MCAT Behavioral Science Chapter 6

Jung's Three Dichotomies of Personality

1. Extraversion (E, orientation toward the external world) vs. introversion (I, orientation toward the inner, personal world) 2. Sensing (S, obtaining objective information about the world) vs. intuiting (N, working with information abstractly) 3. Thinking (T, using logic and reason) vs. feeling (F, using a value system or personal beliefs)

Theories of Personality

1. Psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) 2. Humanistic (phenomenological) 3. Type and trait 4. Behaviorist 5. Social Cognitive

Freud stated that our access to the id, ego, and superego falls into three main categories:

1. Thoughts to which we have conscious access 2. Thoughts that we are not currently aware of (preconscious) 3. Thoughts that have been repressed (unconscious)

14. Stockholm syndrome is a phenomenon in which a victim of a kidnapping or hostage situation may begin to identify with or even feel affection for his or her captors. A psychoanalyst might explain Stockholm syndrome by citing which of the following defense mechanisms? A) Reaction formation B) Regression C) Projection D) Displacement

A

4. A district attorney with an internal locus of control wins and important court trial. Which of the following best represents the lawyer's attribution of the events? A) "I won because I made great arguments and had more experience than the defense." B) "I won because the jury was on my side from the beginning and believed my arguments." C) "I won because the defense did not adequately present their side of the case." D) "I shouldn't have won because I don't deserve to be successful."

A

7. Matt and Katie discuss the reasons why they avoid driving above the speed limit. Matt says that he wants to avoid a traffic fine, while Katie says that speeding is dangerous and, if everyone did it, there would be more accidents and people would get hurt. According to Kohlberg, which of the following best describes the phases or moral reasoning demonstrated by Matt and Katie? A) Preconventional; conventional B) Preconventional; postconventional C) Conventional; preconventional D) Postconventional; conventional

A

Functional Autonomy

A behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior

Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) --> Jung

A classic personality test; each of Jung's three dichotomies, and a fourth - judging (J, preferring orderliness) vs. perceiving (P, preferring spontaneity) - is labeled as a specific personality type.

Self-esteem

A measure of how we feel about ourselves

Collective Unconscious

A powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors. Its building blocks are images of common experiences, such as having a mother and a father. These images have an emotional element, and are referred to as archetypes in Jung's theory.

Psychotherapy (George Kelly)

A process of insight whereby the individual acquires new constructs that will allow him or her to successfully predict troublesome events. Then, the individual will be able to integrate these new constructs into already existing ones.

Object Relations Theory

A psychoanalytic theory; in this context, object refers to the representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy. These objects then persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others, including the social bonds we create and our predictions of others' behavior.

Self-schema

A self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities; many of the ways we define ourselves fall under the classification of a self-schema. These qualities may change depending on culture, SES, and personal beliefs.

Learned Helplessness

A state of hopelessness and resignation resulting from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli; often used as a model of depression.

Unconditional Positive Regard (Carl Rogers)

A therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.

Big Five

An extension of the PEN model; openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Peak Experiences (Maslow)

According to Maslow, self-actualized people are more likely than people who are not self-actualized to have what he called peak experiences: profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual.

Fictional Finalism (Adler)

An individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences. Human goals are based on the subjective or fictional estimate of life's values rather than objective data from the past. Fictional finalism can often be summed up by the phrase Life would be perfect if only...

Inferiority Complex (Adler)

An individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and interiority both physically and socially. According to Adler, striving for superiority drives the personality. This strive enhances the personality when it is oriented toward benefiting society, but yields disorder when it is selfish.

Karen Horney

Argued that personality is a result of interpersonal relationships, and adamantly disagreed with many of Freud's assumptions about women such as the concept of penis envy. Horney postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten neurotic needs. Each of these needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable. Horney emphasized that these needs become problematic if they fit at least one of four criteria: that they are disproportionate in intensity, that they are indiscriminate in application, that they partially disregard reality, or that they have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety.

Role-taking

As a child grows, they become more able to see the identities of others as different from their own. They might experiment with other identities by taking on the roles of others, such as when children play house or school. This is good practice for later in life, when a child begins to understand the perspectives and roles of others. Eventually, children become able to see how others perceive them and to imagine themselves from the outside.

Type Theorists

Attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types

1. Each of the following is considered a part of a person's self-concept EXCEPT: A) the past self B) the ought self C) the future self D) self-schemata

B

13. An EMT sees himself as a bit of a rebel, but is highly sociable and is able to keep calm in an emergency. This person would likely score in the lower range of which of the following traits? A) Psychoticism B) Neuroticism C) Extraversion D) Conscientiousness

B

15. Having struggled for years through economic recession, a young professional begins to buy lottery tickets every Friday. "If I won the lottery," he reasons, "I'd finally have the life I've always wanted. All my stress would go away and I could live comfortably." His thoughts regarding winning the lottery are most representative of: A) A cardinal trait B) Fictional finalism C) Functional autonomy D) Unconditioned positive regard

B

3. A high school student struggles consistently with math and feels that no matter how hard he studies, he "just doesn't get it." Which of the following is the most likely short-term result with respect to his ability to do math? A) low self-esteem B) low-self efficacy C) learned helplessness D) an external locus of control

B

5. A person keeps his desk extremely tidy and becomes very nervous whenever things are disorganized or out of place. In which of the following stages would a psychodynamic therapist say the man had become fixated? A) The oral stage B) The anal stage C) The phallic stage D) The genital stage

B

Behaviorist Perspective

Based heavily on the concepts of operant conditioning; Skinner reasoned that personality is simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time. Therapy should focus on learning skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques.

Nationality

Based on political borders; it is the result of shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols such as a country's flag. Nationality need not be tied to one's ethnicity or even to legal citizenship. Symbols play an important role in both ethnic and national identity.

Basic Anxiety (Horney)

Based on the premise that a child's early perception of self is important and stems from a child's relationship with his or her parents. Inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness, which is termed basic anxiety.

Situational Approach

Behavior is primarily determined by an individual's environment or context

Disposition Approach

Behavior is primarily determined by an individual's personality

Type and Trait Theorists

Believe that personality can be described as a number of identifiable traits that carry characteristic behaviors.

Albert Bandura

Claimed that observational learning contributes greatly to our future behaviors. Children are more likely to imitate behaviors performed by someone who is like them; a child's first model are her parents, but as the child grows and forms more relationships, other role models emerge. Siblings, teachers, and the media all play an important role in modeling behavior for a developing child, but by adolescence, peers become the most important role models in a person's life.

Freud: Psychosexual Development

Believed that human psychology and sexuality were linked. Freud made the assertion that far from lying dormant until puberty, the libido (sex drive) is present at birth. Freud believed that libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes. Freud hypothesized 5 distinct stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital --> in each stage, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body. Each stage differs in the manner in which libidinal energy is manifested and the way in which the libidinal drive is met.

10. A man feels extremely guilty after having an extra-martial affair. According to the psychodynamic perspective, which of the following is responsible for this anxiety? A) The id B) The ego C) The superego D) The libido

C

11. A woman advances through the ranks of a company, eventually becoming the CEO. Which of the following Jungian archetypes reflects this woman's drive to be successful within the company? A) The persona B) The anima C) The animus D) The shadow

C

12. Researchers discover that polymorphism in the DRD2 gene can be associated with thrill-seeking behavior, and that individuals with certain forms of the gene are more likely to become extreme athletes and have more dangerous hobbies. Which of the following theories is supported by this discovery? I. The social cognitive perspective II. The behavioral perspective III. The biological perspective A) I only B) III only C) I and III only D) II and III only

C

6. According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, which of the following would be the most important for a recent college graduate to accomplish? A) Figuring out what identities are most important to him or her B) Feeling like a contributing member of society C) Forming an intimate relationship with a significant other D) Finding a feeling of accomplishment in his or her life

C

Displacement

Describes the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another

Ego

Comes into play because the id's mental image cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basic. The ego operates according to the reality principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle. This guidance is referred to as the secondary process. The aim of the reality principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained. The ego can be understood to be the organizer of the mind: it receives its power from - and can never be fully independent of - the id. The ego is responsible for moderating the desires of the superego.

The id

Consists of all the basic, inborn urges to survive and reproduce. It functions according to the pleasure principle, in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension. The primary process is the id's response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later. Mental imagery that fulfills this need for satisfaction is termed wish fulfillment.

2. A a gender identity, androgyny is defined as: A) low femininity, low masculinity B) high femininity, low masculinity C) low femininity, high masculinity D) high femininity, high masculinity

D

8. A child finds that she cannot make an origami swan by herself, but is able to do so when observing and being assisted by an adult. This scenario is best described in the ideas of which of the following theorists? A) Albert Bandura B) Alfred Adler C) B. F. Skinner D) Lev Vygotsky

D

9. Which of the following is a conclusion that can be made from research in role-taking and observational learning? A) Young children will only model actions performed by their parents B) Celebrities and athletes are an adolescent's most important role models C) Children who role-take identities that are not gender typical are more likely to take on those roles later in life D) A female child is more likely to model the behavior of another female than a male

D

Anima (feminine) & Animus (masculine)

Describe sex-inappropriate qualities - in other worlds. feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females. In Jung's theory, the anima is the suppressed female quality in males that explains emotional behavior, while the animus is the analogous male quality of females that explains power-seeking behavior.

Gender Identity

Describes a person's appraisal of him or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity; while these concepts were long thought to be two extremes on a single continuum, theorists have reasoned that they must be two separate dimensions because individuals can achieve high scores on scales of both masculinity and femininity. It is usually well established by age 3, although it may morph and change over time. Gender identity is not tired to biological sex or sexual orientation, although in most Western cultures these concepts are seen as closely related. While it is typical of most cultures to view gender as a strictly binary concept, many cultures consider a third gender.

Personality

Describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations. Describes how we act and react to the world around us.

Ancient Greeks

Devised personality types based on humors or body fluids, an imbalance of which could lead to various personality disorders.

Erikson: Psychosocial Development

Erikson's stages of personality development are based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands. As such, psychosocial theory emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment. According to Erikson, it is possible to fail at resolving the conflict central to any given stage of development, but this does not mean that mastery of each stage is required to move on to the next. Instead, he viewed successful resolution of a stage, marked by answering an essential existential question, to imbue an individual with skills and traits that are carried through subsequent stages.

Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young Adulthood (20 to 40 years)

Favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals. If this crisis is not favorable resolved, there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one's ideals. Isolated individuals are either withdrawn or capable of only superficial relationships with others.

Initiative vs. Guilt ( 3 to 6 years)

Favorable outcomes include a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment. If guilt wins out, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself, or may overcompensate by showing off.

The Humanistic Perspective

Focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive towards self-realization.

Social Cognitive Perspective

Focuses not just on how our environment influences behavior, but also on how we interact with the environment. The best predictor of future behavior is past behavior in similar situations.

Vygotsky: Cultural and Biosocial Development

For Vygotsky, the engine driving cognitive development was the child's internalization of various aspects of the culture: rules, symbols, language, and so on. As the child internalized these various interpersonal and cultural rules, her cognitive activity developed accordingly.

Instinct

Freud postulated that our behaviors are also influenced by our instincts, which are innate psychological representations of a biological need. There are two types of instincts: life and death instincts. Life instincts promote an individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs. Death instincts represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality (Freud)

Freud's contribution to the study of personality was his structural model, which involved three major entities: the id, ego, and superego.

Theory of Gender Schema

Holds that key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means.

Biological Perspective of Personality

Holds that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain

David McClelland

Identified the personality trait of the need for achievement (N-Ach)

Gordon Alport

Identified three basic types of traits or dispositions: Cardinal traits are traits around which a person organizes his or her life. While not everyone develops a cardinal trait, everyone does have central and secondary traits. Central traits represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honestly or charisma. Secondary traits are other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurence: aspects of one's personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations.

Eysenck's Theory

Identified three major traits which could be used to describe all individuals. The acronym for these traits is PEN: psychoticism (a measure of non-conformity or social deviation), extraversion (a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation), and neuroticism (a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations).

Integrity vs. Despair - Late Adulthood (above 65 years)

If favorably resolved, we will see wisdom, with Erikson defined as detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one's life has been worthwhile, along with readiness to face death. If not resolved favorably, there will be feelings of bitterness about one's life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear over one's own impending death.

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years)

If resolved favorably, the child will feel competent, be able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires. Unfavorable resolution results in a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and low self-esteem.

Trust vs. Mistrust (0 to 1 year)

If resolved successfully, the child will come to trust his environment as well as himself. If mistrust wins out, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout his life.

Neurosis

In the response to the anxiety caused by fixation, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional disorder known as neurosis.

Projection

Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others. A famous test that makes use of projection is the Rorschach inkblot test, which relies on the assumption that the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape. Similarly, the thematic apperception test consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story for each one. The story, presumably, will elucidate the client's unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Hierarchy of Salience

It is important to know that there are several factors that can determine which identity will be enacted in particular situations. It is believed that our identities are organized according to a hierarchy of salience such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment. Researchers have found that the more salient the identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities. Salience is determined by a number of factors, including the amount of work we have invested into the identity, the rewards and gratification associated with identity, and the amount of self-esteem we have associated with identity.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality (Carl Jung)

Jung identified the ego as the conscious mind, and he divided the unconscious into two parts: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious

Personal Construct Psychology (George Kelly)

Kelly used himself as a model to theorize about human nature, and set aside the traditional concepts of motivation, unconscious emotion, and reinforcement in his descriptions of personal construct psychology. Kelly thought of the individual as a scientist, a person who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life. The individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do, based on his or her knowledge, perception, and relationships with these other people.

Kohlberg: Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg reasoned that, as our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive the notion of right and wrong. Kohlberg organized moral reasoning into 6 distinct stages ranging from the concrete to the abstract. He then organized these stages into three phases consisting of two stages each. Kohlberg viewed these stages as a progression in which each stage is adopted and then abandoned for the next as the individual progresses.

Overconfidence

Leads us to take on tasks for which we are not ready, leading to frustration, humiliation, or sometimes even personal injury.

Actual self

Made up of actual self; the way we see ourselves as we currently are

Self-discrepancy Theory

Maintains that each of us has three selves: actual, ideal, and ought self; the closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be

Basic Hostility

Neglect and rejection cause anger

Fixation

Occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development.

Self-efficacy

Our belief in our ability to succeed; we are motivated to pursue tasks for which our self-efficacy is high, but we can get into trouble when it is too high. Self-efficacy can be depressed past the point of recovery.

Self-concept

Our own internal list of answers to the question Who am I? It goes beyond the self-schemata; it also includes our appraisal of who we used to be and who we will become: our past and our future selves. It plays a very important role in the way we evaluate and feel about ourselves.

Looking-glass Self

Our reactions to how others perceive us can be verified - maintaining, modifying, downplaying, or accentuating different aspects of our personality. This construct, which relies on others reflecting our selves back to ourselves, is called the looking-glass self.

Ought self

Our representation of the way others think we should be

Reference Group

Our self-concept often depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to

Important Jungian Archetypes

Persona, anima, animus, shadow

Gestalt Therapy

Practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives. For the humanists, out personality is the result of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals.

Trait Theorists

Prefer to describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors

Shadow

Responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness. The self, to Jung was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind. The self strives for unity.

Force Field Theory (Kurt Lewin)

Puts very little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, or structures such as the id, ego, and superego. Further, Lewin focused little on an individual's past or future, focusing instead on situations in the present. Lewin defined the field as one's current state of mind, which was simply the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time.

Ethnic Identity

Refers to one's ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language. Ethnicity is largely an identity into which we are born

Reciprocal Determinism (Bandura)

Refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. People choose environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how they will feel about and react to events in those environments.

Locus of Control

Refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. People with an internal locus of control view themselves of controlling their own fate, whereas those with an external locus of control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences.

Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)

Refers to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. Gaining these skills successfully requires the help of a "more knowledgable other," typically an adult.

Style of Life (Adler)

Represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority. The family environment is crucial in molding the person's style of life.

Regression

Reversion to an earlier developmental state

Client-centered Therapy (Carl Rogers)

Rogers believed that people have the freedom to control their own behavior, and are neither slaves to the unconscious (as psychoanalysts would suggest), nor subjects of faulty learning (as the behaviorists would suggest). Rather than providing solutions of diagnoses, the client-centered therapist helps the client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his or her own destiny.

Personal Unconscious

Similar to Freud's notion of the unconscious

Oral Stage (0 to 1 year)

The 1st stage; during this stage, gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects in the mouth, biting, and sucking. Libidinal energy is centered in the mouth. An orally fixated adult would likely exhibit excessive dependency.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

The 2nd stage; Libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials. Toilet training occurs during this stage. Fixation during this stage would lead to either excessive orderliness (anal-retentiveness) or sloppiness in the adult.

Phallic Stage (3 to 5 years)

The 3rd stage; centers on resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or the analogous Electra conflict for female children. In Freud's view, the male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father's hands. He wishes to eliminate his father and posses his mother, but the child feels guilty about these wishes. To successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilty feelings by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values. Also, the child to a large extent de-eroticizes, or sublimates his libidinal energy. This may be expressed through collecting objects or focusing on school work. Freud did not elaborate much on the Electra complex, although he theorized a similar desire. Because females cannot have castration fear (instead they are thought to have penis envy), girls are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and be less morally developed in this theory.

Latency

The 4th stage; once libido is sublimated, the child has entered this stage, which lasts until puberty is reached.

Genital Stage (puberty through adulthood)

The 5th and final stage; if prior development has proceeded correctly, the person should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships at this point. However, if sexual traumas of childhood have not been resolved, such behaviors as homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may result.

Theory of Mind

The ability to sense how another's mind works; once this ability has developed, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us. We become aware of judgements from the outside world and react to these judgements.

Overcoming Basic Anxiety/Hostility

The child uses three strategies in his or her relationship with others: moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security; moving against people, or fighting them to obtain the upper hand; and moving away, or withdrawing, from people. Healthy people use all three strategies, depending on the situation. However, the highly threatened child will use one of these strategies rigidly and exclusively, and carries this strategy into adulthood.

Defense Mechanisms

The ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego; all defense mechanisms have two common characteristics: first, they deny, falsify, or distort reality; second, they operate subconsciously. There are 8 main defense mechanisms: repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, and sublimation.

Repression

The ego's way of forcing undesired thought and urges to the unconscious, and underlies many of the other defense mechanisms, the aim of which is to disguise threatening impulses that may find their way back from the unconscious.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years)

The favorable outcome here is feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self-restraint. The unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control.

Preconventional Morality

The first of the three stages; is typically preadolescent thinking and places an emphasis on the consequences or the moral choice. Stage one (obedience) is concerned with avoiding punishment, which stage two (self-interest) is about gaining rewards. Stage two is often called the instrumental relativist stage because it is based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing.

Creative Self (Adler)

The force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality

Social Identity

The individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong; whereas we have one all-encompassing self-concept, we have multiple identities that define who we are and how we should behave within any given context. Our individual identities do not always need to be compatible. We take on different identities in different social situations. It is the way we define ourselves.

Rationalization

The justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society.

Persona

The part of our personality that we present to the world. It is adaptive to our social interactions, emphasizing those qualities that improve our social standing and suppressing our other, less desirable qualities.

Ideal self

The person we would like to be

Superego

The personality's perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures. Whereas the id's desires are basic needs, those of the superego are refined and focused on the ideal self. The superego can be divided into two subsystems: the conscience is a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished and the ego-ideal consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded.

Conventional Morality

The second of the three phases; begins to develop in early adolescence when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others. This phase is based on understanding and accepting social rules. Stage three (conformity) places emphasis on the "good boy, nice girl" orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others. Stage four (law and order) maintains the social order in the highest regard.

Androgyny

The state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine

Generativity vs. Stagnation - Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)

The successful resolution of this conflict results in an individual capable of being productive, caring, and contributing member of society. If this crisis is not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered with little care for others.

Postconventional Morality

The third and final phase; describes a level of reasoning, that Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of and is based on social mores, which may conflict with laws. Stage five (social contract) views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights. Finally, stage six (universal human ethics) reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles.

Sublimation

The transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors. Freud may say that pent-up sexual urges may be sublimated into a drive for business success or artistic creativity.

Identity vs. Role Confusion - Adolescence (12 to 20 years old)

This stage encompasses what Erikson's termed physiological revolution. This favorable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one's identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day.

Undifferentiated

Those who achieve low scores on both scales of masculinity and femininity

Token Economics

Used in inpatient therapeutic settings: positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers.

Reaction Formation

When individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites. For example, a man pining after a female celebrity he know he will never meet may outwardly express hatred for the celebrity as a way of reducing the stress caused by this unrequited feelings.

Difference between Freud, Jung, and Adler:

Whereas Freud's major assumption is that behavior is motivated by inborn instincts and Jung's principal axiom is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes, Adler assumes that people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority.

Suppression

While repression is mostly an unconscious forgetting, suppression is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting.

Somatotypes (William Sheldon)

William Sheldon proposed personality types based on body type called somatotypes. Sheldon presumed that all short, stocky people were jolly, and all tall people were high-strung and aloof, and people in between were strong and well adjusted. One well known type theory divides personalities in Types A and B. Individuals with Type A personalities are characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive, while someone described as Type B is generally laid-back and relaxed.