than the object so it can sink!
Flow resistance in the respiratory system
zero at the mouth; increases in each vessel but decreases in total (as a result of being spread over many parallel air vessels) as you move deeper into the lungs
Change in entropy equation
ΔS = Qrev/T (S is entropy in J/molK, Qrev is the heat gained/lost in a REVERSIBLE PROCESS, T is temp in Kelvin)
What is heat energy gain/loss proportional to for an object?
ΔT!; unless there is a phase change (phase change keeps T constant)
What is the equation to find internal energy of a system?
ΔU = Work - Q (energy transferred into the system)
Length of a string w/ standing wave vs wavelength equation
𝜆 = 2L/n; n is the Harmonic that is a positive integer and is "the number of 1/2 wavelengths in the string"; note can sub the wave equation in hear for speed/frequency; not it fits a multiple of 1/2 wavelengths in it
Half-Life & Decay Constant Equation
𝜆 = ln2/T(1/2); note ln2 = 0.693, and T(1/2) is half-life
