MCAT (Psych Soc)

Index of dissimilarity

0 is total segregation, and 100 is perfect distributions

Stage 2 of Erikson's

1-3 years. Autonomy vs Doubt Virtue = will (independence) Failing to have will = they will feel inadequate and lack self-esteem

Types of economy

1. Capitalism --- private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand 2. Socialism --- motivated by what benefits society as a whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands

Some ways that animals communicate

1. Sound - barking, chirping 2. Chemical signals/olfaction signals - pheromones 3. Somtosensory communication - touch and movement - dances, etc 4. visual cues - overlap between visual cues and somatosensory communication ----- mimicry, camouflage, bioluminescent

galton's idea of hereditary genius binet's idea of mental age

1. human ability is hereditary 2. how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years

Biases (3 types)

1. overconfidence = ex, going into a test without knowing a lot of info 2. belief perserverance - ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts 3. confirmation bias - actively seek out only confirming facts

Social identity theory's 2 concepts, for how we develop the self-concept further:

1. personal identity - things unique to each person, like personality traits 2. social identity - includes the groups you belong to in our community -

What are the 2 ways that someone can conform

1. publically - outwardly changing, maintaining inside core beliefs 2. privately - change behaviors and opinions to align with the group

What is the theory for olfaction

100s of different OF epithelial cells, each that is sensitive to 1 molecule. They all send these projections to one glomerulus, respective to their specialization. Then they synapse onto mitral/tufted cell ---- to brain.

16 PF

16 personality factor questionaire, made by Cattell

Neurotic Defense Mechanism

3RID 1. Rationalization - making yourself believe you were not at fault -- avoids blame to oneself - false logic/reasoning 2. Regression - acting like a baby in some sitautions 3. Reaction Formation - unconscious feelings that make person complete opposite - a person who doesn't like black people will volunteer in a BLM movement 4. Intellectualization - taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation -- separating emotion from ideas 5. Displacement - person is angry at someone but displaces it to someone else - safer target

What do most of our genes do?

95% actually don't even code for proteins, but they regulate HOW proteins are coded. ---- epigenetics! changes to gene expression are made from changes other than to gene/DNA sequence -- ex, methylation

Socioeconomic gradient

?

How to improve self-control? 4 ways

1. Change environment --- make it easier to get healthier stuff, and harder to get less healthy stuff. 2. Operant conditioning - reinforce good behaviors with rewards. And cause bad behavior to get a punishment 3. Classical conditioning - eat a healthy snack every time you crave chocolate, over time you'll only want healthy snacks 4. Deprivation - remove the object of temptation completely is problematic, because it can make you want it more, and it leads to EGO DEPLETION (self-control is a limited resource)

Schizophrenia

1. High DA - delusions and hallucinations - flat affect 1% PRODROME = period of time before schizophrenia and before symptoms actually are present combo of genetics and enviorment diagnosed with clinical interview

What are some things that social movements need?

A) organization b) leadership c) resources

When are reflexes established?

Children are BORN with it.

BF Skinner - Operant conditioning

Also called instrumental conditioning. It focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences, and how those in turn influence the behavior (Classical Condit had NO CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR...?) Positive reinforcement = something is added to increase tendency of behavior Negative reinforcement = something is taken away to increase tendency of behavior Positive punishment = you give something (speeding ticket) to decrease tendency that something will occur again Negative punishment = you take something (license) to decrease tendency that something will occur

Discrimination in age in healthcare

As ppl get old, their bodies break down. They get arthritis, dementia, hearing impairments, and overall decreasing quality of life. Age affects what kind of healthcare elderly people get ---- discrimination on age/inequality in healthcare. We need people who specialize in old people ----

3 categories of symptoms of schizophrenia

Cognitive - abnormalites with attention, organization, planning abilities negative symptoms - blunted emotions, loss of enjoyment, lack of enthusiasm, AFFECTIVE FLATTENING, AVOILITION -- no more goal-directed behavior positive symptoms - hallucinations, delusions, perceptual abnormalities

Cohorts, and what are all the different kinds?

Cohorts = different age groups, specifically at age groups/generations, because they all live through the same events in certain time. Always-On Generation: 2004+ Generation Z - 1995-2003 Millenials - 1980 to 2000 (Gen Y) Generation X - 1965 - 1980 (aka loved drugs, Xstacy) Baby boomers - 1946-1964 - large population in US, now in their 60's) Silent generation - 1925-1945. Greatest generation (1901-1924)

Multinational/transnational corporations

Companies that extend BEYOND borders of a country. McDonalds, Coke, GE, Ford Motors

Meritocracy

Concept that people achieve social position solely based on ability and achievements. Very idealized. Extreme social mobility. Equal opportunity. EVERYONE HAS SAME OPPORTUNITY TO SUCCEED

Exurbs

Beyond suburbs, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs.

Gustation tastes Types of taste buds

Bitter, sour, sweet, salty, umami (glutamate) There are taste receptors, found in taste buds (anterior (front) of tongue), which are found in papillae. Taste buds can be FUNGIFORM (anterior), FOLIATE (side) or CIRCUMVALLATE (back) Filiform papillae = do not contain taste buds, and are found all over the tongue, especially at the CENTER of the tongue. Each TB has 5 receptors.

Theory of General Intelligence

Charles Spearmen used factor analysis to idenfity cluster of related abilities 1. general intelligence g factor - controversial - can one factor explain all the other successes???? (that's what he thought)

Pheromone

Chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response -- insects use it a lot for fighting, mating and communication

operant extinction

In O.Conditioning, some of the responses by the organism no longer get reinforced (eventually you stop giving a treat to your dog when you teach it how to sit) --- over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command... -_- *extinction happens in both operant and classical conditioning

Perception

Conscious sensory experience of neural processing

Monocular cues of constancy

Constancy is the perception that an object doesn't change even if the image that is projected on to the retina is different. SIZE CONSTANCY - one that appears larger because it's closer -- we still think it's the same size. SHAPE CONSTANCY -- a changing shape still maintains the same shape perception. (Ex, a door opening. Even know the shape is changing the door is still rectangular). COLOR CONSTANCY - we perceive that the object is the same color even if there are lighting changes, etc

Charles Cooley vs George Herbert Mead -

Cooley - thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity - Mead thought this was more restricted, and that only certain people can influence us and change us across a lifespan Mead - Developed SOCIAL BEHAVIORISM -- the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others

culture lag, material culture, non-material culture

Culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations --- resulting in SOCIAL PROBLEMS. Material culture changes very fast. a) material culture = physical and technological aspects of our daily lives, like food/house. b) non-material culture (symbolic culture) = ideas/beliefs/values, which resist change

Reward Pathway

Dopamine (made in VTA @ midbrain) sends DA to amygdala, Nacc (moor functions), PFC (attention and planning) and HPC (memory) NAcc, amygdala and HPC = mesolimbic pathway Amgydala - feels emotions. Hpc - remebers everything Nacc - motor function - let's do this again PFC - pays attention to the cake 5HT is responsible for satiation! So to keep coming back for more, we have to have low 5HT and HIGH DA. If you gave an addictiive rat its favorite drug paired with noxious thing, it will STILL want drug. Increased genetic risk Enviornmenal risk

Cosmopolites vs Singles vs Deprived/Trapped vs Ethnic Villages

Drawn to a city due to cultural beliefs and convenience. Students, artists, entertainment, intellectuals (people fall under categories based on what connections they are looking for in a city and what communities they form) Singles - looking for job, partner, entertainment Deprived/Trapped - can't afford to leave the city :( Ethnic villages - native culture brought here when the people who live here immigrate. They settle together with people of similar backgrounds and create a community that looks like their home --- like chinatown.

Sidmund Freud theory for why we dream Evolutionary biology theory for why we dream

Dreams are unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted - little science support It is a threat simulation, to prepare for the real world - problem solving - no sprupose

What are some reasons for growth rate to be positive?

Economic benefits Religion - some hate condoms Culture - large families = good!

Aspects of social inequality

Ethnic/racial minorities are affected gender-pay gap glass ceiling effect socially excluded segregated neighborhoods politically disempowered HELP - government schemes, inc access to education/healthcare

Exogenous cues/endogenous cues

Exogenous/external cues: don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention - bright colors, loud noises. Bottom-up or external events Enodgenous cues: require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the INTENTION to follow it - Top-down or internal events, ex, cocktail party effect - ability to concentrate on one voice amogst a crowd

Ludwig Gumplowicz

Expanded on Marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest and cultural/ethnic conflicts that lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others

Long Term Memory --- 2 categories

Explicit (declarative) and Implicit (non-declarative) Memory

T/F: the median is more susceptible to variation, when compared to mode

FALSE

Alfred-Binet Lewis Terman Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

First one to make an intelligence test - wanted to find child's mental age Used Binet's thing and used teenagers and adults also The test, with the both of them, was used to measure the intelligence of immigrants

complex innate behaviors

Fixed action patterns - mating dance migration -- birds flying south in winter circadian rhythms - biological clock, waking up early to sing

Kohlberg Moral Development Theory

Focused on moral reasoning !!!! and the difference between RIGHT and WRONG The moral reasoning develops through levels of cognitive development, and people pass through 3 STAGES of developed - each with 3 stages -- 6 STAGES TOTAL

TrypV1 Receptor

For us to sense temperature (and actually pain) Heat causes conformational change in the protein. -- sends signals to the brain

When the baby is being developed what parts make up the fore, mid and hindbrain?

Forebrain - cerebrum Midbrain - Midbrain Hindbrain - pons/medulla/cerebellum PNS = CN (12 pairs) and spinal nerves (31 pairs)

Formal vs informal norms

Formal == written down Informal norms = understood but less precise and have no specific punishments

Symbolic interactonism: Doctor-Pt relationship

Gives meaning to the lab coat/stethoscope, and it can affect the interaction. It is important for doctor to realize the meaning that the patient has given to the tools of medicine --> lab coat is a sign of authority, and stethoscope is a way to interact with the patient.

Piaget:

He believed that children weren't mini adults and made the world as they grew

Id, ego and superego

Id: innate. seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. ----please principle --- gain pleasure and avoid pain. wish fulfillment. (drive red. theory) ego - reality principle -- operates on secondary processes. mediates the demands of reality vs desires of id. This is who we identify with. superego - internalization of cultural ideas and parental sanctions -- morals. "super--- star" superego --| sexual and aggressive impulses and tries to replace reality with morality. angel: superego devil: id if you suck, then you'll have more id then ego/superego

Damage to corpus callosum

If you damage the CC, you get a SPLIT BRAIN PATIENT. Brain is contralateral = left visual field info gets proceed by right side So, in this case, if you see an object on your left, it is sent to your R hemisphere but you won't be able to name it bc your right part can't communicate with left language parts. you would be able to pick up the ojbect since your right hem controls your left body movements LEFT SIDE= LANGUAGE RIGHT SIDE = ACTION, PERCEPTION, ATTENTION

Net migration

Immigration - emigration - people migrate to industrialized areas for a better life. - people also migrate within the country, which does effect economics/culture of a country.

Prosody

Located on R Hem concerned with larger units of speech like syallables. contributes to tone, stress, rhythm. can give info about the emotional state of the speaker, form of utterance, presence of irony/sarcasm, emphasis, contrast, etc.

Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins

MONOZYGOTIC = identical - egg splits into 2 after fertilization - share 100% of genes DIZYGOTIC = 2 separately fertilized eggs

Dementia

Most common form is AD. Cortex shrinks in size. Sx = memory loss, and it is particularly difficult to retrieve or decode recent memories. Early stages = low ST memory, they can still remember details form their childhood. they still have procedural memory (implicit memory form), episodic memory (explicit memory about events) and semantic memory (explicit memory about words AD is possibly because of amyloid plaques

Components of Language (5)

Phonology = phonetic compoenent- sound system = 40 phonemes. Morphology = refers to structures of words. Meaningful elements together to make a word. Semantics = associated of meaning with a word Syntax = how words are put together in sentences Pragmatics = dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge -- affected by prosody

Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory

Place Broadbent's selective filter AFTER the perceptual process has taken place. So, you DO register and assign everything/anything meaning but then the selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. Sensory register --> perceptual process --> selective filter --> conscious *the dutch pay attention to EVERYTHING

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic theory ==> personality is shaped by childhood experiences -- person's unconscious thoughts/desires/feelings/past memories 1. LIBIDO - natural energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation of survival, growth, pleasure 2. DEATH INSTINCT - drives aggressive behaviors fueled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others HE BELIEVED IN I, E, S

Dissociation Theory and Social Influence Theory

Regarding hypnotism: Dissociation Theory - hypnotism extreme form of divided consciousness SIT - people do and report what is expected of them, like actors in their movie role

Language

Registered in LEFT SIDE (for both R and L handed ppls) BROCA's AREA = speaking/language expression WERNICKE'S AREA = temporal lobe - sound processing APHASIA = brocas (non-fluent) -- frontal lobe damage wernicke -- (fluent/receptive) = difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences GLOBAL = both are damaged!

Whole Report Technique

Required people to recall as many elements form the original display in their proper spatial location as possible. They were able to identify 3-5 characters from the 12 character display (35%) WE ARE LIMITED TO 4-5 ITEMS IN OUR MEMORY SYSTEM'S CAPACITY

Limbic System - 4 parts

Responsible for stroage/retrieval of memories. HATH - Hyponatremia Also Takes Hypertension (Hypothalamus Amygdala Thalamus Hippocampus)

Complex vs simple traits

Simple - eye or hair color Complex - happiness, aggressiveness, intelligence. The enviorment plays a role in the activation/inactivation of certain things

Observational Learning

Social Learning/vicarious learning Learned through WATCHING/IMITATING -- MODELING Mirror neurons!!!!

Transofrmationalist grammer

Studied by naom chomsky (natvist theory) -- refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convery the same information

T/F: a person with low self-esteem can have high-self efficacy, and vice versa

TRUE perfectionist --- low self-esteem, but high-self efficacy because they know they'll be able to follow rules and be fine

Halo effect

Tendency for people to have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics physical attractiveness stereotype ==> believe attractive people have more positive personality traits ---- if we have an overall positive first impression, we start to analyze all their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skills

What are the 2 sensations that are SLOW?

NOCICEPTION and TEMPERATURE

Processing

Neural transformation of multiple neural signals into perception

How rods and cones work with light

Normally rod is turned ON by light, but when light hits it turns OFF. When rod is OFF, it turns ON a bipolar cell, which turns ON ganglion cell -- optic nerve -- LGN Cones code for red, blue and green ==> Trichomatic Theory of Color Vision vs Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision: This theory states that you have cones that perceive 4 colors: red, green blue and YELLOW. and that the red and green cones opposte each other, and blue and yellow cones oppose each other. Black and white sensitive cones also oppose each other -- only 1 color can dominate at a time!

Normative influence Informative influence

Normative - even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions are doing to avoid any social rejection. if we do something to gain respect of our peers, we're complying with social norms. because of this, we might go with group outwardly, but inwardly we believe someting differently - going to concerts with friends for an artist that you literally hate INFORMATIVE - when you are looking to the group for guidance and you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct -- we believe that others are more knowledgable than us -- we think that they know something that we don't

Types of Maladaptive Coping Mechanism

OVERCOMPESNATION = aggression, hostility - counterattacks through defying, abusing/blaming Dominance/excessive self-assertion = controls others to achieve goal Recognition-seeking = overcompensates through impressing, high achievements, status, attention-seeking Manipulating/exploiting passive-aggressiveness/rebellion excessive orderliness/obsessionally SURRENDER: compliance/dependence- gives in, submissive, avoids conflict AVOIDANCE - social withdrawal, excessive autonomy, compulsive stimulation-seeking, addictive self-soothing, psychological withdrawal (pg 105)

Divided Attention Inattention

Occurs when someone has to do 2 tasks which require attention, simultaneously doing 2 things at once you just end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously impact memory formation negatively (being bored can cause inattention)

Reference groups

The group to which people refer in evaluating themselves!!!! People's beliefs, attitudes and behaviors --- constantly looking for external group that align with our OWN b/a/b. these groups influence our social decisions these are groups that people refer to when evaluating their OWN qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors. "group that individual compares himself or herself to for self-evalution"

People in poorer areas are susceptible to

These areas usually have a lot of racial minorities, and fewer environmental benefits like green spaces, parks and recreation They also get a lot of *environmental burden* compared to wealthier parts ----airports, waste facilities, manufacturing/factories, energy production --- they often have few alternatives, and little awareness for the risks that they face (wealthy people have burdening facilities farther away)

What did the lower, proletariat class (according to Marx) join together as?

They united to create *CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS* as they realized that they were being exploited. ----- it eventually led to its own destruction :(

Proprioception

Tiny little receptor/sensory - SPINDLES - in our muscle sends signals to the spinal cord and to the brain, and this spindle protein is very sensitive to STRETCHING. The R/Sensors contract with the muscles so we're able to tell how contracted/relaxed the body is. This allows for cognitive awareness of the body in space -- SUBCONSCIOUS -- not always thinking about it Balance/position, while kinesthesia uses sense of movement

Somatosensory Homunculus

Topological map of entire body in the cortex -- different areas of the body have different signals that go to diff parts on the strip This part of parietal lobe = SENSORY CORTEX, which is where the homonculus is contained.

Type 1 error Type 2 error

Type 1 : false positive Type 2: false negative

Binocular cues, depth, retinal disparity

Visual cues allow us to perceptually organize what we see, by taking into account depth, motion, form and constancy. Our 2 eyes are able to take in info through binocular cues, which gives us a sense of depth. RETINAL DISPARITY --> the eyes are 2.5 inches apart which gives slightly different views of the world

backstage

WHERE you work on impression management -- put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits, etc.

Defense mechanisms

Ways to protect ourselves -- psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychological processes

Eyseneck - 3 major dimensions of personality

We all have these 3 traits, but the degree to which we have them is DIFFERENT PEN 1. Neuroticism - emotional stability 2. Extroversion - degree of sociability 3. Psychoticism - degree to which reality is distorted

Gender script

What we expect men and women to do. It is organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation

Minimum Justification Principle

When someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through a significant rationale

Sex

XX or XY. Intersex - 1 or 3+ so they express different sex characteristics. XXY - Kleinfelter's (males that are female like) or XO - Turner's Syndrome (females that are super short) (Can occur in Meiosis I) Meiosis II nondisjunction can cause XXX - or XYY (Jacobs syndrome)

Demographic studies

You can look at groups based on certain statistics -- education levels, death levels, immigrants vs native born, statistics for job, money, income, education, quality of life, access of healthcare.

passing responsibility of actions to others

like with the milgram experiment -- when the experimenter said that they'd take full responsibility and participant would not be responsible for the harm, participant felt much more comortable

attribution theory - 2 parts

how we explain the behaviors of others around us. internal (dispositional) --- about THEM external (situational) --- about their ENVIORNMENT ---> *Fundamental Attribution Error*: when a person assigns too much weight too INTERNAL causes rather than EXTERNAL factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior.

social facilitation

how would the presence of others affect your behavior? According to S.F. --- the most DOMINANT response for a particular behavior would be shown. dominant response refers to response most likely to occur ---- presence of others will lead you to perform well! if you've practiced, you will perform BETTER when there are people there!

framing effects

how you present the decision can affect the decision as well

theory of multiple intelligence

howard gardner 7 then 9 intelligences - 1 in one area does NOT predict any intelligence in any other area logical-mathemical itnelligence, verbal, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical.... then, naturalist, and existential cons - no way to test

UMN signs of abnormalities

hyperreflexia -- increase in muscle stretch reflexes. clonus - antagonistic muscle rhythmic conractions hypertonia - increased muscle tension, reduced muscle stretch extensor plantar response - toes extend UP intead of down (which is the normal response)

confounding variable

hypothetical or real third variable that is often not taken into account during analysis --- can adversely affect the study.

victim distance

in original milgram study, teacher couldn't see the learner (victim). if they could see the participant, it would reduce the likelihood that the participant (teacher) would obey the experimenter. but still didn't stop everyone (30%) from giving shocks

anomia

inability to name everyday objects

stereotype threat

negative consequences of stereotyping --- self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. ! exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually decrease the performance of an individual ---- stereotype THREATENS performance

connectome

neural map of the connections with the brain

institutional discrimination

organization discrimination - including governments, backs, schools, etc.

social isolation

when community volutnarily isoaltes itself form mainstread based on their own religious/cultural/other beliefs

depersonalization

when learner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices -- people are less likely to object against them ---- like someone will very easily kill a rapist, but not a nice person SERIOUS MENTAL ILLNESS SYMPTOM --- IN WHICH A PERSON FEELS LIKE SHE HAS STEPPED OUTSIDE OF HERSELF AND IS WATCHING HERSELF ACT -- WITH NO SENSE OF CONTROL OVER HER BEHAVIOR

associative learning

when one event is connected to another --- classical and operant conditioning

unanimity

when opinions of groups are unanimous -- everyone agrees --

Identification

when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect ----- they will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual during this time, the child also develops SUPEREGO -- which is done by incorporating characteristics of the parents' superegos into the child's own so a young male child will begin to take on the characteristics of the father

source monitoring source amnesia

when people recall information they often forget the information's source -- it can be improved by using retrieval cues source amensia = inability to remember where, when or how previously learned infromation has been acquired

attachment

when testing what drew babies to mothers, they did the monkey/mother experiment. They put 1 wire mother (only gave food) and another cloth mother (only gave comfort) --> the kid went to the monkey mom who gave COMFORT. the cloth mother acted as a *secure base* --- eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore the world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there1

interference

when the participant takes longer to read a word because it is MORE emotionally charged than a neutral word

Learned helplessness

you lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because every time you've tried to take control it's not worked out for you ---- it can lead to MAJOR depression

state-dependent

your state at the moment you encode. when you are in a specific mood, like if you're drunk, and something happens, you'll be more likely to remember that thing if you are drunk again. this is because there is an internal retrieval cue to your brain

Skeptical Perspective

~~ critic of globalization ~~ Thinks that that perspective will end up being REGIONALIZED instead of GLOBALIZED. 3rd world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as 1st world countries. Current economy is NOT leading towards global capitalism. For a lot of transnational corporations, they're still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important.

Rearrange Weber's Law into linear relationship

ΔI = I x K. Linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity.

shaping

"I want to LEARN to do a headstand..." Learning through successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior = shaping TARGET BEHAVIOR? The final behavior you wish to train --- headstand, etg. Ex - teaching a bird to spin in a circle. You tend to reward the bird every time it spins EVEN A LITTLE --> then... you only give it a treat when it spins full circle. Then... you only give it a treat if it makes a full circle and maybe bends towards the button. ----> it learns to perform a diff part of the task in small intervals!

Bandura

"Our learning is through observations of others, and observation of behavior of others"

Total Population Increase Rate

# Births + Immigration/1000 Multiple rate by population and you get POPULATION INCREASE

Total population Decrease Rate

(# death + # emigration)/1000 Multiply number by total population and you get POPULATION DECREASE

Medicalization

patients/doctors construct an illness out of ordinary behavior --- not sitting still in class does NOT mean ADD/ADHD

McDonaldization

policies of fast food orgs have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, PRINCIPLES OF EFFICIENCY, CALCULABILITY, PREDICTABILIY, UNIFORMITY AND CONTROL. These principles have come to dominate everything from medicine, sports, and entertainment

operationalized

process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. takes fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantiatively. --- allows for the establishment of a causal relationship between variables.

social dysfunction

process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society

opponent-process theory

psychological and neurological model that accounts for a wide range of behaviors, including color vision

diathesis-stress model

psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a pre-dispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences --- take the form of gneetic, psychological, biological or situational factors.

psychophysical discrimination testing

psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect

relapse

pt can go and slip back to the drugs increase prob of addiction = prob of relapse

social desirability bias

related to how people respond to research questions

Psychosexual Development

(Believed that psychological development in childhood developed through these stages - and concept of tension and pleasure - could cause conflict) FIXATION === due to LIBIDO (natural energy) FIRST 5 YEARS MATTER A LOT! Oral, Anal, Phalic, Latent, Gential (old age parrots love grapes)

Beck's Cognitive Therapy

(CT) -- thoughts, feelings and behaviors are ALL CONNECTED. individuals can come towards overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by *IDENTIFYING AND CHANGING UNHELPFUL OR INACCURATE THINKING, PROBLEMATIC BEHAVIOR AND DISTRESSING EMOTIONAL RESPONSES*

What happens if someone has a LMN abnormality?

(LMN signs) Atrophy Fasciculations (twitches of skeletal muscle) hypotonia hyporeflexia

Melodic Intonation Therapy

(MIT) works best with non-fluent forms of aphasia receptive aphasia = fluent aphasia. person can read or hear, but can't understand the meaning of the communication = wernicke's. global aphasia = bc of damage to left hemisphere --- won't be able to produce, understand or read/write speech Broca's = NON-FLUENT - can't produce speech, but can understand verbal speech

Labeled-Line Theory Vibrational Theory Steric/Shape Theory Anosmnia

(Olfaction) Each receptor would respond to a specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain Vibrational Frequency of olfaction says that the vibrational frequency of a molecule gives the mocule its specific odor profile Odors fit into receptors similar to a lock and key Inability to perceive odor (aNOSEmia)

Visuo-spatial sketchpad Phonological loop

(Where processing occurs for the Serial Position Effect) Where visual and spatial information are processed Verbal information (any words and numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed ---- 2 seconds long

cultural universals

(kind of relates to evolution) All cultures have ways of dealing with illness/medicine/healing or weddings/funerals, and language

Feminist Theory

(macro) --> Part of conflict theory, focusing on stratifications/inequalities in society. it examines women's social roles/experience in education, family and workforce. Both men and women are forced into gender-based roles.

what are 3 things that religion has been effected by (look at again)

*Modernization* = more info available to public, less emphasis on religion *Secularization* = weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines *Fundamentalism*) = reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. create social problems when people become too extreme

marshmallow test

*experiment with self-control* kids in preschool were given a marshmallow and they could eat it whenever, but if they waited 15 minutes they could get ANOTHER marshmallow. They would have to forego immediate gratification and wait for a better reward! some ate it right away, others licked. those that were able to WAIT ---> higher SAT scores, lower drug use, fewer relationship problems

aversive control - 2 types

*negative reinforcement is causing something to have to happen* ESCAPE = escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occurred ---- the response (of escaping) is conditioned in response to a stimuli, and then the stimulus goes away (negative reinforcement) - escape conditioning occurs so the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus === "get me out of here" or "shut this off" --- NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT AVOIDANCE = signal is given before the aversive stimulation! the behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli --- ex, fire alarm --- helps you AVOID the fire. Avoidance is SELF-REINFORCING because even though you never encounter the actual stimulus, you feel RELIEF, which is === negative reinforcement.

ethnography

*study of particular people and places* -- it is a more of an approach than a single research method in that it GENERALLY combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures. good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and people's studied

self-fulfilling prophecy

stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes "city dwellers are rude" (cognition/stereotype) --> i don't like them (affective/prejudice) --> I will avoid them (behavioral component, DISCRIMINATION)

convergrent validity

tests that constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related

message characteristics

the MESSAGE ITSELF ---- was it useful, logical, clear, how well thought out was it. ---- also, is the speaker good, does he have good vocab, blah blah blah

self-control

the ability to control our impulses and delay gratification --- influences how we behave humans have natural DESIRES ==> it's not necessarily bad but when they become TEMPTATIONS ---- when desire conflicts with values/long term goals -----

weaker genetic traits

achievement, closeness ??????/ DA-4 Receptor abnormality = thrill seekers -- depends on environment as well, obviously

methadone

activates opiate receptors, but acts more slowly so it dampens the high -- reduces cravings, eases withdrawals

Correlation

all variables examined are continuous!!! Unlike regression, there is no assumption about which variable is influencing the other. Correlation can be 1, "perfect" or -1 0 or a random number

directed attention

allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task, in this case a single orientation of the Necker cube Attention - focus/concentrating on something at the exclusion of other stimuli in the enviroment

multiple-approach avoidance

the internal mental debate (conflict) that weights the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements

left superior temporal sulcus

anger

social capital

the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society --- enabling that society to function EFFECTIVELY ---- social networks provide VALUABLE RESOURCES --- it can result in health benefits (more social support) SOCIAL CAPITAL/SOCIAL NETWORKS = suggest that social contracts will be BENEFICIAL to health and well-being.

aggressive

any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy --- comes from: 1. BIOLOGY - a) genes & b) brain structure impact on aggressive behavior (amygdala) (frontal lobe - impulse control) & c) testosterone 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL - a) frustration-aggression principle: frustration --> anger --> aggression. b) reinforcement-modeling --> if kid is aggressive, and parents give in to that, then the kid is going to be aggressive in future 3. SOCIO-CULTURAL a) deindividualization - anonymity causes bad behavior b) social scripts - when people are in new situations they rely on Social Scripts/instructions provided by society, ex, video games.

adaptive associations

are learned faster than learning with no biological value! *ppl with adaptive associations have a BIOLOGICAL ADVANTAGE

Attentional capture

attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus

conduction fallacy

co-occurrence of 2 instances is more likely than a single one

Piaget's view on language

cognitive devlopmnt of children. once children were able to think in a certain way, they developed language to describe those thoughts.

hypocritin/orexin

controls sleep and arousal!

Low-effort syndrome/low-effor coping

coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit in the dominant culture. they might learn to put only minimal effort as they believe they are being discrminated against by the dominant culture

How is motivational state defined?

by depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus for a period of time

neglect syndrome

damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention

executive attention

goal-directed behavior - monitoring conflicts between internal processes and anticipating the effects of behavior *DA from VTA

group polarization

group makes decisions that are more EXTREME than any individual member in the group would want --> this can TURBO CHARGE the groups viewpoints

discrimination

guinea pig doesn't respond to dresser drawer, which makes a sound that is a little different.... when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others! there is ALSO an adaptive value because you want to respond to some stimuli but not others

heritability equation

h^2

learned behaviors

habituation - response to alarm decreases over time classical conditioning - associate one stimuli with another stimuli that produces a specific response ---- CS === CR operant conditioning - consequences that follow to inc/dec a behavior insight learning = solve a problem using past skills, the "aha" moment! latent learning = learned behavior is not expressed until required innate learning = FAP that are "hard-wired"

Ca2+

indicator of chelation essential for activity-dependent plasticity.

individual discrimination

individual person acting to discriminate based on something, like sex, religion, race, age ex, science professor who doesn't let women into his class - sex discrimination

illness anxiety disorder

individuals diagnosed with illness anxiety disorder are often more concerned with illness or the idea of being ill and often lack or have minimal somatic symtpoms

conflict theory

inequality between different groups -- who has access to medical care? wealthier people can pay for best medical care, the poor can't afford the deductibles/insurances, so they skip hospitals and are sick for longer. ---- we have a bunch of disparities in society, and limited access to care.

Internal capsule basal ganglia

internal capsule - contains many important pathways -- corticospinal tract motor functinos -- don't have UMNs -- help motor areas to perform proper movements

Drives

intrinsic, unviersal feelins we all have towards varying things EROS - LIFE DRIVE - health, safety, sex. comes with love, cooperation, collaboration. working with others to promote your and other's wellbeing THANTOS - DEATH DRIVE - self-destructive/harmful to others - comes with fear, anger, hate `

ethnographic reserach

involves observing social interactions in real social settings ---

Flynn effet

is an observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the next

sensitization

is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus

xenocentrism

judging another culture as superior to one's own culture --- like we drive german cars, eat german food, but live in america

ethnocentric

judging someone else's culture form the position of your own culture --- viewing your own culture to be superior to that of others --- can lead to cultural bias and prejudice

What are some ways that humans communicate?

language. non-verbal cues (can tell if someone is happy/sad, anxious/angry by smile, frown, etc), and visual cues (painting room pink vs black)

In terms of worker-boss relationship, workers can have (2 things)

1. Class consciousness - realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression and exploitation. Involves seizing and obtaining means and redistributing the means of production among the workers 2. False consciousness - They're unable to see their oppression. Owners can see this and CONTROL classes, and make it more difficult for the workers to see how oppressed they are (they are blind!)

What are the 3 things that prejudice is made out of

1. Cognition (STEREOTYPE) = fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) 2. Affect (PREJUDICE) = carries an emotional component 3. Discrimination (tendency for prejudice to lead to *behavior*) --- capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice (ABC model)

2 views of institutions

1. Conservative view - institutions are natural by-products of human nature 2. Progressive view - institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful --- businesses

What do women face?

1. Discrimination 2. Objectification 3. Oppression 4. Stereotyping

Max Weber - made 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureauracy

1. Division of Labor - people are trained to do specific tasks -- pro: increased efficiency, con: increase alienation of workers. Can lead to *TRAINED INCAPACITY* where workers are so specialized that they lose touch with overall picture 2. Hierarchy of organization - each position is under supervision of higher authority, and not all people are equal pro: clarify who's in command con: deprive people of voice in decision making 3. Written rules and regulations pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees and unity in company con - stiffens creativity and if there's too much structure then it can inhibit people form taking initiative *GOAL DISPLACEMENT* 4. Impersonality - how indivs and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner pro - equal treatment con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group 5. employment based on technical qualifications - hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications person has, not on favoritism or personal rivalries pro - decreased discriminaton con - decrease ambition ===> leads to *PETER PRINCIPLE - where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence

motivation

1. Evolutionary approach - instinct's role in motivation -- how we want to survive 2. Drive Reduction Theory - need = lack or deprivation that will energize the drive -- aroused state. drive = aroused state. fulfilling drive will REDUCE the need. 3. Optimum Arousal Theory - drive to get full arousal and natural high. amusement parks, i.e. 4. Cognitive - rational and decision-making ability - thought processes drive behavior 5. maslow's hierarchy of needs

What are some different types of feminist theories?

1. Gender differences = created via process of socialization. Women seen as soft, caretakers and men seen as tough. Want to change gender roles. 2. Gender inequality = central to all behavior/organization in society. patriarchal society. 3. Gender oppression = women are unequal AND oppressed, subordinated, and abused. 4. Structural oppression = women's oppression and inequality is due to capitalism, patriarchy and racism. Women are associated with body.

2 parts of brain with most glucocorticoid receptors

1. HPC = learning and memory 2. Frontal Cortex = impulse control, reasoning, judgment, planning. FC can decrease in size with a lot of stress Stress causes DEPRESSION (anhedonia - inability to experience pleasure -- sees more normal things as stressors). The ANTERIOR CINGULATE in the FC stops showing reactions to 5HT

Appraisal Theory of stress

By Richard Lazarus Stress doesn't arise so much from the physical events, but it rises more form the ASSESSMENT/ITNERPRETATION/APRASIAL of the event.

Humanistic theory

Carl Rogers Healthy personality -- development and humans are seen as INHERENTLY GOOD. The most basic motive of all for people is the ACTUALIZING TENDENCY (self-actualization) -- innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential ---- people HAVE FREE WILL Person will grow towards self-actualization as LONG as there is no obstacles *DIFFERENT FROM FREUD BECAUSE THE H.T. SAYS THAT PEOPLE ARE INHERENTLY GOOD AND ARE SELF-MOTIVATED TO IMPROVE FREUD FOCUSED ON MENTAL CONFLICTS/FIXATIONS and the unconscious

Bias

Cognitive bias is the tendency to think in certain ways ---> cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment

Concentration vs centralization

Concentration = clustering of different groups --- a form of segregation Centralization = segregation + clustering in a central area

Conjunctiva Cornea Anterior Chamber Pupil Iris Lens Suspensory Ligaments

Conjunctiva - thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelid from the eye Cornea - bends light, first part of eye that the light hits on Anterior Chamber - filled with aq humour - allows nutrients to be given to cornea/iris Pupil - dilate/constrict depending on light. Iris has muscles that change the shape of the pupil Lens - bends light so that it can go to the back of the eyeball. Focuses light specifically on the fovea -- uses suspensory ligaments (attached to ciliary muscle) control how much bending the lens can do, based on shape changes

Iceberg analogy

Conscious mind - TOP of iceberg - mental functions you are aware of Unconscious mind - BOTTOM (larger part) --- primitive, instinctual wishes and information that cannot be accessed *not to be confused with subconscious mind/precocious mind, which consists of info that becomes accessible once you direct your attention to it

Central Executive Episodic Buffer

Coordinates the V-S Sketchpad and the Phonological Loop Central Cities Executive Traffic Cop Directs Memory Components) Episodic Buffer - connecter for information stored in long-term memory

Anti-Malthusian Theorem (page 288)

Couples only want to have one child or have children later in life (low B rate) --- we also have better standard of living. *Growth rate an INCREASE as well!!!* Some say that higher standard of living CAN promote fertility and higher birth rates!

Subculture

Culture (ideas) of a meso-level (medium) sub-community (small community) that distinguished itself from the larger dominant culture or larger society/community. Unlike Micro-culture, it IS large enough to support people through entire lifespan. *can cause tension with dominant group, which has a lot of power to determine the cultural expectations of society* In a national society, you have pepole making up different ethnic, regional and tribal subcultures.

Cycles of sleep, when sleeping

Cycle through the stages 4-5 times per sleep - each one 90 minutes. N1 - N2 - N3 - N2 - REM - N1

dependent vs independent variable

Dependent - what is expected to change based on the manipulation of the independent variable Independent - what is manipulated

Parallel Processing

Detects information about color, motion and form at the same time

Adoptive studies

Different environments than the biological parents of the kid. Enviorment role? - adoptive child ~~~~ similar to adoptive parents, not similar to real parents Genetic role? ~~~ similar to biological parents *these studies are hard to do

Mass media

Dissemination of information, how information is transmitted within a culture. TV, radio, media, internet, books, newspaper.

Hallucinogens

Distort perceptions/hallucinations - heightened sensations based on reality. Emotional mood swings Psilocybin, mescaline, peyote, PCP, LSD (changes 5HT neurotransmission -5HT2 R family) Pupils dilate Heightened senstations, can later destroy 5HT neurons

Transformationalist Perspective

Doesn't have specific cause or outcome --- believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change so simply. CHANGING WORLD

Why would we agree to something that we don't agree in?

1. Informative influence -- look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume group is correct. 2. Norformative influence -- even if you know what is right you do what group's negative actions say to avoid social rejection

4 sources to determine if person has strong/weak sense of self-efficacy

1. Mastery of experience - strengthens self-efficacy 2. social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy 3. social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, it helps overcome self-doubt 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations --- improve self-E

heiristics, 2 types

1. Means-end analysis - analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems current state -- goal state 2. working backwards - goal state -> current state. start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state

4 circles of stigma

1. Media = outer circle ---> major source of stigma. 2. Society = interactions between self and society like education/employment/ health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job, or for other opportunities --- use of legislation and anti-discrimination laws 3. Family = family can be shunned by society, or they can shun a specific individual in the family. 4. self = core circle - media, society and family interactions can be INTERNALIZED by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering or mental health conditions

Is drive reduction +/- reinforcement? Is incentives +/- reinforcement?

1. Negative reinforcement 2. Positive reinforcement

20 categories for diseases

1. Neurodevelopmental disorders - autism, ADHD, dyscalculia, dysgraphia 2. Neurocognitive disorders - delirium, dementia, AD 3. sleep-wake disorders 4. anxiety disorders - GAD, SAD 5. Depressive disorders 6. Bipolar disorders 7. Schizophrenia spectrum 8. Trauma/stressor-related 9. Substance/addictive disorders 10. personality disorder 11. disruptive/impule-control 12. OCD related - obsessions: thoughts that occur involuntary, compulsions - something smoeone HAS TO DO TO GET RID OF OBSESSION 13. somatic symptom - psychological origin w/o medical condition 14. feeding/eating 15. elimination disorder - distress form urination/defecation 16. dissociative - DID 17. sexual dysfunctions 18. gender dysphoria 19. Paraphilia 20. other disorders

Somatosensation: 1. Types 2. Intensity 3. Timing 4. Location

1. Nociception, Thermoception, Mehcanoception, Proprioception 2. How quickly the neurons fire for us to notice. If neurons fire faster, it's a high intensity. ---> Thermoception and Mechanoception don't fire that fast, but nociception and proprioception do fire very fast. (high intensity) 3. Neurons encode 3 ways for timing: non adapting, fast adapting and slow adapting. 4. Location-specific stimuli by nerves are sent to the brain, and relies on dermatomes

Sleep Stages

1. Non-Rem 1: *theta waves* - strange sensations or tetris effect, hypnic jerks 2. N2: more *theta*, *sleep spindles* (rapid brain activity) and *K-complexes* (supress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. also help sleep-based memory during sleep -- declarative and explicit memories) 3. N3: very difficult to awaken - *delta waves*. Declarative memory consolidation 4. REM: eyes move raipidly beneath eyelids, most other muscles are paralyzed. *memory consolidation - episodic memory* BATS-drink blood

What are the 2 somatosensory tracts, and what do they carry?

1. POSITION, VIBRATION, FINE TOUCH 2. PAIN, TEMPERATURE, GROSS (less precise) TOUCH *this is why injury to one side of the brain causes damage to the other side -- because all of the somatosensory pathways cross to the other side* 1. Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscus 2. Spinothalamic

Stage 1 of Kohlberg's

1. PRE-CONVENTIONAL a) obedience vs punishment (children follow this) b) individualism/exchange or self-interest (diff individuals have diff viewpoints) - doing what is right for personal gain -- "hedonist"

Social Behaviorism - Mead (look at again) - 223-224

1. PREPARATORY STAGE - interaction through imitation - play with pots and pans when parents are cooking 2. PLAY STAGE - more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to PRETEND PLAY as others like firefights, doctors, etc. Focused on role-taking! 3. GAME STAGE - start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of the "generalized other." (whole society) --- people can take on multiple roles --- also realize that others have opinions about them and those perceptions others have are based on how they act and what they say ---- led to development of "i" and "me" Me = social self - conforming, be nice I = spontaneous, less socialized component of self - gives no poops

4 components of culture

1. People share culture in society 2. Culture is *adaptive* - over time and place 3. Culture builds on itself - ongoing and cumulative and societies build on existing cultures to adapt to new challenges 4. Culture is transmitted - from one generation to the next.

What are the 3 reasons why residential segregation is important?

1. Political isolation = communities that are segregated are politically weak because their political interests don't overlap with other communities ---- become politically vulnerable. 2. Linguistic isolation = communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in same city. may limit jobs. 3. Spatial mismatch = opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but are farther away and harder to access. --- gap between the people that live there and the opportunities that are there

What are the 3 stages in the elaboration likelihood model?

1. Pre-processing stage due to target characteristics == before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by 1. interest 2. motivation 3. importance (of the LISTENER!) ----> central processing: if interst motivation, importance and interest are high, they'll only choose this route when there is INTERST in the topic. ---> peripheral processing: if listener interest, motivation, etc are LOW. Used when there is LESS INTEREST in the topic. 2. Processing stage = a) central processing: focus on deep processing of the information b) peripheral processingL focus on superficial characteristics (shallow) - attractiveness, ppt appeal, etc 3. Change in attitude = a) Central processing = creates LASTING ATTITUDE CHANGE b) Peripheral processing = creates TEMPORARY ATTITUDE CHANGE

Immature defense mechanism

1. Projection - throw your attributes to someone else --- can cause PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION ----- that person that was targeted with projection can start believeing, feeling and having throughts of the attributes that were projected to them :( 2. Passive Aggression - aggressively doing something for someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly -- passive way to express anger

Who are the people who usually have health dispairites?

1. Race - blacks and hispanics have high morbidity and high mortality ---- isn't even always because of SES. 2. Gender - men usually use fewer preventative services like vaccines. - women require reproductive services. 3. LGBT - might suffer discrimination

3 types of mating

1. Random mating - all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other --> mating not influenced by enviornment/heredity or any behaviora/social imitation 2. assortive mating - non-random mating where individuals with ceratin phenotypes/genotypes/similarities or appearances tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency -- large animals with large animls, like that ******* BEST METHOD 3. diss-assortive mating - opposite of assortive mating - situation where individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating

4 principles of social stratification

1. S.S. is socially defined as a property of a society, rather than individuals in that society 2. S.S. is reproduced from gen to gen 3. S.S. is universal 4. S.S. involves not just quantitive inequality but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status

Carl Roger's (Humanistic Theory) believed there to be 3 components in Self-concept

1. Self-image: what we believe we are 2. Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves 3. Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be WHEN the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is POSITIVE SELF CONCEPT. WHEN the ideal self and real self are NOT similar, the result is INCONGRUITY :(

2 main foraging strategies

1. Solitary foraging - animal looks for food by itself 2. Group foraging - animals look for food in groups. can lead to competition within a group if food is scarce. --- they can take down larger more aggressive prey this way!

What 3 things influence our ability to perform multiple tasks at once

1. task similarity 2. task difficulty - harder task requires more focus ---- driving becomes harder when you don't know where you're going so you lower the volume 3. practice -- well-practiced activities become automatic processes ---- AUTOMATIC VS CONTROLLED task is determined by the amount of practice!

Non-associative learning

2 types - habituation and sensitization --------- learning where there is no punishment/reward occurring, but there is only increase/decrease of the response --- you are just monitoring how the response changes with the same stimuli repeating itself over time. If you hear thunder when laying in bed, you have 3 options: 1. same response - jump as high with each thunderclap 2. habituated - with each stimuli, we get a decreased response over time 3. SENSITIZATION - the same stimuli causes an increased response --- progressive amplification in response!!!!!!!!!!

Stage 2 of Kohlberg's

2. CONCENTIONAL a) Societal Norms/Acceptance --- to gain acceptance and to avoid disapproval b) Law and Order --- maintaining social order

General Anxiety Disorder

2/3 women panic disorder phobias - tend to form pattern OCD

Stage 6 of Erikson's

20-40 years. Intimacy vs Isolation Virtue = Love Failure = avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness/depression

statistics for mental disorder

25% will meet criteria for 1 mental disorder 6% will have serious mental illness that causes severe disability

Multiple intelligences

3 TYPES 1. Analytical intelligence (academic abilities) 2. Creative intelligence (adapt to new situations) 3. Practical intelligence (solve ill-defined problems, like taking a bookcase over a spiral staircase)

Co-variational model

3 cues of Kelley's co-variational model 1. consistency (time) 2. distinctiveness (situation) 3. consensus (people) When consistency is high, attribution is to INTERNAL FACTORS. If something happens and it's very distinctive and out of character for the person, then it's DISTINCTIVE == SITUATIONAL. = EXTERNAL FACTORS When a lot of the people demonstrate the same behavior, there is a CONSENSUS --- attribution of external factors (30 people walked in late to a meeting)

Stage 3 of Erikson's

3-6 years. Initiative vs guilt Virtue = sense of purpose to do what they want and have choices/decisions Failing to have purpose = they'll get guilt and feel like they're annoying other people

Stage 3 of Kohlbergs

3. POST-CONVENTIONAL a) social contract - there are times when laws work against interest of particular people, so you go against the law b) universal ethical principals - people develop own set of moral guidelines, own conscience

Stage 4 of Erikson's

6-12 years. Industry vs inferiority Virtue = Child gets self-esteem and feels significant. Competence Failure = Inferior, but can feel modest in some failures

3 categories of personality traits: A

A - odd, and ecentric traits PSS paranoid schizoid -antisocial, distant schizotypal - odd beliefs, magical thinking

foraging

A VERY IMPORTANT ANIMAL BEHAVIOR ---- the search for food in animal's environment -- cant survive or reproduce without it

self-serving bias

A belief that we, us incredibly high and mighty individuals, would never commit acts like this, because apparently, in the right situations, most of us would

Operational Span Testing

A task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. OPERATION SPAN = max # of words that can be recalled

Autonomic Nervous System

A) Sympathetic = pupils dilate, decreased salivation, more respiration and HR, more glucose release, more adrenaline, less digestion B) Parasympathetic = pupils constrict, more glucose storage, more salivation, less HR and breathing, more digestion

Generalizing --- 2 aspects

A) To a population: you want to survey people who, when the results come back, can actually give a good glimpse of what the population is, at large B) to a theory: moving from observations to scientific theories or hypotheses, like "cig smoking causes lung cancer." - we also need to understand the context in which the studies are done nd how those might influence the results

A-Beta fibers A-Delta fibers C fibers

A-beta: fast ones are thick and covered in myelin (less R, High conductance) A-Delta: smaller diameter, less myelin C: small diameter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain)

Milgram studies

Done to study the willingness of participants, average Americans to obey authority figures that instructed them to perform behaviors that conflicted with their personal beliefs and morals In the study where was the experimenter, one confederate, and one real participant. confederate was always learner, and real experimenter was always teacher role Learner was on a bunch of electrodes and told that the teacher will teach the learner a word of pairs, and the learner will be shocked whenever he gets a word wrong. 15 V, until 450 V. RESULTS - 65% of participants shocked all the way. VERY FEW PEOPLE RESISTED AUTHORITY

3 categories of personality traits: B

Dramatic, emotional, erratic ABHN Antisocial - crimes w/ no remorse Borderline - unstable relationships, variable self image, compulsive Histrionic - attention seeking, bright colors Narcissistic - huge egos, need for admiration and praise, grandiose

What are some things that can result form racial differences?

Drastic events, like genocide or population transfer (group is forced out of an area), or inter-colonialism (minorities group is segregated and exploited) and assimilation (where minority group is absorbed into majority) MANY differences between racial and ethnic groups in healthcare, education, income, birth rates and life expectancy. Minorities tend to have shorter lifespan because they have limited access to healthcare, lower-income jobs, higher toxin levels and worse personal behaviors

Sigmund Freu's Theory of Dreams

Dreams represent our unconscious feelings/urges/throughts - iceberg. Manifest content - literal meaning - monster chasing you Latent content - hidden meaning - job pushing you out

Cultural transmission

Addresses how culture is passed along from gen to gen through various child-bearing practices, like when parents expose their kids to music

How much sleep do people need?

Adult: 7-8 hours Infant - 12 hours preschooler - 10 hours School age child - 9 hours

Oral stage - PS Development

Age 0-1 years. Libido/sense of interaction is around baby's mouth -- rooting/sucking reflex. Gets pleasure via oral stimulation - tasting/sucking - baby also develops a sense of trust/comfort here because they are completely dependent on parents/caretakers

Anal stage - PS development

Age 1-3. Centered around anus. Leads to control/independence - encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive.

Phallic stage - PS development

Age 3-6. Children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex (boys view fathers as rivals for mother's affection) & Electra complex (by Carl-Junt, equivalent for young girls to their fathers) -- fixation = homosexuality

Stage 7 of Erikson's

Age 40-65. Generativity vs stagnation Virtue = Sense of care for others - adults feel like they're giving back Failure = stagnate and unproductive

Stage 8 of Erikson's

Age 65+. Integrity vs despair Stage where people contemplate on lives, reminisce Virtue = wisdom Failure = dissatisfaction upon death

Life Course Theory

Aging is a social, psychological and biological process that beings from time you are born till the time you die. It needs a holistic perspective that calls attention to development processes and other experiences across a person's life. If you live longer, it also changes your social process!

Agraphia Anomia

Agraphia = can't write Anomia = inability to name things -- can't retrieve the words

Activist movements vs Regressive movements

Aim to change some aspect of society, while REGRESSIVE/REACTIONARY movements resist change Social Movements can affect people not involved in them, and it can also cause WIDESPREAD panic.

Sound waves

Air molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure -- sound waves. Wavelength = how close the peaks are. High wavelength = low frequency. = travel farther = penetrate DEEP into cochlea.

NT changes with attention

Alerting attention is affected by regular aging but deficits are not associated with schizophrenia. NT modulation of this attentional network = NE produced in the local ceruleus

Complexity of Social Stratification (lok at again - pg 306)

All complex societies do have some sort of S.S. a) social-instituional processes that define certain types of goods as valuable/desirable b) rules of allocation that distribute goods and resources across various positions in the division of labor - doctor, farmer, housewife c) social mobility processes that link individuals to positions and thereby generate unequal control over valued resources

Modernization Theory

All countries follow similar path of development from traditional to modern society. With some help, traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did. - country can adapt to new technologies, and new political/social change can also occur

Class system

Allows for degreeeees of social mobility, combination of background and movement -- often by education. Less stability.

Adaptive Coping/positive coping/constructive coping

Anticipating a problem == PROACTIVE COPING. Anticipating a problem and how it will be dealt with can greatly decrease stress. 1. Social coping 2. Meaning-focused coping - derive meaning from stressful situations

Exchange Theory

Apply rational choice theory to social interactions ---> looks at society as series of interactions b/w individuals. Looks at a) SEXUAL SELECTION - b) SOCIAL SELECTION --- affect reproduction and health and social mobility. Focuses on the differential action of social conditions or agencies on the longevity and reproductive rates of individuals and strains in the population (war is a factor of social selection) *behavior of individuals in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments* --- rewards can be social approval, money, gifts, and positive gestures. Punishments can be negative gestures, social disapproval and public humiliation

Religion - one of the pillars of social institution (besides family, marriage, and education)

ECCLESIA - dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, like Islam in Iran Churches - established religious bodies in larger society Sects - tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church --- mormon, amish Cults - radical, reject values of outside society. rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief system ----

Endoderm Mesoderm Ectoderm

ENDODERM = GI tract (esophagus, SI, LI), lungs, liver, pancreas. Line reproductive tract MESODERM = dermis, muscle, skeleton, bone, cardic muscle, kidneys, bladder, gonas ECTODERM = epidermis, sweat glands, hair, skin, nervous system, sense organs

2 main NT in Peripheral Nervous System

EPINEPHRINE ACH

Phrenologists

Each brain area is devoted to a certain personality characteristic, thought, emotion

Organ of Corti - Upper and Lower membranes

As fluid flows around the organ, it causes hair cells to move back and forth. @ Upper membrane: hair cells/cilia = hair bundle, made of little filaments called kinocilium. Tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link -- attached to a gate of K+ channels. When endolymph moves, channels stretch and K+ flows inside the cell, from the endolymph. When K+ comes inside, Ca2+ gets activated (VG Ca2+ channels open) and this caues an AP that goes to the spiral ganglion cells and then we get actiation of the auditory nerve.

Scapegoats

At the core of prejudice is often FEAR OF FRUSTRATION ---> scapegoats are group of people towards whom the aggression is directed, like Jews in WWII

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

Attention - need to pay attention Memory Imitation Motivation

Treisman's Attenuation Theory

Attenuator, instead of selective filter. This attenuator weakens, but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. ----- allows the attended message to be processed to a greater extent than the unattended message sensory register --> attenuator --> perceptual process --> conscious TREISSMAN is SHARP as a T. He is smart enough to only attenuate and then perceive.

Sexual orientation

Attraction and fornication Not dependent on sex OR gender of the person. You can be attracted to any gender but only have sex with females, or any combination. Or you can be asexual. Straight

3 categories of personality traits: C

Avoidant - inhibited, feel inadequate and try to avoid putting themselves in a stuation where they can be critisized Dependent - submissive and clingy OCPD - very focused on life being ordered and things being eprfect and for them being in control to in extent where it annoys people

Bottom-Up processing

Begins with stimulus --> the stimulus influences what we perceive. No preconceived cognitive constructs of the stimulus; DATA DRIVEN. Inductive reasoning - always correct.

Psychosexual theory of development (Freud)

Believed that EARLY CHILDHOOD = most important age/period in which personality develops. There are 5 stages, and if they are not all completed successfully and issues develop, we get FIXATION

Sociocultural Cognitive Development Theory - Vygotsky

Believed that children learned ACTIVELY and through HANDS-ON processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for the development of the higher function of learning, for the child ---- important for development of cognition! "yv gotsta learn hands on"

What part of our brain changes when with food?

Biological aspect - Lateral Hypothalamus Lesion - Lacks hunger. Ventral Hypothalamus Lesion - Very hungry. (when full, we have hella leptin) Sociocultural aspect of food - we eat for diff occasions, time, desire and appeal

Biomedical vs biopsychosocial

Biomedical - focuses on biological, physical abnormalities Biopsychosocial - abnormalites and might be useful for cuase or classification of mental disorder but also includes psychological and cultural/social factors -- INVOLVES SOCIAL ASPECTS TOO

Growth vs fixed minset

Fixed minset = biology is set and unchanging - they don't accomplish as much in their careers Growth mindset = intelligence is changeable -- praises effort, perseverance, improvement and strategies

monocular cues

Gives info of the FORM of an object, as opposed to the info of depth from binocular cues. We can infer RELATIVE SIZE with one eye -- the closer the object is, the bigger we see it. They also give a sense of MOTION -- MOTION PARALLAX: "relative motion" things farther away move slower, closer things move faster.

Population Pyramid - page 283

Graphs the age and sex distribution of a population --- males/females on x-axis and increasing age on y-axis. Stationary Pyramid = (dome shaped) = low birth and low death rate ----- *constrictive period* = fewer young people than old people (like US) - Expansive Pyramid = (pyramid or U-shaped) high birth rate and high death rate

Basilar Tuning

Hair cells at the BASE (start of cochlea) are activated by HIGH FREQUENCY SOUNDS Hair cells at the APEX (end of cochlea) are activated by LOW FREQUENCY SOUNDS *long wavelengths can travel farther!* Long wl = high frequency Apex = 25 Hz (low F, high W) Base = 1600 Hz (high F, low W) Cochlea info goes to T-Lobe Brain can distinguish different frequenceis by TONOTOPIC MAPPING

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye 1. ALARM PHASE = stress reaction kicks in, heart races, resources mobilized -- FIGHT OR FLIGHT 2. Resistance = fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, and body is full of cortisol! 3. Exhaustion = if resistance isn't followed by recover, or body's stress resources are depleted -- our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness --- negative impact of long term stress

Paul Ekman's 6 main universal emotions

Happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger and surprise FAHDSS *according to him, these are universal and are easily recognizable DARWIN BELIEVED THAT THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND AND EXPRESS EMOTIONS IS AN INNATE ABILITY THAT ALLOWED THEM TO ACT IN WAYS THAT GAVE THEM A BETTER CHANCE OF SURVIVAL

Growth rate

How much population of a country grows or shrinks over a period of time --- not always a positive number. (Total pop increase - Total pop decrease)/(Initial Population) x 100 Most countries have positive growth rates currently

Population Dynamics

How population grows and shrinks over time. Look at fertility, migration and mortality rates. Expansive pyramid = lot of death, lot of birth. Lot of young, not so much old Stationary pyramid = low death, low birth. Lots of everyone Constrictive pyramid = low death, low birth. More old people than young - developed countries!

Auditory Processing

How the cochlea distinguishes between sounds of varying frequencies and how the brain makes these distinctions -- all done by cochlea!!!!

Assimilation Accomodation

How we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas = ss = same schema How we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences to remember = cc = change/create Information --> assimilation --> equilibrium

What organ do humans have, what organ do humans not have?

Humans have a vemeronasal organ, but they don't have an accessory OF bulb. So, we don't really rely on pheromones.

tyranny of choice

Humans want control (otherwise we get learned helplessness) but what if we get TOO MUCH control, and we have TOO MANY CHOICES.... those who had to pick 1/6 were satisfied, those who had to pick 1/30 were less happy.

ICD-10 and DSM-5

ICD-10 - international classification of diseases, 10th revision - released by WHO DSM-5 - mental disorders relased from APA

Iceberg using id, ego and supergego

ID - BOTTOM - unconscious part - dvelops after birth and demands IMMEDIATE gratification EGO - conscious and unconscious - involved in our perceptions, thoughts and judgments. wants long-term grdatification SUPERGO - comes at age 4 -- moral conscience. When we have competition between the s, i and e, we get FIXATED which results in conflict/anxiety

Internal vs external validity

INTERNAL - describes the extend to which a study is able to show a cause-effect relationship between variables tested EXTERNAL - describes the extent that the results of a study can be generalized or repeated in multiple settings

Perceived behavioral control --- internal locus of control or external locus of control

INTERNAL LOCUS = can control fate of own destiny --- "I should have studied harder" EXTERNAL LOCUS = perceive outside forces that help to control your fate --- "that was an unfair test" ---- can cause higher rates of depression

4 types of validity - internal validity, external validity, population validity, ecological validity

INTERNAL VALIDITY - extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is WARRANTED --- confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment EXTERNAL VALIDITY - whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people -- to protect external validity, the sample has to be 100% random and all situational variables have to be very tightly controlled POPULATION - type of external validity --- describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole - generalizability ECOLOGICAL - type of external validity which looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior

Intragenerational mobility Intergenerational mobility

INTRA - change happens WITHIN person's lifetime INTER - change in social class between generations - parent is working class and son is upper class

Sensory memory

Iconic (memory of what you SEE - lasts 0.5 second) Echoic (memory of what you HEAR - 3-4 seconds)

Effort Justification

Idea or paradigm in social psychology stemming from Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. people have a tendency to attribute a greater value to an outcome they had to put EFFORT into acquiring or achieving.

Law of common fate

If we have a bunch of dots moving upwards, and a bunch of dots moving downwards, we'd group the upward dots as a separate group, and the downwards dots as a separate group

Aging = what remains stable

Implicit memory (procedural memories) and recognition memory (pick something out of a list)

Priming

Implicit memory effect A) Negative priming: prior exposure to stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus B) Positive Priming: positive prime speeds up the processing. -- spreading activating --- 1st stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or associated in memory just before carrying out the action

World-Systems Theory - 3 types of countries

Importance of world as a UNIT rather than individual countries. CORE COUNTRIES = western europe and US - strong government, strong taxes, diverse economy, strong middle and working class. PERIPHERY COUNTRIES = Latin America and Africa. Weak government, influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations. Economy usually not diverse, focused on 1 activity. Lots of poor people. SEMI-PERIPHERY = India and Brazil, middle ground. Not dominant in trade but have a diverse economy. Can either move UP to core or DOWN to periphery.

Culture and socialization

Important contributions of society to our personal development, emphasis on INTERACTION b/w the people and culture that we live in.

Things that play a fundamental role in society - Education, Family, Religion

Education - more than going to school. There's a HIDDEN CURRICULUM, and teachers tend to get what they expect from their students, schools also experience *EDUCATIONAL SEGREGATION and STRATIFICATION*, because schools are funded through taxes, --- residential segregation of education Family - kinship, marriage, blood, adoption, small nuclear family (important in US). Rural families = production based = large families Urban families = consumption based = more strain if there's a large family --- change in expectations on family role Marriage - Serial monogamy. Divorce is caused by ---> violence in families, child abuse, abuses through neglect, elder abuse, spouse abuse Religion - on another slide

Transmission

Electrical activation of one neuron by another

Light

Electromagnetic wave - EM spectrum as gamma rays (low wavelength) to AM/FM waves (long wavelength) Visible light - in middle of EM spectrum Violet: 400 nm Red 700 nm HIGHEST TO LOWEST WAVELENGHT: ROYGBV

Vgotsky's "Higher Mental Functions"

Elementary (4) functions develops into H.M.F, and they develop from a skillful "tutor," like a parent, teacher, or someone older. H.M.F are INDEPENDENT in learning and thinking! Ex, kid does puzzle on his own. 1. Development~~~~ requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from MKO (more knowledgable other), so LEARNER + MKO --> Learning + HMF 2. Zone of Proximal Development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. ZPD = link between can't do and CAN do. 3. Language - main means that adults have to transmit info to children --- -powerful tool of intellectual adaptations. Engaging in private speech causes children to have more social competency. Language ---> inner speech (THOUGHT) ---> think for ourselves and have independence in executing skills

Total Population Decrease Rate

Emigration: # of people moving out/1000 ppl Mortality rate: # deaths/1000 people. *high M rate does NOT mean that lots of young or unnatural deaths are occuring)

Pluralism

Encourages racial and ethnic variation. Dominant groups have racialized minority groups --- dominant group ascribes some racial identity to members of racial group they didn't identity for themselves

Role playing

Everyone plays small roles in life -- first few days in a new role feel a big strange, because we're trying to follow the social quota in that role. We are trying to fit the role and sound professional. Over time, it feels like we're just acting. However, LATER, what role we were once playing now feels normal.

Dominant Psychological Biological Theory by Buss

Evolutionary psychology theorizes that males and females have different mating strategies ---- males can have many mates, females are more selective due to the COST OF PREGNANCY

fixed ratio

Ex, a car salesman gets a bonus every time he sells 5 cars. Reinforcement only occurs after a fix # of responses. it is dependent on the number of cars he sells REGARDLESS of how long it takes.

Stimulants

Excite your CNS, increase BP, HR, alertness, energy. Caffeine (inhibits enzyme that breaks down cAMP/inhibits adenosine receptors), amphetamines, methamphetamines (block DA reuptake), MDMA (stimulant or hallucinogen), cocaine (block DA reuptake - inc DA, 5Ht and NE), nicotine (mimics Ach - inc HR/BP), THC (anandamide - increase DA and GABA) Vasodilate & increased Glu metabolism

What influences absolute threshold of sensation?

Expectations - are you expecting a text. Experience - are you familiar with the stimulus you're supposed to hear Motivation - are you interested in the text Alertness - are you awake or drowsy

Lazarus Theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled) If we label something as good, it is +, if we label something as bad it is - Event --> Label the event (appraisal) --> emotion + PR based on appraisal

James-Lange Theory

Experience of emotion is DUE to the perception of physiological responses Hold pet cat (event) --> increased HR/NT/smile (physiological response) --> interpretation of physiological response --> happiness (emotion) It's not that the cat makes you happy, it's that the cat is doing osmething to your body that maeks you happy E --> PR --> Interpretation of that PR --> Emotion

Bipolar Disorder

Extreme emotional highs to lows. With MANIA - high optimism, energy, self-esteem, euphoria, poor judgment and poor decision making DIG FAST - distractibility, insomnia, grandiose, fleeting thoughts, agitation, speech, thoughtlessness hypomania - mild forms of mania is sometimes not that bad manic episode lasts -- 7 days

Extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic = rewards, obligated behavior. Motivated to do something based on external rewards - money or fame Intrinsic = internal motivation Amotivation = lack of motivation

All about the 4 lobes

F - motor cortex, PFC (executive function), Broca's area P - somatosensory cortex - touch, pressure, pain O - vision, striate cortex T - sound, wernicke's area

T/F: there is one specific personality that is more susceptible to authority

F. But, people's moods can have an affect -- those with a rough day are less likely to conform -- status and culture can play a role! Low SES == more likely to conform!

Immigrants

Face severe challenges when arriving to a new country ---- people want to help them but are wary of their different cultures/customs of immigrants. The # of immigrants put pressure on welfare capabilities Immigrants can be functional to COMING-TO country by alleviating labor shortages and good to SENDING country by reducing population. Immigration can also be exploited by countries, who are interested in maximizing their profits while being unconcerned about global, social and economic inequalities.

Explicit Memory

Facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe Focuses on recalling previous experiences and information A) SEMANTIC = words/facts B) EPISODIC = event-related memories --- has episodic buffer

3 collective behaviors = fads, mass hysteria and riots

Fad -- fleeting behavior. is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popularity just as quickly! Reaches large # of people in a short span. ex, cinnamon challenge Mass hysteria -- large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety! --- reactions spread rapidly and teach more people through rumors and fears --- irrational or emotional recations! ex - mass psychogenic illness/epidemic hysteria === mass hysteria can be a result of psychology, like when large amount of people believe they have some illness despite the lack of the disease Riots -- characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, like vanalism, violence and other crimes ---- they are chaotic and cost cities tons of $$ in damage --- results from feelings of injustice or feelings that needs have been ignored

3 types of nerve fibers

Fast, Medium, Slow (alphabetical order) (A-B, A-D, C) = a-beta, a-delta, c

What did Karl Marx believe were the stages for society to develop?

Feudalism --- capitalism --- socialism. in the 19th century, rich = bourgeoisie, and proletarian = majority upper class depended on lower class!

Equal opportunity in life/equal access to education

In reality, different races are stereotyped for different jobs. Minorities are expected to have lower-paying jobs while majority are expected to have higher paying jobs. Culturally, for Latins and Blacks, starting a family is more important than continuing an education. Society is structured so racial and economic subordination develops and is sustained. To get a good job you need a good education, and if you don't get a good education for whatever reason, then you're out of luck.

Actual Self

In reference to Mead, it's the BALANE between the I and the me me = society's view (that's me!) ---- self-formed to interact with others in social enviorment I = individual identity = stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks

Dependency ratio

In reference to people getting older, there is an age-based measurement that takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the work force, and compares them to the # of people (15-64) Higher the ratio = more dependent people there are. If living longer = older residents can contribute to workforce for longer time.

Vemeronasal System

In the accessory olfactory epithelium (area in nostril), you have the vemeronasal system. BASAL CELLS and APICAL CELLS. Molecule comes in and activates receptor on the basal/apical cell. The basal cell ---- axons ---- OF bulb --- GLOMERULUS --- MITRAL/TUFTED CELL ---- AMYGDALA. (emotion, aggression, mating, memory, @ T loe) Signal binds to R w/ GPCR -- dpolarization.

Rational Choice-Exchange Theory - Medicine

Is medicine used to keep people healthy or is it a capitalist competition to earn the most money? People run every aspect of medical system and those people will make decisions that benefit themselves more than random sick stranger, and this self-interested behavior of people in charge will trickle down and affect the well-being of patients

what did the zimbardo prison experiment show us?

It showed us the INFLUENCE that a situation can have on our behavior! -- it might be due to SITUATIONAL ATTRIBUTION, but not DISPOSITIONAL ATTRIBUTION (internal characteristics/personalities of people) it becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from DEINDIVIDUALIZATION (loss of self) - the bad behavior caused COGNITIVE DISSONANCE - the guards felt bad about what they were doing and so they tried to justify their behavior a lot a lot. INTERNALIZATION - participants internalized their prison roles! CRITICS - Zimbardo actually coming in and particpating in the study took away his OBJECTIVITY as a neutral observer... also, could have been SELECTION BIAS WASNT A GOOD EXPERIMENT --> it was just completely lost and lost and lost

Dual Coding Hypothesis

It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. METHOD OF LOCI --

Recap of 4 theories of emotion

J-L: physiological --> Emotion C-B: physicial + emtoion S-S: physiological + cognitive -> emotion L: cognitive --> emotion + physiological

Weber's Law

JND - Just Noticeable Difference - threshold at which you are able to notice a change. If you take 2 vs 2.05 lb, you wouldn't be able to tell the difference. If you take 2 vs 2.2 lb, you would feel the difference. I = initial intensity of stimulus (ΔI = JND = 2.2-2.0) W'S LAW: ΔI (JND) / INITIAL I = k (constant).... change must be "k" of initial intensity to notice a change.

Depending on where the LMN/UMN are, what do they control?

LMN control the muscles of the limb, trunk and they pass through the cranial nerves and control the muscles of the head and neck UMN control the LMNs. They synapse onto the LMN in the brainstem or SC. UMN start in cortex, to brainstem (till here, it's corticobulbar), to SC === cross -- CORTICOSPINAL TRACT

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Lack of B1 or Thiamine (takes carbs -> glucose for the neurons to use) poor balance -- abnormal eye movements -- mild confusion -- memory loss == called "Wernicke's encephalopathy" = precursor! it can progress into KS if not treated it is curable! (amnesia is caused by a T-lobe injury)

How are the L and R side of the brains different?

Left brain controls R side of body --- true for all senses except for SMELL, which is ipsilateral. L = dominant = language, math R = emotion, creative, music, special processing The hemispheres communicate via corpus collosum

Transduction

Light energy goes to electrical energy by rods and cones. Energy is transformed from ONE FORM to ANOTHER

Thery of Primal Mental Abilities

Ll. Thurnstone 7 factors of intelligence = world fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning and memory possible to have high indutive skills without high verbal comprehension how can scores vary together statistically? - limited in what is considered intelligence

Kohlberg's Moral Development

Looked at how people develop their morals and the way MORAL REASONING changes as people grow Heinz wife dying, chemist increasing price dilemma

strongest correlation of IQ scores

Looked at twins from diff homes, identical twins raised together and fraternal twins raised togther most similar IQ = identical twins raised in same home!!!!!!!! THERE IS SOME ENVIORNMENTAL COMPONENT and GENETIC COMPONENT

Activity Theory

Looks at how older generations look at themselves --- certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being

Alzheimer's Disease

Loss of cognitive functions -- lose activities of daily living. brain tissue starts atrophieing. loss of neurons plaques -- tau and tangles nucleus basalis -- is what's lost in AD ACH RELEASE IS IMPAIRED????? genetic mutations for the amyloid protein ApoE4 = involved in metabolism of fats

Layers of society

Lower class - manual labor, low-paying jobs Middle class - professionals, better paying jobs Upper class - very wealthy businessmen and family wealth

Conflict theory

Macro-perspective The idea that society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities --- large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved.

Self concept

Made up of 1. actual self 2. ideal self when both those things are in line, we have SELF ESTEEM

Feature Detection: Motion

Magnocellular: high temporal resolution (time, motion). Poor spatial resolution. (Rods responsible)

Consequences of males/females getting puberty really early

Males - positive - stronger/taller/popular/independent. negative - increase delinquency and etoh use Females - negative - teasing, sexual harassment

What is the PFC responsible for?

Many higher-order functions -- everything that makes humans sepcial. Executive control, solving problems, making decisions, and how we act in social situations.

Perceived control

Many studies how lack of control associated with HIGHER stress Low SES = Increased stress. Experiment = social hierarchy with monkeys. Those that were at the bottom of the barrel had MUCH MORE STRESS than the higher elite monkeys.

Sexual Response

Master and Johnson Sexual Response Cycle ==> EXCITEMENT - higher HR, BP PLATUEAU ORGAMS RESOLUTION/REFRACTORY They also noted that T was responsible for the sexual drive/activity for women and men varied sexual responses to due to: age, culture, stimulus, emotions, desires

Mature

Mature HASS 1. Humor - expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable 2. Sublimation - channeling negative E to positive E 3. Suppression - conscious thought get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time 4. Altruism - in service of others

Feminist Theory - Medicine

Medicine is still a male-dominated field, heads of doctors and hospitals are usually men and disparity in jobs/salary between the two, which can translate into a disparity in power.

Demographic transition

Model that changes in a country's population ---- the pop will eventually STOP GROWING when the country has transitioned from HIGH B/D rates to LOW B/D rates! This stabilization happens in industrialized countries. *when immigrants migrate to a country, it usually affects the demographic transition because we have MORE FERTILITY and LESS MORTALITY because usually only the healthy people will migrate...

Discrimination in criminal justice system

More incarceration of minorities. Laws for similar offenses vary drastically depending on who you are. Punishment for crack cocaine (used by poor people) gives a tougher punishment then powdered (richer) cocaine.

Public declarations

More likely to follow through if you've told everyone --> Justification of Effort: people do something they don't want to do to justify effort they put into it, like getting into med school after working so hard!!!!

What in the life changes when you are sleep deprived?

More susceptible to obesity, depression (REM helps against depression), sleep debt More accidents

urbanization

Movement of people form rural to urban areas Rural = anywhere with <1000 people per square mile - has to have less than 25,000 residents Urban = include cities/towns with >1000 people per square mile. Cities = over 50,000 people Metropolis = Over 500,000 people If metropoli are connected it's called a MEGALOPOLIS

problem solving

Moving from a current state to a goal state --> called solving a problem 1 trial and error 2. algorithm 3. heuristics - mental shortcut that allows us to find solution quicket than other -- reduce the total # of solutions we will try in order to get a more manageable # 4. intuition

Muscle stretch reflex

Muscle contracts after it's stretched, as a protective response --> somatosenesory neurons (afferent) -- form Exc. synapse in SC with another neuron in SC -- sends axons back to same muscle that was stretched and excite the skeletal muscle cells and tell them to contract -- LMN Muscle on underside of leg are inhibited when the topside of leg is excited

3 ways that timing is encoded for somatosensation

NONADAPTING - neuron consistency fires at a constant rate SLOW-ADAPTING - neurons fire really fast at first and then they slow down later on FAST ADAPTING - neuron fires as soon as stimulus starts, then it STOPS. The firing starts again when the stimulus stops.

collective behavior

NOT THE SAME AS GROUP BEHAVIOR 1. time-limited, and it involves short social interactions (while groups say together and socialize for long periods of time) 2. collectives can be OPEN, (while groups can be exclusive) 3. collectives have loose norms (while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms) collective behavior generally violates widely held societal norms and at times it can be destructive! C.b. is often driven by group dynamics --- like deindividualization.

Dreaming

NREM dreams are not memorable, but REM dreams are memorable (everyone dreams during REM). PFC cortex has decreased activity during REM sleep

Schizophrenia - nature vs nurture:

Nature - genetic component Nurture - enviormental. You do twin studies.

Trading globally

No country is 100% independent ---> they all depend internationally for prosperity Group trade is needed to regulate flow of goods and services between countries, reduce tariffs (taxes) and make customs easier and make trading across borders more feasible The trade agreements OFTEN benefit *PRIVATE INDUSTRIES* the most.

latent period - PS development

No focus on libido. No period of exploration -- libido is directed into intellectual pursuits, social interaction, and other social and communication skills.

Cultural capital

Non-financial social assets that promote social mobility BEYOND economic means. Like education, intellect, style of speech, dress or physical appearance. *our educational system doesn't value cultures of low classes. it doesn't value the culture and social networks of the poor population*

Disengagement Theory

Older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. This separation allows for SELF-REFLECTION, but considers elderly people still involved in society and just not adjusting well, which is debatable...

Opiates/Opioids

Opiates - natural Opioids - synthetic Decrease CNS function, dec BP, HR, induce sleep NOT DEPRESSANT - analgesic -- heroin, morphine, oxycodone, codeine Increase endorphins - vasodilator and pupillary constriction

primary groups vs in-group

PRIMARY GROUP = closest members of the group to you. ex, wedding: groomsmen/bridesmaids. you have a sense of loyalty to each group! IN-GROUP = group you are affiliated with based on identification. can be ethnicity, nationality, gender or religion (different from out group/in group)

Partial Report Technique

Partial report condition - required participants to identify a subset of the characters from the VISUAL display using CUED RECALL Cue was a tone which sounded at various intervals ~50 ms -- following offset of stimulus. The frequency of the tone (high to low) indicated which set of characters within the display were to be reported. Immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters (9 out of 12 letters) in a given row suggesting that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory

Feature Detection: Form

Parvocellular: good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape with lots of DETAIL) and COLOR. (Cones responsible) Not good at detecting motion. Pink Pyramid (form/shape) = Parvocellular pathway

How do emotions penetrate the cerebral hemispheres differently?

Positive emotions = L side! (hint - right handed people are positive... brain is contralateral). More social kids had more activity in the L hemisphere. More positive, joyful, interesting, enthusiastic, and cheerful!!! Negative emotions = R side! More timid, fearful, depressed, and isolated.

Neonatal reflexes (9)

Rooting reflex - cheek touch -- baby turns head -- allows for orientation to mother's nipple or bottle. babinski reflex - how baby will turn/unturn toes when bottom of the foot is touched - fants toes outwards monro reflex - startle reaction - fan out arms then back tonic neck reflex - when baby turns head, the ipsilateral arm is straight while opposite arm is bent galant reflex - baby moves/swings tot he side that the skin was stroked palmer grasp - children close their hands on anything that comes in their palms sucking reflex stepping reflex - if they're standign up, they'll start to step as if they're trying to walk swimming reflex - in water, they move arms/legs in a swimming motion

common between maslow and rogers

SELF CONCEPT - when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve growth promoting climate tension between conscious values and unconscious values leads to TENSION GENUINE + ACCEPTANCE = SELF-CONCEPT importance for congruency between self-concept and our actual feelings being fulfilled

how do small vs large societes stay together?

SMALL --- held together by similarities, but only work for small ones... evolved into LARGE society, because population growth occurs in a small space and people become specialized. LARGE --- individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles. Forced mutual interdependence!

How is SNS and PNS divided

SNS starts at the middle of the SC, and we have short axon synapses with short ganglia, close to the spine. The second neuron goes to the target cell --- smooth, cardiac, gland cell. PNS -- starts with brainstem/bottom of SC -- 1st neuron sends long axon -- synapse with ganglion of second neuron --- sends short axon to target cell BOTH HAVE 2 CHAINS OF AXONS. SNS IS SHORT, THEN LONG. PNS IS LONG, THEN SHORT. SNS - blood flow to the intestines decreases, goes to skeletal muscle. HR increases, sweat glands activated PNS - blood flow to intestines increases, HR decreases, salivary glands are activated

Broadbent's Early Selection Theory

Sensory register (stores EVERYTHING) --> selective filter (identifies what you are supposed to be attending to) --> Perceptual Process (identifies friend's voice and assigns meanings to words) --> conscious (cognitive processes)

Globalization

Sharing of culture, money or products between countries due to international trade and advancements in transportation/communication Contributors to globalization - economic interdependence b/w countries, advancements in communication technology, technology in general It ALLOWS for terrorism, civil unrest, foreign cultures integrated in each country We live in global community ---- connected by internet, communication, travel, services, information, and other changes in countries

Maladaptive coping/negative coping.non-coping technique

Reduce sx, but maintain and strengthen the disorder! dissociation (mind separates and compartmentalizes the thoughts, memories and emotions - PTSD), sensitization (seeks to learn about, rehearse and/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent them from happening again) anxious avoidance (completely avoids anxiety-provoking things) escape - flee the situation ASAP

Urban renewal

Revamping old parts of cities to become better --- but can lead to GENTRIFCATION, which means that when these things are redone, they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities

Incentive Theory

Reward (either intangible or tangible) is presented after the occurrence of an action WITH the intention of letting the behavior happen again! --- positive association can be POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT or NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

Visual Field Processing

Right visual field goes to left side of brain, left visual field goes to right side of brain. Light from L visual field hits: Nasal side of Left eye and Temporal side of right eye Light from nasal side of both eyes: CROSS SO THAT THE LEFT SIDE GOES TO RIGHT, v.v. Light from temporal side of both eyes: DOES NOT CROSS the optic chiasm.

4 theories of Social Movements - 1. Mass Society Theory

Skepticism about groups that were involved in social movement, and said that social mvoements would only form for people needing refuge. --- Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism. People only join to satisfy a psychological need for INVOLVEMENT

In a conformity experiment, why did some conform and some did not?

Some were really confident, really sure their answers were correct and others were wrong -- others were not so confident with their answers

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

Someone getting FRUSTRATED can lead to prejudice. ------ frustration turns to aggressive impulses, and directed that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression, and rechanneled it somewhere else --- often towards *minorities* ! Display aggression towards other people --> scapegoating !

5 stages of Demographic Transition Model Malthusian Theorem

Stage 1 - High B rate due to less contraception, more $$$$ and high D rate bc of poor diet/disease. - Ex, Western Europe in 18th century ; large young and small old population (stationary pyramid) Stage 2 - Pop rate inc, death rate dec. 19th century W-Europe after Industrial Rev. (Pyramid Model - expanding) Stage 3 - Death rates drop, birth rates fall. Pop continues to grow. More birth control, better healthcare. (Pryamid - Late Expanding Pop Pyramid - more old people, less young people) Stage 4 - (population is large) Population stabilizes. B rate AND D rate are low. Better contraception and more women in workforce. (pyramid - Low stationary pyramid - low B rate and low D rate) Stage 5 - World pop will be FORCED to stabilize. MALTHUSIAN THEOREM --- run out of resources, global food shortage. Can cause HIGH MORTALITY RATE. Can eventually cause negative growth rate. (Pyramid - constrictive. less young people than old people)

Stage 1 of Piaget

Stage 1: 0-2 years old. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE = children gather info about the world via light, smell, taste, hearing, touch + motor activities. -Object permanence = objects exist even if they can't see them (infants don't have object permanence)

Stage 2 of Piaget

Stage 2: 2-6/7 years old PREOPERATIONAL STAGE mental operations, like imaging things. they do pretend play. start to use symbols to represent things. EGOCENTRIC

Stage 3 of Piaget

Stage 3: 7-11 years old CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE conservatism-- water and glasses experiment get empathy get math skills

Stage 4 of Piaget

Stage 4: 12+ years old FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE abstract consequences, and reason consequences. moral reasoning.

Mental process in how we use social-identity theory (personal identity and social identity): 3 steps

Step 1. All humans CATEGORIZE ourselves and others without really realizing it. Categorize to groups -- race, job, blah blah blah Step 2: IDENTIFICATION - when we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize US as belonging to the group --> emotional significance to the identification Step 3: COMPARISON - how we compare ourselves with other groups, or 2 different groups -- we do this to maintain our self esteem lol...

Stress Stressor Stress reaction

Stress = process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threats and challenges stressor = threatening/challenging event stress rxn = subsequent physical and emotional response

SKINNER

Strict behaviorist. OPERANT CONDITIONING --- rewards and punishments to inc/dec behavior

Strong vs weak self efficacy

Strong - RECOVER quickly from setbacks, and have strong/deep interest, strong sense of commitment, and enjoy challenging taks Weak - Focus on personal failures/negative outcomes, avoid challenging tasks, quickly LOSE confidence in personal abilities and believe they LACK the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations

What is foraging behavior strongly driven by?

Strongly driven by GENETICS. But it can also be gained through learning.

Vygotsky Sociocultural Development - 4 elementary mental functions of babies

Studied the role that social interaction plays in development of COGNITION Focused on social interactions b/w growing children and interactions with those around them in development of cognition-higher order learning 1. Attention 2. Sensation 3. Perception 4. Memory (elementary babies have crAMPS)

Age Stratification Theory

Suggests that age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation

Ion channels vs GPCRS for taste

Sweet, umami and bitter = GPCR Salty and Sour = ION CHANNEL (SOdium, is SOur) Sour = H+ channels Salt = Na+ ions

Temperament vs personality

Temperament - emotional reactivity, intensity, shyness and sociability. Broader than personality. Seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. Personality - believed to be constant over a period of lifetime

Innate Behaviros

genetically programmed behavior. no experience from the enviorment required. inherited intrinsic - present even if in isolation stereotypic - not the same each time inflexible - not modifiable by experience consummate - fully developed right away, at first performance *can change through mutations, natrual selection a) reflexes b) orientation behaviors - kinesis, +/- taxis. c) Fixed-action pattern - coordinated movements performed without interruption. more complex than a reflex - prayin mantis, ex.

hypnotism

getting person to relax and focus on breathing and they become more susceptible to suggestion in this state - more ALPHA waves can retrieve memories or create FALSE MEMORIES - memories that incorporate the hypnotizers expectations even when not intended Can treat pain, and we can reduce activity in areas that process ensory input

fixation

getting suck on a wrong approach to a problem... the person is just not seeing INSIGHT (aha moment) or, we can just let the problem INCUBATE

cost signaling

giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources ----- people have inc trust in those that they know have helped others in the past --- signals that the person is open to cooperation *not always completely selfless!

confirmation bias

group members seek out information that support the majority view

mnemonic devices

link what you are trying to learn into previously existing long-term information that is already in your memory imagery pegword system = 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door method of loci - remember things in order, tieing specific locations to information. tie information that you need to remain to certain stops along a route that you already know pegword + MOL = verbally anchors and links words Acronym = each letter of a popular word you know stands for the fist letter of a set of words you have to remember

C. Robert Cloninger

linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment like LOW DA = HIGHER IMPULSIVITY

Race formation theory

look at economic, social, political factors that results in socially constructed races. ---- like white, AA, LA, and asian

cross-sectional study

look at groups of diff people at ONE MOMENT IN TIME

how do you know if someone has a substance-use disorder?

looking at their substance USAGE - are they using more, stopping all other obligations, is there a presence of withdrawal EtOH withdrawal EtOH tolerance Caffeine = only drug that doesn't give substance use disorder

social epidemiology

looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution. and how social factors affect a person's health --- correlation between social advantages/disadvantages and distribution of health+disease focuses on contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations (social determinants of disease), emphasized how social factors, like race/ethnicity, affect the distribution of disease and health

enviornmental justice

looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups

Depressants

lower CNS activity, lower body's basic functions, dec BP, HR, reaction time, etc. vasodilate at low, vasoconstrict at high alcohol - decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control - lack of coordination, think slowly barbiturates - induce sleep or reduce anxiety - depress CNS - anticonvulsants - barbital benzodiazepines - sleep aids or anti-anxieties. Increase GABA (increase Cl- flux) - 3 types - short, intermediate and long-active. -zelam, -zolam. Bind on GABAa recetpor

groupthink

maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analzying problem at hand -- happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. these groups often have very important/respected leaders and in the interest of the group UNITY -- individuals suppress/sensor their own opinions

Complex behavior

combo of innate/learned behavior. Relationship between GENES and ENVIORNMENT in adaptation ---- spectrum, most behaviors fit between innate and learned

Functionalism

comes from macrosociology --- looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning

T-test ??

compares mean values of a continuous variable (DEPENDENT) between 2 categories/groups. --- comparing mean of a group to a specific value, and can also compare means to 2 groups! two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, one-tailed = one direction

Social construct

concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, like money Self = self construct too.

semantic networks

concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas. for closely related idea, they might be closer and longer for less closely related ideas HIERARCHICAL SEMANTIC NETWORK: We store information in a hierarchical way! Ex - animal -- bird -- ostrich MODIFIED SEMANTIC NETWORK = every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. some links may be shorter/longer for diff individuals --> spreading activation: all the ideas in your brain are connecting together

dramaturgical approach/theory

concepts of FRONT STAGE SELF, BACK STAGE SELF, IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT, and COMMUNICATION

inclusive fitness

concerns the number of offspring an animal has, how they support them, how offspring support each other. --- inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale -- evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves --- not everyone is that selfish, a lot of people are very inclined to help each other!

Substance-induced disorders and substance-use disorders

conditions that are caused by the substance -- mood disorders, anxiety, sleep, sexual function disorders, psychosis substance-use disorders - when the drug cases a serious/real degree of impairment in functioning in life-- looking AT A PROBLEM WITH THEIR SUBSTANCE USE.

role conflict

conflict/tension between tow or more different statuses, unlike role strain. the diff statuses compete for someone's time. defined as the stress that people feel when they are confronted with incompatible role expectations across different social statuses they occupy -- balance role of employee and caregiver

reliability

consistency in answers across participants ---- the degree to which an assessment tool produces STABLE AND CONSISTENT RESULTS ---- CONSISTENT RESULTS WITH REPEATED EXPERIMENTS

inter-rater reliability

consistency when two different people measure the same thing

reliability

consistency, or reproductibility or an examinee's performance on the test ---- if you do a test 2x, you should get similar results both times internal reliability - extent to which a measure is consistent with itself external reliability - extent to which a measure varies from one use to another split-half method - measures how all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured

cost-benefit analysis associated with

cost - going out to get food can take up time and energy -- benefit - IT HELPS BODY SURVIVE. Goal is to get highest energy yield while expending least amount of energy!

what are the 2 things that determine the strength of a signal?

d' - strength: hit > miss (if strong signal) miss > hit (if weak signal) c - strategies 1st strategy: conservative strategy - always say no unless 100% sure there is a signal (we might get some misses :( ) 2nd strategy: liberal strategy - always say yes (we might get some false alarms) "What threshold is necessary for them to pass in order to say yes or no"

HATH: what do these parts do?

Thalamus - sensory relay station -- senses come through your nerves and then go through thalamus. emotions contingent on senses. smell is only one that bypasses Thalmus (goes straight to amygdala) Amygdala - aggression center. -- anger/violence/fear/anxiety - Kluver Bucy Syndrome = bilateral destruction of amygdala which causes hyperorality, hypersexuality, and disinhibited bheavior HPC - forming new memories! Converts STM to LTM If destroyed, we still have old memories, but we get anterograde amnesia Hypothalamus - regulates the ANS - controls endocrine system - responsible for hunger, sleep, sex and thirst

incentive theory of motivation

how factors outside of individuals, like culture/community can influence behavior

social psychology

how individuals think, feel and behave in social interactions -- people act differently in groups than individually

unintentional discrimination

how policies can discriminate unintentionally ---

past-in-present discrimination

how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed, can still have consequences for people in the present!

just world phenomenon

idea that universe is fair so people must get what they deserve -- belief that good things happen to good people, and vice versa.

internalization

idea/belief/behavior has been integrated into our own values -- we conform to the belief privately -- stronger than other types of conformity happens all the time with children, when they learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world form social context, rather than though being specifically told this is how the kids learn how to change their behavior depending on who they are with or where the are -- home, school, church, etc. start going to the gym just to comply with friends, but then you learn that exercise is actually good for you

strain theory

if a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may become frustrate/strained and turn to deviance! individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have the means or legitimate ways to achieve success

thomas theorem

if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. ~ interpretation of the situation causes the action

commitment and consistency

if someoen commits, either through writing or orally, they are more likelyt o honor that commitment because of establishing that idea or goal as being congruent with their self-image --- they will continue to honor the agreement

group cohesion

if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with group

prior commitments

if we first say something that goes against the group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. if we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity because we will say the same thing now. !!!!

information overload

if we have too many choices to make (tyranny of choice) we can get INFORMATION OVERLOAD, which leads to DECISION PARALYSIS and INCREASED REGRET over what decision is made. * we need, and love personal control

public response??????

if we think we're met with acceptance vs shunning ------ happy to conform if we will be met with shunning, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance!

Observational study

in an obs study, the researchers is unable to control the assignment of groups

labeled line model

each taste bud has 5 axons, all which send separate taste info to different parts of the gustatory cortex

maternal mortaltiy rate

in central africa, 700+/100,000 ladies die in NA and europe, 10-20 people per 100,000 births die

bystandard effect

individuals may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group ---- if it's a small group then there is A SMALLER CHANCE OF A BYSTANDARD EFFET Large group -- more chance of the effect

order effect

influence on a particular trial that arises from ITS POSITION IN A SEQUENCE OF TRAILS --- they can respond in a more biased manner to later questions because of any earlier questions

practice effects

influences on performance that arise from practicing a task. ----- the performance usually improves as time goes on

Neuropeptide Y

inhibits the feeding circuit blocking satiety. inhbition caused by NPY == inhbits CCK release, which limits meal size by sensing distention of the duodenum.

institutions

essential parts of society, like police stations, hospitals, businesses, walmart, TJs, etc. They can create rules that impact all of society and guide them what to do, and these institutions are reliant on community. They don't need any 1 individual, and everyone IS REPLACEABLE. But, without the institution, major changes can occur to individual. imbalance in power *all continue without any 1 individual!!!!!*

instinctual drift

established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors. so.... the learned behavior "drifts" to the organisms's species-specific (instinctual) behavior these instinctive behaviors tend to interfere with the conditioned response.

devil effect/reverse halo effect

even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be LOWER -- can carry over into how we see others attribute about the person. happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative

iron rule of oligarchy

even most demogratic organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by a SELECT FEW. Explained by conflict theory ===> once person gains leadership role in organization, they might be hesitant to give it up. Also, those who achieve poewr might have skills that make them valuable!

General intelligence (spearman)

evidence comes from fact that people who do well on 1 test also score better on other tests g = general itnelligence!

surface traits vs source traits

evident from a person's behavior source traits - factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract)

Symbolic interactionism

examines small scale/micro level social interactions, focused attention on how SHARED MEANING is established among individuals or small groups! addresses *subjective meaning* --- humans love to put meaning to things, and act towards those things based on ascribed meaning, LANGUAGE helps with this. Humans modify things to *THOUGHT PROCESSES* MEAD BELIEVED THAT development of individual was a social process, as were the meanings that individuals assign to things. People change based on interactions!

exogamy endogamy homogamy heterogamy homophily

exogamy - social arrangement where marriage is allowed only outside a social group, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. endogamy - marrying within a particular ethnic gorup, class or social group -- rejecting others on such biases as being unsuitable for marriage or for other close personal relationships homogamy - marriage between individuals who are similar to each other, culturally - SES, gender, class, ethnicity, religion, age ---- a) antecedent predisoposition b) socail subjectivity c) deviance theory heterogamy - culturally differnt indivs get married homophily - tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes

sick role

expectations in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. but if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society

elaboration likelihood model - 3 parts - message, source and target characteristics

explains how attitudes are formed and are likely they are to be changed ---- determines when people will be influenced by the content of passive vs more superficial features *WE WANT TO EVALUATE INFORMATION ALONG 2 POSSIBLE PATHS ---- 1. central 2. peripheral routes

haptic perception

exploration of objects through touch, most often by the hand or fingers --- can lead to ACTIVE TOUCH

validity

extent to whcih a measure reflects the phenomenon being studied. - should measure construct directly

Locus of control - 2 parts

extent to which people believe they have control in their lives internal - when person believes he/she can influence events/outcomes ---- I STUDIED, SO I DID WELL external - attribute events to environmental/out of control. --- TEACHER WAS LENIENT, SO I DID WELL

social stigma

extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person --- typically a culture will stigmatize a person based on overt physical deformations (physical disability) --- deviant personal traits, or deviation from accepted norms of the ethnic group *associated with stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination, blah blah* - derived from symbolic interactionist perspective - calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval

Hans Eysenck theory

extroversion level is dependent on the reticular formation!!!!1 controls arousal and consciousness introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek LOWER amounts of stimulation... wow

Balance between institution and social facts

institutions - structures that meet the needs of society like education systems, financial instituions, marriage and laws social facts - ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead ---- unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist, like the LAW

organizations

institutions designed for a specific purpose, collective goal, which try to achieve MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY. --- postal service, mcdonalds, etc

reciprocal determinism

interaction between the a) person's behaviors, b) personal factors (motivation/cognition) and c) environment --- all determined by one another

self stigma

is when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society

diffusion of responsibility theory

it explains the bystandard effect! when individuals are in presence of others, where help is needed, they feel less personally responsible and less likely to take action when needed

What happens when a norm is violated?

it leads to DEVIANCE ---- not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. deviance is relative ---- deviance is dependent on context, indivdiuals, groups, and country. ---- the standards of deviance can change based on ^ those particular factors

Lewy body disease

less motor abnormalities from BG dysfunction and more cognitive dysfuntion from loss of function from cerebral cortex

socialization

life-long process where we learn how to interact with others ---- everything we consider to be normal is actually learned through SOCIALIZATION -- how we talk, feed ourselves, blah blah blah

Meissinheriner Corpuscle Merkel Disk Ruffini Endigns pacinian corpuscle hair follicle receptor

light touch/flutter/light stretch - adaptiation = velocity light touch, perssure, small RF = adaptiation - velocity and displacement deep stretch, adaptation = displacement vibration! displacement = acceleration hair movement, light touch adaptation - displcaement

Contextual Effects

The context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli

Johnson and Heinz

The difficulty of the task being attended to can affect when filtering occurs and how long it takes! J&H proposed that the location of the information attenuator (bottleneck) was able to be varied by the listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular attention task

Functionalist

The division in labour in government and economy is FUNCTIONALIST, where everyone is required to have responsibility in society. ---- like garbage men, we value jobs that require a lot of specialization! This cause disparities in education, healthcare and medicine.

According to the functionalist perspective, what is the purpose of mass media?

The main role is ENTERTAINMENT, to occupy our leisure time. It can also act as an agent of socialization. -- collective experience (watching olympics on TV) and community building and acts as an enforcer of social norms! It can show punishments, but it can also glorify bad behavior can also lead to CONSUMER CULTURE

Absolute threshold of sensation

The minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time Not the same as JND

Glomerulus

The olfactory bulb is a bundle of nerves that sends projections to the cribriform place into the OF epithelium. At the end of each connection, we have RECEPTORS (each sensitive to 1 molecule)****** There are bund of thousdans of types of OF epithelial cells, each with different Rs. Depending on the chemical, all the cells sensitive to that specific chemical will fire to ONE OF BULB -- GLOMERULUS -- which then go and synapse onto mitral/tufted cell ----- brain. Odor = GPCR

Subliminal stimulu

The stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation

Gate control theory of olfaction

Theory of the processes of nociception. Non-painful input closes the GATES to painful input, whihc prevents pain sensation from traveling to CNS (afferent --- to CNS). The stimulation by non-noxious input is albe to suppress pain. (Fast blocks Slow)

Gender schema

Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of culture. ---- What constitutes male/female and how stereotypes become ingrained in society.

Thermoreceptors, nociceptors and mechanoreceptors speed

Thermoreceptors and nociceptors - SLOW position/vibration/touch (mechanoreceptors) = FAST - chemoreceptors are found in tongue, blood, nose and tissue - theremoreceptors are found in the skin and hypothalamus -mechanoreceptors - skin and blood vessels and ear

Pathalogical Defense Mechanisms

They distort reality! 1. Denial - pretend something hasn't happened

First impressions

They're a) long (last a long time) b) strong (touch to overcome) c) easily built upon - put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression

Relative height

Things higher are perceived as further away than things that are at a lower height

Implicit Memory

Things you may not clearly describe. Type of memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences PRIMING --- Procedural memories -- exposure to one stimulus influences the response to anther stimulus Conditioning forms implicit memory (unconsciously) Habits = procedural memory, a type of implicit memory. Proceduarl memory = Implicit memory = type of L-T memory habits/implicit memory are stored in the basal ganglia!!!

Universaism

Thought determines language 100% your thought dictates language language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constrictuions shape human language

Yerkes Dodson Law

To perform well at simple tasks, you have to be at a specific level of arousal -- called "optimal arousal/optimal performance" increased arousal occurs only when person's efforts are evaluated

Feature Detection: Color

Trichomatic Theory of Color 60% red, 30% green, 10% blue Red objects REFLECT RED, blah blah blah. If object reflects red, the red light hits the cone -- AP -- brain says OH RED!

Roles

We have many different roles that define what we do and who we are Norms provide order in society ---- we respond to their approval when we play our roles well, and we get disapproval when we play roles badly :(

Law of Past experiences

We see visual stimuli and categorize it according to past experiences. If 2 objects tend to be observed within close proximity, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. EX - L and I in the english language usually get put besides each other, and we don't make them together into "U" bc of the law of closure because we see it and know that that's not what we're supposed to do

When does heritability increase?

When environments get more controlled, differences in behavioral traits are tied to heritability. More genetic variation = greater heritability

Counterculture

When the laws of the dominant society are VIOLATED, there is more conflict with the larger culture. It is the group with expectations and values that strongly disagree with the main values from the larger society. It rejects some of the larger culture's norms and values, and it usually develops their own sets of norms to live by. Like, polygamy and polygyny (+1 wife) and polyandry (+1 husband)

Neutral judge

When we see a combination of BOTH situational and dispositional attirubtions for a behavior

Life-Table Mortality Table

When you break mortality rate by age --- tells you the probability that someone will die given their age which can very from country to country

perceptual error

When you conform to what someone else is saying/doing like with the famous conformity experiment by Solomon Asch, the error is when you truly believed an answer given by others was correct -- they were never consciously aware of any dissonance of the judgments

Feature Detection

When you're looking at an object you have to break it down into 3 components: COLOR FORM MOTION

Blind spot

Where optic nerve connects to the retina -- no rods or cones Periphery: rods > cones Fovea: cones > rods

Homeostasis with drugs

Your brain is smart and wants to decrease whatever adverse effects the drug is giving you to try and maintain homeostasis. ex - lowers HR before you take the drugs - habituation If you take the same dose in a new location your body might OD because this isn't homeostasis

Differences between RODS and CONES

[RODS] > [CONES] Cones = mainly @ fovea Rods are MUCH MORE SENSITIVE to light than cones -- they're better at detecting light Cones = color = 60% red, 30% green and 10% blue Rods = slow recovery time Cones = fast recovery time ---- they adapt quickly and fire more frequently!!!

labeling theory

a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant --- depends on what's acceptable in that society steroids = deviant, determined by team members, sporting league or greater society label

social psychology

a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence it focuses on the INTERACTIONS b/w individuals and the changing external situations (environment) over internal traits/internal motivations/stable personality traits

Attitude

a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way - evaluate people, issues, objects, events

Lexicon

a set of vocabulary items - entire set of morphemes in a language eg, ASL = hand movements, locations, facial expression, and body language that help them to form meaningful words Lexical acess - identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning -- stored in LTM

Max Weber said that certain things MODERATE people's reaction to inequality ----

a) class - economic position in society, based on birth and individual achievement. b) status/prestige: a person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society - like a poet, eg (few resources, but a lot of respect) c) power: ability to get their way despite the resistance of others, particularly in their ability to engage social change

microsociology

face-to-face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. interprative analysis of the society, look at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society ---

subcallosal cingulate

facial expression recognition associated with sadness - s.c. part

change blindness

fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment - don't notice when mom gets a haircut LOL

false information misleading information

false info = inaccurate recollection of an event. misleading info = the car crash question, where some where asked "hit" and some were asked "crash" and the one with the words smashed said there was more likely to be glass on the ground in the video

+ symptom - delusions

false/fixed beliefs not explainable by a person's culture delusions of: persecution - they are trying to get him/her referene - perosn on TV is sending a message specifically for them grandeur control - outside force is controlling

agoraphobia

fear of open spaces, crowds

Culture shock

feeling uncertainty, fear, or disorientation when you go to different cultural practiced-places. Can be weather, language, landscape, food, values and customers.

Depression -

feelings of hopelessness, loss of interest. frontal lobe (dec activity) and limbic structure (inc activity) abnormalities raphe nucleus (5ht) and locus coerulues (NE) VTA (DA) SSRI = increase monoamine oxidase inhibitors -- EPI, NOREPI, DA (these 3 are catecolamines), 5HT, Melatonin

taste aversion experiment with rats ---- (LOOK AT AGAIN - PG 205)

first group = substance that makes rats sick is added to sugar water other group = nothing is added to sugar water, but there is a shock instead the same rats that were made sick are put in 2 scenarios == 1. sweet water and no light/beep or tap water and + beep + light same rats shocked in 2nd group are put into 2 scenarios == 1. sweet water and no light/beep or tap water and + beep + light SO: a) if you get phsyically sick, you probably ate something bad. you avoid the food again *aversion b) you don't pair the beep + light with getting sick, only the sweet water --- *no aversion c) getting shocked was bc of the environment, so sweet water is not causing harm. * no aversion d) you show aversion bc enviorment is still present to cause harm *aversion

primacy bias

first impression is more important than later data --> your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, *more than the ones in the recent past - "RECENCY EFFECT "*

orienting attention

ability to change the orient of the attention from 1 stimulus to the other --- Ach dominated, at the forebrain!!! Basal Forebrain (major colinergic output of CNS) = front and below the striatum. it includes the Nacc, medial septal nuclei. -- important for making Ach.

spatial dicrimination

ability to perceive as separate points of contact from 2 blunt points of a compass when applied to the skin

validity

accuracy. ACTUALLY GETTING AN ANSWER FROM SOMETHING YOU WISH TO MEASURE

CBT

addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction - patients learn to recognize problematic thought patterns and develop more positive thought patterns

hawthorne effect

aka "observer effect" type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed --- observe the THORNes!!!!!

role exit

aka social role exit when an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity, and they're in the process of creating a NEW IDENTITY

regression

all variables examined are CONTINUOUS ---- a) linear regression = degree of dependence between one variable and another Data is on scatter plot, with one-way influence of one variable on another

counterconditioning

also called stimulus substitution form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into wanted behavior or response by the associated of positive actions with the stimulus ---- very similar to extinction --- but we get RID of an unwanted response! however, the unwanted R doesn't just disappear, but it is REPLACED by a new, wanted response. "stimulus substittion" --- common treatment for aggression, fears, phobias

master status

an individual's master status supersedes other identifying traits, for example, if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a daughter, she is more likely to label herself as a mother than as a daughter

anthropomorphism

animals communicate with each other and humans --> WATCH OUT FOR ANTHROPOMORPHISM -- attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals.

phobias

another example of biological influence on learning ----- can develop phobias to something that negatively impacted our anscestors

neuroleptics

antipsychotics --- decrease + sx but increase - sx

standardized test

any form of a test that requires all test takers answer the same questions, or a selection of questions from common bank of questions, in the same way and that (2) is scored in a STANDARD or consistent manner.

dermatome

area of skin with sensory nerve fibers that form a single posterior spinal root ganglion

social constructionism

argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement ---- it's something CONSTRUCTED, not inherent. Things are SOCIAL PRODUCTS made of the values of the society that created it Theory that KNOWLEDGE is not real, but only exists because we give them reality through social agreement. CRITIC = S.C. doesn't consider the effects of natural phenomenon on society *what society is rather than how it exists/changes. Everything is created from the mind of society.*

stranger anxiety

around 8 months, the baby starts fearing... if the baby doesn't see grandma often, they might not want to be held by even her... :(

What things make up CULTURE

art language literature knowledge beliefs values connections with other people of society

Pleasure principle vs reality principle

as ayoung child, you want to immediately feel pleasure to avoid sufereing. you are not willing to compromise Reality principle - when we become mature, you need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long term gratification --- you will have to play your role in the real world and compromise BOTH OF THESE FILL THE TASK OF GRATIFICATION, BUT FOR TH REALITY ONE YOU MIGHT HAVE TO WAIT FOR THE GRATIFICATION

Uran decline

as people move out of city centers, city can fall into disrepair. Buildings abandoned, unemployment/crime rises, and the population of the city declines.

Theory of intersectionality

asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination! It calls attention to how identity categories INTERSECT ins systems of social stratification. I.E. an individual's position within a social hierarchy is determined not by his/her social class, but by her race/ethnicity. --- we need to understand how ALL of these discriminations (race, sex, gender, culture) can simultaneously exist

temporal monotocity

assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain and addding pleasure at the end will enhance the retrospective evaluation

method of limits

at first, some property starts out at a level so lwo that the stimulus cannot be detected. --- then, as the level gradually increases, until the participant reports that they are aware of it ---- the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimulus are just deteceted --- can be impacted by ERROR OF HABITUATION or they can do ERROR OF ANTICIPATION

vigilance attention or signal detection

attempt to detect a signal or target of interest - this allows the responses to be primed and action is taken! EX - pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken ---- vigilance: active search, type of attention.

prejudice vs discrimination

attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and are not based on facts. make assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. discrimination = the actual BAD TREATMENT against the people. ACTIONS ARE BEING TAKEN!!!!!

implicit bias

attitudes/stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions and decisions in an unconscious manner --- favoriable and unfavorable assessments , are activated WITHOUT an individual's awareness

3 types of parenting styles

authoritarian - strict, break will of child, + punishment authoritative - strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. balance responsibility with rights of chil permissive parenting/indulgent parenting - non-directive and lenient. few behavioral expectations for child

Selective expsoure

avoidance of specific things to reduce cognitive dissonance

continuous reinforcement schedule

becomes less reinforcing so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement. Occurs on a 1:1 ratio, which means that every time the behavior is performed, there is a reward!

partial reinforcement schedule

behavior is reinforced only some of the time --- more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement!!!!!!!! behavior is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behavior

Self-efficacy

belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation, and to organize and execute the course of action required in a particular situation Ability to achieve goals!!!!

Optimism bias

belief that BAD things happen to others, but not to us... :(

Interactionist approach - sometimes called social interactionist approach --

believe biological and socail factors have to interact in order for children to learn language children have to have MOTIVATION to learn language 9-12 months - babbling 12-18 months - 1 word/month 18-20 months - explosions of language and combinb words 2-3 years - longer sentences 5 years - language rules mastered

EEG - 4 brain waves

beta: 12-30 Hz - awake/concentration - if you are alert for too long, you have hella B waves alpha: 8-13 Hz - daydreaming state. Low frequency than beta waves. disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep. theta: 4-7 Hz - lower/slower frequency than alpha waves delta: 0.5-3 - slower/lower frequency than theta waves. DEEP SLEEP/COMA

Apposition

blastocyst is attached to the endometrium

Darwin's theory of evolution

both PHYSICAL traits and BEHAVIORS can be selected for if they contribute to success of the species. BIOLOGY - selects for physical traits. Behaviors can also be selected for, if they contribute to the fitness of a species. Evolution can SHAPE culture ---- hunter-gatherer society vs farming society.

LTP

brain doesn't grow new cells but the connections between neurons get stronger = long term potentiation --- synaptic plasticity WITH REPEATED STIMULTAION, there will be a stronger response in the postsynaptic neuron!!! == facilitated recollection == stronger neural response

What parts make up our OLD BRAIN

brainstem - 1. medulla, 2. pons -- HR, BP, relaxation 3. reticular formation - sleep/wake cycle, arousal -- respiration, digestion Pavlov is rEALLY fREAKING mAD thalamus - relay station cerebellum - coordinates movement -- receives position sense information (muscle stretch fibers). Middle cerebellum coordinates MIDDLE BODY MOVEMENTS and WALKING. Sides of cerebellum coordinate LIMBS

Branch of epidemiology

branch of medicine that deals with the incidence, distribution and possible control fo diseases and other factors, relating to health!

social anomie

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community --> society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. --- it can also result in social groups disbanding, and alientation from social groups. TO RESOLVE SOCIAL ANOMIE, SOCIAL NORMS MUST BE STRENGTHENED AND GROUPS MUST BE REDEVELOPED SETS OF SHARED NORMS -- we can get a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior

What are some reflexes that babies have? (permanent ones)

breathing reflex eyeblink reflex puillary reflex swallowing reflex

COGNITIVE THEORY

bridge between classic behaviorism and other theories like psychoanalytic the theory sees thinking as a behavior -- there's a lot in common with the behvaior theory

How do we avoid groupthink

bring in outsiders/experts, have the leader of the group not disclose opinion, discuss what should be done in smaller groups *conformity, group polarization and groupthink are all processes when individuals come together in a group -- can be positive if the group is open minded, positive and willing to consider more than 1 opinion

memory of retrieval form most difficult to easiest

free recall, cued recall and recognition free recall = no cues in recalling. better at recalling first things on a list (PRIMACY EFFECT) as well as last few things (RECENCY EFFECT) ==> SERIAL POSITION CURVE?EFFECT cued recall = having extra cues to remember the words = cues help you retrieve the ifnormation better, from your LTM recognition = best out of the 3 tests/easiest to recall. if you present 2 words and say which one you heard, you are more likely to retrieve the correct word!

looking glass self

by Charles Cooley - idea that a person's sense of self develops from *interpersonal interactions with others* 1. how do i appear to others? 2. what must others think of me? 3. revise how we think about ourselves IMPORTANT: We are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we IMAGINE the opinions of other people to be. Ex - friends trying on clothes before meeting with friends. trying to find the in between between "self" (portion of their identity that calls itself "i") and the person's internalized understanding of their friends and "society" -- "generalized other"

word association

game involving an exchange of words that are associated together. *stimulation of an associative pattern by a word* or the *connected and production of other words in response to a given word, done spontaneously*

Difference between evolutionary game theory and game theory

game theory involves intention, where participants reasoning about behavior of others E.G.T involves decisions that might not have conscious intention on part of players. It helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population. It predicts the APPEARANCE of evolutionary stable strategies

compliance

situations where we do a specific behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment -- tendency to go along with behavior without questioning why --- the compliance goes AWAY once we have been given the reward/punishment compliance = change in behavior that is requested by another person or group

Parkinson's Disease

slowed movements - tremor, increased muscle tone, abnormal walking and poor balance substantia niagra (brainstem) is messed up DA neurons are damaged Lewy bodies -- have protein called alpha synuclein -- clumped together in PD patients

oligarchy

small group of people have control over the country, org or institution

minority influence

small group over time is able to persuade the majority to join their side --- social influence -- suffragette and civil rights movement

Gender

social construct -- says that gender varies -- categories of gender are fluid and subject to social process of meaning-making. Has 2 main factors - gender IDENTITY and EXPRESSIOn cis-gender (same and same) or trans-gender (different) Some people are gender queer (don't identify with either male or female) and can present as gender male/female AGENDER - rejecting gender categories GENDER FLUID - moving across genders NON-BINARY - not identifying w/ any specific gender THIRD GENDER - cultures that recognize non-binary gender When you're born, society gives you your *gender roles* Gender norms - socially acceptable ways of acting out gender --- learned from birth through childhood socialization. Girls - emotional, soft, submissive Boys - aggressive, tough and dominant

network analysis

social network analysis is the process of investigating social structures through the use of network and graph theories

symbolic interactionism

society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals --- looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance ----- include theory of DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELING THEORY, and STRAIN THEORY

latent vs manifest functions

society is dependent on structures that create it, like a biological cell is dependent on parts that make it up MANIFEST = intended consequences of institutions --- business provide a service, schools educate people, etc LATENT = unintended consequences of institutions, like schools exposing students to social connections, new activities, and businesses connect people across society

Social stratification

society's categorization of people into different SES strata, based upon occupation and income, wealth and social status. a) upper class b) middle class c) lower class THEN, each class is divided into STRATUM.

Tend and befriend

sometimes better to respond to stress is to have support systems -- OXYTOCIN helps with this. (Estrogen increase OT... so women have more of this response)

tonotopy

special mapping of sound frequencies that are processed by the brain, also called the tonotopic map

mediating variable

specifies a given cause (original predictor/independent variable) that works through a more direct cause (mediator variable) to a final effect --- outcome variable/dependent variable. The m.v adds overall variance in the data and can explain how IV and DV are related. THEY ARE ALL RELATED === IV --- MV ---- DV; IV ---- DV. can CAUSE a confounding variable

spacing

spreading out study sessions overtime in short periods rather than cramming them into 1 study session

Norms

standards for what behaviors, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. these rules dictate how person should behave around a certain group of people -- and are defined by that gorup and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group they are dependent on the context, physical location, culture and by country! they can change with time as individual's attitudes shift or circumstances change to allow certain types of behaviors to be valued `

factor analysis

statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits reduces variable and detects structure between variables

achieved status

status you can EARN yourself after working for it. reflects person's ability and merit.

ascribed statuses

statuses you can't change, given from birth. Prince of royal family!

synthestasia

stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway

proximal stimulus vs distal stimulus

stimulation that actually occurs when your sensory receptors are activated... the actual neural activity ---- physical stimulation that is avaiable to be measured by an observer's sensory apparatus. *REGISTERS, VIA SENSORY RECEPTORS, THE INFO GIVEN BY THE DISTAL STIMULUS* distal stimulus is the stimulus that you end up sensing then perceiving, which RESULTS in a proximal stimulus. --- stuff OUT in the world about you. *PROVIDES INFORMATION FOR THE PROXIMAL STIMULUS*

Empathy-altruism hypothesis

suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. high empathy = high in altruistic behaviors. --> *early developmental trajectory* ==> helping behaviors being early. some newborns cry when other newborns cry :( helping behavior usually beings around 2 y/o

Token economy

system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior --- reinforcers are tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers, like prizes

functionalism

system of thinking based on ideas of emile durkehim --- look at society from large-scale perspective, and how each part helps society stay stable! --- says that society is heading towards equilibrium. Also called *structured functionalism* --- macro-sociological analysis with broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole IN FUNCTIONALISM, there is a change to production/distribution/coordination that will force others to adapt to maintain stable state society. Social change threatens mutual dependence of people in that society Problems of functionalism --- focuses entirely on institutions without regard for individual, and they're unable to explain social change/conflict, because they're SO FOCUSED one equilibrium. *if company has to adapt to online shopping, it will do so for the overall equilibirum of the company*

spotlight model of attention

takes info from 5 senses but don't pay attention to everything. aware of things on an unconscious level -- PRIMING -- where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus -- we're primed to respond to our name, eg

side-effect discrimination (related to unintentional discrimination)

talks about how one instituion/organization/sector can influence another NEGATIVELY. --- side effect

peers

teach us to develop our social behaviors! peer values and behaviors contradict values of our families/parents at times -- and influence us

mass media

telivison, internet, radio, book and magazines when you are young, you learn things through mass media that parents would not approve of!

evolutionary game theory

tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring --- those genes will become more common in successive generations! reproduction and environment central to evolutionary game theory! it predicts the *availability of resource* and *social behavior*

good-subject tendency

tendency of participants to act accordingly to what they think the experimenter wants ---

traditionalism

tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins

social loafing

tendency to put put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated --- less effort when in a group!

cognitive bias

tendency to think in certain ways --- cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment

Generalization

tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response --- and more similar the stimulus is to original conditioned stimulus, the greater the conditioned response! there is an adaptive value! generalizations allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimuli

functionalist theoretical paradigm in society

the concept of anomie describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak --- without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness and aimlessness -- periods of rapid social change are often associated with anomie

cultural imperialism

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture

source characteristics

the environment AROUND the message and the speaker's background. --- what is their level of expertise of speakers around us, do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not.

context

the environment you encode and take the test (retrieve the info) in is helpful

method of constant stimulation

the levels of certain property of the stimulus are not related from one trial to the next, but presented randomly ---- this prevents the subjet from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus and so it REDUCES the error of habituation and anticiaption! stimulus which is reported 50% of the time is considered the threshold value

participant observation

the observer participates in ongoing activites and records observations --- extends beyond naturalistic observation because the observer is a PLAYER in the action bc the observer is a participant in the activities and events being observed, it is easy to influence other people's behavior --- raising the problem of REACTIVITY ---- INFLUENCING WHAT IS BEING OBSERVED

cultural relativism

the practice of assessing a culture by its OWN standards, rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture --- judge and understand another culture from WITHIN their culture

arousal - affected by what? simple tasks difficult tasks

the presence of others tends to increase our AROUSAL -- the general physiological or psychological excitement ---- increased HR, faster breathing, activation of ANS) --- nervous energy. IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS, WE ARE MORE LIKELY TO IMPROVE ON simple tasks ---- but it HINDERS difficult tasks!

group-produced reduction of individual effort

the same thing as social loafing. it can be reduced by making the task more difficult -- or separate performance of individual in the group

Short-Term memory/working memory

the sensory information you actually process -- consists of what you are actually thinking about at the moment. 7!!!!!!!!!! 7 +/- 2. Working memory is the memory that is stored while it is held in attention

Interaural time difference

the time it takes for sound to reach one ear after the other the head dampens the overall sound to the far ear and reduces the intensity of the high frequency tones --- but not the low frequency tones ????? all points on the cone of confusion have the same IID and ITD?????

bureaucracy

the way that orgs achieve MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY. Allows for rules, structures, and rankings that GUIDE organizations.

social cognitive theory

theory of behavior change that emphasizes interactions between people and their enviornment ----- cognition is important SOCIAL FACTORS, OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING AND ENVIORNMENTAL FACTORS == INFLUENCE YOUR BELIEFS (unlike behaviorism, which say that enviorment controls us entirely)

Linguistic universals theory

there are characteristics that remain consistent across all languages of different cultrues

physical attraction

there are cultural differences, but some things are UNIVERSALLY ATTRACTIVE --> youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. subtler things also influence attraction -- red background more attractive than white background --> also, SNS activation is golden. For someone to be attracted to you, take them to an amusement park!!!

Linguistic relatvism

there are diffs in languages between cultures

What are the roles of efferent neurons in the PNS?

they control smooth muscle cells, caridac muscle and gland cells

advertisers

they know the MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT CONCEPT --> the more times we see a brand, the more likely we are to form a positive opinion about it

What did many Nazi officers/german followers/Eichman say about the holocaust

they literally just said "we're just following orders"

self-referencing

think about new information and how it relates to you personally -- related to "preparing to teach" = idea that you are learning this material in order to teach it to someone else. you focus on memorizing the info as best as you can

deindividualization

those in the group are more likley to act inappropriately because crowd conceals person's identity in a large group, criminals are more likely to take action because it increases antiosical/deviant behavior anonymous platform causes people to express opinions they otherwise wouldn't share -- cyberbullying

fixed interval

time is constant, and the pay doesn't change if the dude sells 1 car or 100 cars. --- less incentive to sell cars!

temporal confounds

time-related confounding variables

meditation

training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness more alpha waves than normal relaxation in light medication deep med - more theta waves more meditation = more PFC, right HPC, right anterior insula == increased attention control

personality

trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior --- patterns of behavior description of traits instead of explaining them

Encoding

transferring information from the temporary store in the working memory into permanent store in long-term memory working memory: 7 +- 2 if you want to remember more than 7 things you have to move stuff to the LTM Encoding is more productive when cognitive effort is actually used Encoding specificity = enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning

PTSD

traumatic event, re-experience, avoidance, unable to function, month or more of symptoms, arousal increased repressed memories - memories that have been unconsciously blocked due to the memory bringing in high levels of stress or trauma *can be helped through therapy

Minority group

treated differently because of some cultural/physical characteristic. less than 50% of population.

retrieval

trying to recall a memory or something. you should be able to use the cues around you to recognize the associated between cues and the thing you're trying to remember PULLING THINGS FROM LT MEMORY AND BRINING IT TO CONSCIOUS (WORKING) MEMORY

Dopamine blocks prolactin in WHICH pathway

tuberoinfundibular pathway

averageness is attractive

turns out unique traits are not most attractive --> attractiveness is related to averageness. the people preferred an average of 32 faces instead of an average of 2 faces

approach-approach conflict avoidant-avoidant conflict approach-avoidant conflict

two options are both appealing both options are unappealing one option has both aspects, but here there are 2 options

social group

two or more people who interact with one another --- share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity

reconstructive bias

type of bias related to memory ----- our memories of the past aren't as accurate as we think, especially when we remember times of high stress

Imitation

type of individual social influence, one of the most basic forms of social behavior. There are MIRROR NEURONS - when fire when we observe the same action performed by another person. - found in Parietal lobe, premotor cortex, somatosensory lobe

catatonic schizophrenia

type of schizo that includes EXTREME BEHAVIORS at one end, pt cannot move/respond

split half method

unidirectional relationship: cause ---> effect reciprocal relationship: cause <---> effect

Shading and contour

use light and shadows to perceive depth/contours -- crater/mountains

availability heuristic

using examples that come to mind -- but it might not always be relevant to what is happening int he world - actual memories in mind

Game Theory

usually talked about in reference to decision making --- but can also use it for evolution and animal behavior. Tries to predict behaviors we would expect to see when an individuals are playing a game -- it looks at individual strategy and looks at the behaviors of what other animals will do

aversive conditioning

usually used to STOP a particular behavior! the process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea

moderating variable

variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome ---- it explains WHEN an IV and DV are related. -- it also changes the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV

social-cognitive theory

view behaviors as being influenced by people's a) traits/cognitions and their b) social context ----- INDIVIDUAL <-----> SITUATION cognition ---> environment ---> behavior (order can change!) *personal control = are WE controlling or are we GETTING CONTROLLED by the enviornment?

systematic desensitization

was developed by Joseph Wolpe and is a process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation --- it works great with phobias -----

segregation

way of separating out groups of people and giving them access to separate set of resources within the same society "separate but equal" the segregated people are often the ones with the WORST resources. Segregation is MAINTAINED by law/public institutions, like "hidden discrimination"

Means of production

way we produce goods --- factories and farms. There are specific people who HIRe others for their work. There is a CLASS DIVIDE --- by KARL MARX - workers in working class don't realize that they're being exploited and oppressed by this capitalistic model of working

Out group derogation

we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to our out group - we DISCRIMINATE.

Actor-observer bias ??????

we are victims of, but others are willful actors.

In-attentional blindness/perceptual blindness

we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in the field - miss something right in front of you - psychological lapse in attention

ideal self

we can't live up to that which is bounded by conditions

In-group favoritism

we favor/are more friendly towards people in our own group, but those in the out group we are neutral towards -- we don't give them the same favors we do to our IN GROUP

government

we give government the power and authority to manage the country --- some governments take into account will of people, like DEMOCRACY. There are also DICTATORSHIPS, COMMUNISM = classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community MONARCHY = government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead

Chunking

we group information we're getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization. Like you chunk the grocery list together == fruts together, grains toegher, proteins together, blah blah

3x2 factorial design (3 by 2) ?????

we have 3 levels of the first variable crossed by 2 levels of the second variable. Give us 6 TREATMENT CONDITIONS IN THE EXPERIMENT. ---- 2 independent variables: 3 of first, 2 of 2nd

foot in the door phenomenon

we have a tendency to agree to small actions first --> eventually over time we comply with much larger actions. We are brainwashed like this. Door is completely pushed over time.

resource model of attention

we have limited resources in attention. these resources are easily outshined if we pay attention to multiple things at once we can't really multitask

Types of problems

well-defined: clear starting and end-point -- clear criteria that describe whether or not the goal has been achieved Ill-defined: more ambiguous starting and/or ending point -- lacks relevant information to solve the problem

institutional authority

well-respected university -- expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command!!! SIKE can also be physical or symbolic

important agents of socialization

what's used to TRANSMIT (pass around) culture -- values, beliefs about acceptable behaviors, and beliefs. agents include people, orgs, institutions that help us learn about our social world family, religion, pop culture

Chi-square

when all variables are categorical, it looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other - Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

extinctive burst ---

when an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (increase dramatically) ---- the burst will occur when the extinction procedure has just begun -- this usually consists of a sudden and temporary increase in the response's frequency ---- followed by the eventual decline and extinction of the behavior targeted for elimination

non-associative learning

when an oganism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus --- habituation and sensitization

spontaneous recovery

when an old conditioned stimulus elicits a response doesn't know why it happens --- it doesn't persist for a long time and it's usually less strong

decay

when we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while we can't find anything anymore. the more integrated the initial memory, it still follows the same pattern of remaining constant (leeling out) but it just took longer to gorget!

role strain

when you can't carry out all of the obligations of a status, tensions within one status. --- causes the individual to be pulled in many different directions.

taste aversion

when you eat something because you like it, but then you stop eating it because you suddenly get sick.... whatever you ate, you're going to associate being sick with that thing and you're going to HATE the thing that you ate. the body connects the fact that the sickness was a result of the foot, not other attributes of the environment, when you ate.

circadian rhythms

when you get sleepy in afternoon - controlled by melatonin (pineal gland) daylight is big queue

observed behavior

whether we believe our behavior is observed or not.

Strong social constructionism

whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits --- all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts!

group status

why children more likely to go along with popular group -- why we trust four doctors over 4 gardeners for our health

Motivational interviewing

working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change - focus, goal oriented therapy

experimental study

would involve MANIPULATION of variables, which was not present in this study. --- would have independent and dependent variables

delivery of healthcare

massive inequalities in terms of access -- we take care of elderly through medicaid and medicare, and children through health child insurance.

face validity

measure of how representative a researh project is "at face value" --- whether it appears to be a good project, measured by the degree to which a lay person who takes a cursory lok at the experiment agrees that the experimenter is measuring what they say they were mesuring

IQ test

measures analytical intelligence average - 100 SD = 15 increase IQ = do better at school no relation to marriages, phsyical/mental wellbeing/better kids

self-serving bias

mechanism of PRESERVING our self-esteem. More common in individualistic cultures ---- if we succeed it's due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control

Healthcare and Medicine

medicine exits to keep people healthy

Autobiographical Memory

memory consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life -- based on combo of episodes (personal experiences and specific objects, people, events) and the semantic (GE about facts and people) memory

conditioned memory

memory that is formed based on your associations between two things ---

schema

mental blueprint containing common aspects of the world, instead of reality!

Freudian slip

mental conflict financially stressed patient -- please don't give me any bills -- meant any pills LOL

Somatic Sx Disorders

mental disorders manifesting in physical symptoms must cause functional impairments

what pathway is messed up for schizophrenia

mesocorticolimbic pathway abnormality which causes cognitive symptoms and limbic structures causes negative sx and abnormal activity in temporal cortex --- + sx

persuasion

method for changing attitudes/behaviors

Method of adjustment

method of average error the subject is asked to control the level of the stimulus until it is JUST BARELY detectable against the background noise, or is the same as the level of another stimulus. here, the observer himself controls the magnitude of the variable stimulus starting with a variable that is distinctly more or less than a standard one and he varies it until he is satisfied by the subjectivity of the two ---- the differences between the 2 stimuli are recorded and the error is tabulated for a considerable series

counterbalancing

method to control for an effect that the order of presenting stimuli might have on the dependent variable !!!!

facial attraction

more important than body attraction --> high forehead, small chin and nose/full lips/high cheekbones are attractive

physical proximity

more likely to comply with someone we are close to -- in milgram when authority standing close by/behind the experimenter, they are more likely to obey!

group size

more likely to conform in groups of 3-5

Role models for defiance

more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same

feelings of insecurity

more likely to follow judgments of others -- conformity

family

most important agents of socialization! ex - rich vs poor kids -- the rich kids are more encouraged to overthrow authority, while the poor kids are taught to listen to authority!

implosive therapy

most of the time, systemic desensitization occurs gradually, but some therapist use a technique called implosive therapy. ----- throw a girl in a room with 1,000 spiders with the idea that if they face their fear and survive, they will relalize their fear is irrational

Suburbanization

movement away form cities to get a larger home (American dream) but commute for work can be long and harder to get quick medical help. SILICON VALLEY AYYYYYEEEEEEEEEEE

social mobility

movement of individuals, social groups, or categories of people between layers of strata in a stratification system --- focusing on achieved status of individuals. --- lots of intra-generational mobility! Most open and malleable societies.

acetaldehyde build up

nausea, headache, flushing of face and internal organ damage

geographical proximity

nearness is the most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships!!!!!!!!! people like to marry, date with ppl in the same neighborhood -->

prosopagnosia

neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar people based on facial information alone

pathway involved with motor planning and purposeful movement

nigrostriatal pathway

sanctions -

norms are REINFORCED by sanctions -- rewards/punishments for behaviors in accord with or against norms respectively POSITIVE SANCTION = reward NEG SANCTION = punishment FORMAL SANCTION = offically recognized and enforced INFORMATION SANCTION = unofficially reocognized and does not result in specific punishment

PVN cingulate cortex

nucleus in hypothalamus. project to post. pituitary where they release OT or ADH. cingulate cortex is important for the perception of annoyance

Case-control study

observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a CAUSAL factor. Ex - comparing ppl with disease with those who don't have the disease but are otherwise similar ---- draw conclusions

Medicalization

occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis and treatment ---- sadness/attention usually a behavioral problem becomes described and treated as a medical condition when it was not previously conceived in that way

attrition bias

occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study

dishabituation

occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed

prestige

often based on occupation --- being a doctor, layer -- minority group members have lower paid jobs typically

impression management

our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage ==> do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way. there are multiple social situations which require diff SOCIAL SCRIPTS from an actor, and hence there are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different stage role every time

cognitive economy principle ???????

our brain is sufficient - longer the distance between nodes = longer it takes to verify the connection. increaed expsoure = increased node link strengh.

closeness

our closeness to authority giving orders -- more likely to accept orders from someone we respect!

extinction

over time, the dog or whatever stops reacting to the stimulus... so the thing goes EXTINCT the CS does not elicit a CR anymore

symbolic interactionism

part of micro-perspective --- focuses on INDIVIDUAL and SIGNIFICANCE they give to objects, events, symbols, etc, in their lives

fusiform gyrus

part of visual system in brain, plays a role in HIGH LEVEL VISUAL PROCESSING AND RECOGNTIION - part of T and O lobe

conformity

peer pressure

Conformity

peer pressure - tendency for people to bring behaviors in line with group norms - powerful in social situations

conformity

peer pressure -- how we adjust our behavior/thinking to match group's it can be positive! if you see a bunch of people running out of a building, then you'd probably conform to this behavior and also run out of the building it can be negative! in teenagers

kin selection

people act more altruistically to close kin than distant/non-kin people

reciprocal altruism

people are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future --> giving with expectation of a future reward! we feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us

Rational Choice Theory

people are not only motivated by money, but do what's best to GET BTTER. everthing people do is mainly rational... MAXIMIZE PERSONAL GAIN. They calculate the cost/benefit of each decision. Decide based on: 1. Completeness - rank every action; A > B > C 2. Transitivity; A > B > C = A > C 3. Independence of irrelevant alternatives - if a 4th option gets added, it won't change how i ranked the other 3, it will just get added to the existing order *** focused on IMPLICIT analysis of costs and benefits

Randomized controlled trial

people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical intervention like drugs. Gold standard for a clinical trial! (highly controlled interventional studies)

social proof

people will do things that they see other people are doing --- one person looks up at the sky, eveyrone else looks up at the sky --- Asch conformity experiments

Social reproduction

people with rich parents end up rich themselves --- they have *financial capital* and can invest it into *social capital*. Also, poverty begets poverty!

groups - in and out

people within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to politics, culture, spirituality IN GROUP = the one we are CONNECTED with. -- sense of US. stronger interactions with thse in the IN group than those in the out-group. OUT GROUP = THEM. Group we're not associated with, group of people who do not feel connected to.

emotional intelligence

perceive, understand, and manage and use emotions in interactions with others

scarcity

perceived scarcity will generate demand -----

confidence interval

percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true pop parameter. suppose all possible samples were selected from the same population, and a confidence interval was computed for each sample. 95% confidence interval implies that 95% of the confidence intervals would include the TRUE population parameter 68 - 95 - 99.7 rule

phantom pain

perception of pain in an area of the body, which has been removed or lost due to injury

learned behavior

persistent changes in our behavior that result from our experiences ----- non-inherited extrinsic - if animal is raised in isolation... won't sho wup permutable - changeable adaptable progressive - can be improved/changed over time

habiutaiton

person tunes out the stimulus

status

person's position in society. sometimes people are equal, sometimes they are not

behaviorist theory

personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on person's environment -- DETERMINISTIC -- people begin as BLANK SLATES and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities. Does NOT take thoughts/feelings into account Focuses on OBSERVABLE AND MEASURABLE behavior rather than mental/emotional ---- 100% opposite of psychoanalytic theory ENVIORNMENT --> BEHAVIOR

Grop polarization

phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members -- stronger version of the decision is adopted!!!!!

power and social class

power = political power, economic (unfair hiring policies to minorities), personal (laws can limit where someone lives/etc) social class = status is relative (to have higher status you need a lower status) --> often sets the stage for prejudice. --- ties into JUST WORLD PHENOMENON: hard working people are here, and low working class people are where they are because they don't work as hard

Cross Nigrescence Model

pre-encounter encounter immersion/emersion internalizaton internalizaton-commitment

Primary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers

primary - innately satisfying/desirable, like food, water, sex secondary reinforcers - learned to be reinforcers, like previously neutral stimuli ---- requires a pairing or association with a primary reinforcer for it to have value

primary deviance secondary deviance

primary - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. ---- individual is able to continue to behave in some way without feeling immoral/wrong secondary - more serious consequences -- characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior

where is the homonculus

primary somatosensory cortex - parietal lobe

priming

prior activation of nodes/associations, without our awareness

orbiofrontal cortex

process + and - emotions. when activity is dec in R hemisphere ==> euphoria. processes taste, vision, olfaction, touch dec activity in L hemisphere ==> depression.

bureaucratization

process by which orgs become increasingly governed by laws and policy!

Illness experience

process of being ill and how people cope with illness. being ill can change a person's self-identity. diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revoles around the disease

attribution

process of inferring CAUSES OF EVENTS/BEHAVIORS The attributions can be either internal or external. our focus will be on EXTERNAL 1. consistency - does person usually behave this way 2. distinctiveness - does person behave differently in different situations 3. consensus - do other behave similarly in situations if person is distinctive and others behave similarly, then we know the behavior is due to their SITUATION/EXTERNAL circumstances if they are consistent -- then it's prob not external...

Hormones involved in sex

prolactin is released to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal endorphins - euphoria oxytocin - bonds and connectedness

agents of socialization

refers to parts of society that are important for socialization --- process of learning all the norms and values in a society

Simple innate behaviors

reflexes (squint, blinking), taxis (bugs fly towards light, going towards any stimulus), kinesis (rats randomly scurry in different directions--- no purpose of movement)

variable ratio

reinforcement is delivered after an average number of right responses has occurred! It is similar to fixed ratio, except the # changes (like it's different form 5 cars this time) to get the necessary reward

selection bias

related to how people are chosen to participate is similar to SAMPLING BIAS

trait

relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to CONSISTENTLY behave in a certain way MYERS BRIGGS PERSONALITY TEST -- 4 letters, 16 personality types E S T J I N F P

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future == declines with age

mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them --> more often we see something, more often we like it! applies to everything ==> music, nonsense syllables, numbers, objects BUT, we can also experience BURN OUT -- stop liking the thing suddenly, in fact, we might even hate it.

Sensation

requires a physical stimulus to be converted to a neural impulse. Ex - light is being converted to a neural impulse by a photoreceptor.

comparative study/research

research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures ----

variable-interval

responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed --- regardless on amount - the bonus can come randomly on different days MOST EFFECTIVE IS VR******* ---- straight upwards slope graph. variable ratio is much steeper slope (MOST EFFECTIVE), then fixed ratio is all weird, variable-interval is stable and fixed itnerval is lowest slope and also weird

traiarchic theory of intellignece

robert sternberg ANALYTICAL, CREATIVE, PRACTICAL cons - all intelligences vary together

Rote rehearsal

saying the same thing over and over and over. it's not that effective. the more effective method is trying to tie in new information to previously known information

school hidden curriculum

school teaches life lessons along with science and math -- don't learn from academic curriculum, but learn social skills from interactions with teachers and other students. school ==> HIDDEN CURRICULUM --- standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers

secure attachment vs insecure attachment

secure ==> child was secure with parent and explored the room. when the parent left, the kid was sad. when the parent came back, the kid was super happy!!! insecure ==> child cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. distress did not go away when she came back.

double approach-avoidant conflicts

2 options with both appealing and negative characteristics, which seemed to represent the jury's dilemma

categories of psychoactive drugs

hallucinogens, stimulants and depressants

Shadowing task

2 headphones, 1 sound in left ear and 1 sound in right ear. You are told to focus on 1 ear and ignore the other ---- we can see how much we have comprehended and how much we have not ==== 3 theories

What are the 2 major impacts that globalization has on a country?

. ECONOMY & CULTURE --- global market competition for cheap labor, and factory production --- makes nations around the world more interdependent which minimizes conflict. We also get rapid advancement of developing nation bc of ideas/innovations - : Provide INCENTIVES for workers (which is bad because they get exploited in host-countries and get OUTSOURCED -- more profit for company bc of lower-wage workers in country). If labor laws in 1 country get too hard, then they move their factories to another country, which causes a lot of unemployment in the previous country! + : Higher product output, better allocation of resources, more employment, cheaper prices. Free-trade also allows for CULTURAL practices/expressions to be passed/spread abroad from group to group. --- *DIFFUSION* == ideas and practices spread from group to group. Technology has made diffusion easier

Stage 1 of Erikson's

0-1 years. Trust vs Mistrust Virtue = hope Failing to acquire virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust

Piaget's Stages of Development

1 bun, 2 shoe, 3 tree, 4 door

language and cognition

1 country has only "mola" for dark and mili for light, whereas we have tons of names for colors. 1. Behaviorists - empiricists who believe language is condition behavior 2. Nativists - rationalist, language must be innate 3. materialist - look at when happens in brain when people think/speak/write

DID

2 identities are distinct form each other -- mannerism,s emotional repsonses, distinct physical changes, denial very rare

What are the 3 factors that contribute to growth rate?

1. 1. Fertility - If ppl can have more babies, then everything grows! Fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of a female. 2. Migration - Number of people permanently moving (to live, work, die) into/out of countries. Doesn't change # of ppl on planet, does change # of ppl in area. 3. Mortality - death. Specific formulas are used, and we measure rates over 1 year, and per 1,000 people. 1. Immigration = #ppl moving in/1000 2. Birth rate = Births/1000 ppl per year 3. Fertility rate = # of births a women is expected to have in life >2 = inc population. = 2 = same pop <2 = dec population

3 A's of StreSS

1. ANGER - Type A: easily angered individuals, aggressive and competitive Type B: easy going 2. ANXIETY - centers on amygdala. you perceive more things as fearful! 3. ADDICTION - there are good options and bad options -- alcohol, tobacco, etc. -- impaired judgment from the frontal lobe causes impaired decisions and so you have bad coping mechanisms now

Rational techniques (2)

1. Accept reality 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system

what is a type of personality that is more subjected to prejudice?

1. Authoritarian personality --- they're obedient to their superiors, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves --- they are OPPRESSIVE, RIGID THINKERS, INFLEXIBLE They use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focused on others

Social Movement Stages

1. Beings with an idea that's shared by a few. 2. *Incipient stage* - public takes notice of the situation that they consider a problem 3. People will begin to organize in a group and rise up 4. They will either SUCCEED or ADAPT.

5 considerations when examining people's gender and sexual orientation

1. Biological - sex: XX or XY 2. Identity - gender: masculine/feminine 3. Expression - gender they expression 4. Attraction - gender they're romantically attracted to 5. Fornication - gender they're sexually attracted to

Sleep problems

1. Brain -- Central Sleep Apnea. Problem with brains control system for ventilation. We see "Cheynes Stroke breathing" - crescendo and then decrescendo breathing followed by a stop in breathing. 2. Upper Airways -- Obstructure Sleep Apnea -- when airways are obstructed. can cause snoring or gasping 3. Lungs/Chest walls -- stops lungs from being able to expand-- Hypoventilation Disorder -- buildup of CO2 and decrease in O2

Negative effects of stress on body

1. To heart = higher BP, BV, HTN, vascular disease, CAD 2. Metabolism = lots of blood glucose 3. Reproductive = FSH/LH and E/P can be inhibited reproductive abilities (body doesn't think it has enough energy to now deal with reproduction, after all this stress). Impotence/erectile dysfunction 4. Immune Function = inflammation - overuse of immune system -- can attack our own body. Ex, arthritis! Increases susceptibility to virus!

Champagne class - distribution of wealth

1. Top 1/5th have 82.7% 2. Poorest 1/5 have 1.4% of global income 3. richest 85 people have more $ than 3.5 billion people

Herbert Blumer's 3 tenants to explain symbolic interactionism

1. We act based on meaning we've given something --- chair = sit 2. Different people assign different meanings to things. 3 The meaning we give to something isn't permanent

How can people study the brain?

1. autopsy studies -- like with the creation of broca's area 2. lesion studies - not done with humans. a) tissue removal b) radiofrequency lesions c) neurochemical lesions**** --- kainic acid or oxidopamine 3. cortical cooling -- cool neurons *reversible!

Irrational techniques (2)

1. denial of the situation - refuse to accept the situation 2. reinterpreting the events -change our interpretation of the *outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim*

Kinds of social support

1. emotional support -- affection, love, trust, caring. provided by those closest to you 2. esteem support -- expressions of confidence/encouragement - can come from family, friends, therapists, etc 3. informational support -- sharing information with us or giving us advice - family or internet 4. tangible/instrumental support - financial, materialistic support 5. companion support -- gives you a sense of belonging, companionship while you engage in an activity

2 parts of dramaturgy:

1. front stage = when people are in a social setting. manipulating how someone is seen to make/gain friends --> putting on a front for an audience 2. back stage self = more private area of our lives, when act is over

Utilitarian organization normative organization coercive organization

1. members are paid/rewarded for their efforts --> business and government jobs, and universities (diploma) 2. members come together through shared goals - religious groups or etc. positive sense of unity and purpose! 3. members don't have a choice with their membership.

ethical research

1. participants have to voluntarily participate in the study 2. at any point, they should be able to leave the study

Glutamate (amino acid) GABA (amino acid)/Glycine (amino acid) ACh (other) Histamine (biogenic amine) Norepi (catecholamine, along with Epi) 5Ht (biogenic amines) Endorphin (peptide, opioid)

1. reticular activation system -- consciousness 2. inhibitory 3. for autonomic nervous sytem 4. from hypothalamus, to CC 5. Locus Coeruleus (from pons) releases it 6. 5HT - Raphe nucleus releases it -- to CC

4 main categories of stressors

1. significant life changes 2. catastrophic events - war, earthquake, etc 3. daily hassles - seemingly minor events - long store lines, forgetting car keys, sucky roommates 4. ambient stressors = enviormental problems -- perceivable, but hard to control. can negatively impact us without us being aware of them. -- pollutants, noise, crowding

How do our attitudes influence behavior? (pg 142)

1. theory of planned behavior = intentions + implications --- strongly depends on INTENSIONS --> attitudes, subjective norms (what we think others think about our behavior), perceived behavioral control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior) 2. attitude to behavior process model. (an event triggers our attitude) 3. Prototype willingess model - our behavior is a function of: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intensions, our willingess to engage in specific behavior, models/prototyping 4. Elaborate Likelihood Model of persuasion --> a) central route of persuasion ==> degree of attitude change depends on the quality of the argument by the persuader. ARGUMENT IS KEY b) peripheral route persuasion ==> looks at superficail/expertise cues -- attractiveness/status of persuader

1. projection bias 2. false consensus

1. when we assume others share the same beliefs we do 2. when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

Stage 5 of Erikson's

12-20 years. Identity vs role confusion Virute = Fidelity, seeing oneself as unique. Failure = role-confusion. Can cause rebellion/unhappiness

Zimbardo Prison Study - Standford Prison Experiment

1971 goal was to see how social norms/conventions can influence behaviors of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards the guards were told that they could not physically harm prisoners, but they could create fear/loss of privacy/loss of control/loss of individuality. day 1 - prisoners rebelled against guards 2 - guards started getting much much more aggressive. after 36 hours everything begin breaking down -- day 3 - situation went even further. day 4 bad day 5 bad day 6 - zimbardo had involved himself as a prison warden -- before - all of the prisoners were the SAME -- then, the prisoners saw each other as informants. -- the guards gave better privileges to the ones that were... better THE THING WAS, THESE PRISONERS WERE JUST VOLUNTEERS --- NO ONE STOPPED AND JUST LEFT THE EXPERIMENT! why did the guards act so bad towards the prisoners? they thought they were wimps, troublemakers and faking distress.

Bipolar I vs Bipolar II

1: when hypomania becomes manic w/ or w/o major depressive disorder II : when it remains hypoamnia + one major depressive episode -- NO MANIC Cyclothymic disorder- hypomania + dysthymia

Arcuate fasciculus

2 B and W areas are connected by nerve fibers. When A.F. is damaged, we get CONDUCTIVE APHASIA (associative aphasai) --- ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted

Schachter-SInger

2 factor theory of emotion physiological and cognitive responses SIMULTANEOUSLY form experience of emotion Event --> PR + Identify reason for situation (we have to first LABEL the situation) --> Emotion

Group meetings

AA, ex or NA (narcotics anonymous) = 12 step program. acceptance, surrender, active involvement, evidence that they're helpful,

Atypical antipsychotics

AAP block DA and 5HT.

3 components of attidue

AFFECTIVE - emotional - feelings, ex, scared BEHAVIORAL - act/behave towards object/subject, ex, avoid COGNITIVE - form thoughts/beliefs and have knowledge about subject/topic, ex, "i believe, blah blah blah"

cells responsible for arousal are inhibited by _________--

AMP phosphodiesterase takes cAMP into AMP caffeine inhibits an enzyme that BREAKS DOWN caAMP --- increased cAMP increases glutamate production --- APs are released in BURSTS

Opposite of sensory adaption

AMPLIFICATION = UP REGULATION Increase AP after AP

Absolute poverty vs relative poverty

Absolute: $1-2 per day. When country gets richer, there is less chances for absolute poverty. (Abs. poverty is not dependent on what country you're in) (Absolute poverty focuses on SURVIVAL, can you provide food, shelter, resources) Relative: Scales poverty by % level below the median income (per day) of the country. (Relative poverty focuses on the exclusion of society... if all of society makes SO much, you're going to be excluded if you make way less than that.) 60% of people are < median income *if COUNTRY'S INCOME GOES UP, ABSOLUTE POVERTY LINE WON'T CHANGE, RELATIVE INCOME LEVEL WOULD.* As the country gets richer, more and more people would live ABOVE the absolute poverty line === DECREASE IN ABS. POVERTY Relative Poverty IS dependent on the country because we're basing it off of the median value income of THAT country.

Olfactory Pathway

Accessory OF epithelium sends projections to the Acessory OF BULB -- signals to BRAIN. OF bulb -- Amygdala -- Piriform Cortex -- Orbitofrontal cortex

3 theories of cities -

According to conflict theory, cities are sources of inequality that are entertainment centers for the wealthy. Diversity of culture and social backgrounds increases conflict on beliefs/values. According to symbolic interactionism, cities are places where people can get different perspectives of looking at life. People have strong cultural values and have different interactions/persepctives towards urban life. According to the functionalist perspective, cities have important functions and have a slice of culture and diverse populations but also host crime and other disruptions to society.

4 theories of Social Movements - Relative Deprivation Thoey

Actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. 1. Relative deprivation -- depends on perception 2 Feeling of deserving better 3. Conventional means are useless

Why do people live longer now?

Because of all the advancements in medical technology! By 2025, 1/4th of population will be >65 y/o

What sensations have large diameter axons, which ones have small diameter axons?

POSITION/VIBRATION/TOUCH = LARGE DIAMETER AXONS - A-B or A-D fibers The rest of it is SLOW FIBERS (C)

Meso-level culture

Population size falls between MICRO and MACRO levels. They are termed medium-sized groups like communities, organizations, cities, states and clans.

B, C, D, and Beta strategies

B: let's say we pick the threshold intensity of 2. Anything above 2: YES. Anything below 2: NO. D: d' - B = x. Anything > x will be YES, anything < x will be NO. C: ideal observer - minimize risk of misses and false alarm. C = B - d'/2 = x. Anything > x will be YES, anything < x will be NO. C = 0 = idea observed C < 1 = liberal C > 1 = conservative, so they respond NO more than anything else. Beta: ln Beta = d' x C. Set value of threshold to the ratio of height of signal distribution to height of noise distribution.

Drugs - biological and socio-cultrual

BIOLOGICAL - genetic -withdrawal -imbalance in brains -biochemical factors -DA changes -- limbic system changes SOCIO-CULTURAL - curiosity -novelty of drug -rebel -poor control of user -cope with stress -low self-esteem

Gential stage - PS development

Back on libido. Because individuals develop strong sexual interests ----- before this, person was selfish. Now, they focus on NEEDS OF OTHERS ---- no fixation = mentally healthy.

What are the basic and higher-order functions that the brain does?

Basic = motor, reflexes and sensory Higher = cognition, emotions and consciousness

Kinaesthesia

Tells you where your body is in space. Propricoeption = COGNITIVE Kinesthesia = BEHAVIORAL

Allport & traits

CARDINAL TRAITS - direct most of the person's activities - DOMINANT TRAIT THAT INFLUENCE ALL OF OUR BEHAVIORS CENTRAL TRAITS - less dominant than cardinal - honesty, sociability, shyness SECONDARY - preferences or attitudes -- love for art, etc etc

Modern scans/test to study the brain

CAT - X-ray image of the brain - can't tell us about ativity in a given time MRI - radio waves -- magnetic field. no info about function EEG - external. tell us about seizures, sleep stages, cognitive tasks. MEG - SQUIDS - invasive fMRI - look at activity! active neurons need a lot of O2 PET - inject glucose -- see what areas of brain are more active at a given point in time

PAVLOV

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus ==> involuntary response

Conversion disorder factitious disorder

CONVERSION - problems with speech, swallowing, seizures and paralysis - neurological sx FACTITIOUS - patient wants to be sick. pt will falsify disease to get dz/treatment

Covert orienting Overt orienting

COVERT - act of brining spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement OVERT - a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event (move OVER)

What is a component of the Fundamental Att. Error?

CULTURAL component! The F.A.E occurs more in individualistic societies, who place an emphasis on individual achievement. - Cultures have different ways they explain success and failure - in *individualistic* cultures (NA and Europe) success is OVER-attributed to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors - in *collectivist* cultures, (eastern-african/asia), success is attributed to external and failures is attributed to internal factors

Altruism

care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them --- beneficial to society and also individuals!

normalcy bias/cant happen to me bias

causes people to underestimate both the possibility of disaster occurring and its possible effects

Cannon-Bard Theory

DISAGREED WITH LANG He believed that physiological response and emotion happened at the SAME TIME E --> PR + Emotion (CB = next to each other inthe alphabet, so everythign happens at the same time)

insula and basal ganglia

DISGUST --- Anterior insula receives signals about OF and gustation

Distal and proximal stimuli

DISTAL - Objects and events out in the world about you - aware of and respond to this!!!!!! PROXIMAL - patterns of stimuli that actually reach your senses - ears, eyes.

PTC in DARK

Dark, Rod is ON. ON CENTER BPC inctive, OFF CENTER BPC active. When OFF CENTER BPC turned ON, OFF CENTER RGC on, and so we have signals -- optic nerve -- brain.

T/F: thesis + antithesis can coexist peacefully

FALSE --- thesis is happy while antithesis is looking for change ALWAYS the struggle would lead to a *SYNTHESIS* of the two by creating a new state --- there is always a constant struggle of tension/unrest between 2 opposing sides EQUAL RIGHTS AND WOMENS SUFFRAGE = CREATED A NEW *THESIS*

Fluid vs crystallized intelligence

FLUID = ability to reason quickly and abstraclty, when solving new problems - be adaptable and solve problems using INDUCTIVE and DEDUCTIVE reasoning look at stuff independent of previous experience CRYSTALLIZED = accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. stays the same as we get older, whereas fluid intelligence dec as we get older CONVERGENT INTELLIGENCE = IQ test-related intelligences

Folkways Mores Laws Taboos

Folkways - mildest type of norm -- just common rules/manners we are suppose to follow on a day base - traditions invididuals have followed for a long time -- opening door, helping person who's dropped item, blah blah blah Mores - norms based on some moral value/belief ---- dependent on the group's values of right and wrong -- generally produce strong feelings. usually a strong reaction if more of the rule is violated laws - norms still based on right and wrong, but have FORMAL/CONSISTENT CONSEQUENCES. --- oath in court, Taboos - behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more! -- punishable by law and result in severe disgust by members of community

5 Factor model - big 5 personality traits

Found in all people of all populations OCEAN OPENNESS - indepdent vs conforming CONSCIENTIOUSNESS - careful vs careless, disciplined vs impulsive EXTROVERSION - talkative or quiet AGREEABLENESS - kind vs cold, appreciatie vs unfriendly NEUROTICISM - stable vs tense

How would you separate Freud, erikson, vygotsky and kohlberg

Freud and Erikson - focused on how personality develops Vygotsky and Kohlberg - focused on how cognition develops

Convergence

Gives humans an idea of depth based on how much eyeballs are turned -- if things are far away the muscles of the eyes are relaxed, if they're close to us then the muscles contract

learned helplessness

Group 1 - there is a tone, and when the tone goes off, the dogs get an ELECTRIC SHOCK, but they can press a button to stop the shock. Group 2 - no way to turn off the shocks. When all the dogs were put together, with a small barrier in the middle, they were all given an electric shock. Group 1 dogs learned to escape by JUMPING over the barrier, but group 2 dogs didn't try to escape the shock at all. UNCONTROLLABLE BAD EVENTS CAN LEAD TO perceived LACK OF CONTROL!!!! ==== GENERAL HELPLESS BEHAVIOR ' When we increase the CONTROL that someone has over the situation, it really really helps them

Taste pathway

Gustudin (protein associated with taste): front 2/3rds carries signals via the 7 cranial nerves via the chorda tympani, 1/3rd carries signals via 9th and 10th CN (glossopharyngeal and vagus)

Options for Signal Detection Theory

HIT: the subject responded affirmative when there was a signal FALSE ALARM: the subject responded affirmative when there was no signal CORRECT REJECTION: a negative answer for no signal MISS: a negative response for a signal that was present

Horizontal or vertical movement, socially

HORIZONTAL - move within same class. Accountant job to different company's accountant job VERTICAL - move up and down the social hierarchy. Restaurant owner becomes CEO.

Intoxication and Withdrawal

Intoxication - behavioral and psychological effects on the person - drug-specific: "high/drunk" Withdrawal - Acute: few weeks Post-Acute: PAWS (2 years) (withdrawal syndrome) - mood swings, anxiety, irritability, tiredness, variable energy, low enthusiasm

Slum

Heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by SUBstandard housing and squalor. Most lack reliable sanitations, supply of clean water, and have GHETTOES ----- defined as areas where specific racial, ethnic or religious minorities are concentrated, due to social or economic inequities

High culture, Normative Culture, Popular Culture

High culture - patterns that exist in the HIGHEST class segments of society ~ wealth and formality. Normative culture - values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms Popular culture - patterns within mainstream, normative society.

Erikson's Psychosocial Development

His theory was focused on CULTURE and SOCIETY. He also thought that were was plenty of room for growth throughout one's life (not just childhood) Erikson believed that a CRISIS can occur at each stage, but if there isn't, then there is a healthy personality :) CRISIS = can't continue to further stages or unhealthy personality begins

Signal Detection Theory

Ho we can make decisions under conditions of uncertainty - discerning between important stimuli and unimportant stimuli (noise) Origins in sonar (little fish vs big whale) Its role in psychology -- you are given 2 lists and you have to find words that were same on second list and first list. You are unsure whether a certain word was actually on the list...

Test validity -- 3 parts

Indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results. Criterion validity - assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. "IS the test valid?" It is usually if a variable is able to predict a certain outcome or not. Concurrent validity - measures the test against a benchmark test and high CORRELATION indicates that the test has strong criterion validity - how well a test matches up with a benchmark test, which is usually another valid measure of the same construct predictive validity - or the extent to which an assessment is able to predict something it should be able to predict --- testing a group of subjects for a certain construct and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future

projection reaction formation regression sublimation

Individual influences on behavior = PROJECTION - projecting own feelings of inadequacy on others R.F.: defense mechanism where someone says/does exact opposite of what they want to feel Defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in unproblematic situations (regress in time) Defense mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful

Current population

Initial population + births - deaths + immigration - emigration

Nativist

Innatist/biological persepctive. Children are born with their ability to learn langugae. NAOM CHOMSKY --- LAD (language acquisition device) which let them learn language. - critical period (sensitive period = point in early development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning in later life): birth-8/9 y/o

Vestibular System -- ear functions

Inner ear has semicircular canals (posterior, lateral and anterior). The canal is filled with endolymph and based on the endolymph's direction/speed we are able to tell in what direction and at what speed we're rotating. Otolith organs (saccule and utricle) helps us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning --> There are calcium carbonate crystals attached to the hair cells in the viscous gel. The endolymph's movement continuing after we've stopped moving is what contributes to dizziness.

4 theories of Social Movements - Resource Mobilization Theory

Instead of looking at deprivation of people, it focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement, LIKE access to resources. For a social movement, you need money, materials, political influence, media and other organization

Cultural assimilation

Interpretation and fusion of ethnic minorities into the dominant CULTURE

Routes of drug ingestion

Oral - slowest Inhalation - straight to brain - 10 seconds Injection - most direct, goes right to vein - FASTEST!!!!! Transdermal - Nicotine path - several hours IM - slowly or quickly -- epiPen --> Slow Delivery Vacciness --> Quick delivery - epiPen Faster the route of entry = more addictive potential

activation synthesis hypothesis

Our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity - brain gets a lot of neural impulses from brainstem, which is then later interpreted by frontal cortex. Brainstem = activation Cortex - synthesis

Information processing model

Our brains are similar to computers -- we get input from the environment, process it and then decide what to do after INPUT --> PROCESS --> OUTPUT BOTTOM-UP or stimulus driven model. Limited storage capacity. This model assumes that the brain does serial processing, but we have an ability for parallel processing.

Place Theory

Our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane -- the pitch of a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates -- based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons. One is able to hear different pithces becuase different sound waves trigger acitivty at diff places along the cochlear BM

What causes some to have secure attachment while some have insecure attachment?

PARENTING STYLE --> mothers who are sensitive to child and response had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. --- does the parent keep looking at their phone when the child is calling them, or not. *early attachment style forms basis of adult relationship later in life, especially with comfort intimacy/relationships*

Specific brain changes with puberty

PFC - higher order cognition. Limbic system - amygdala - mood changes, hypothalamus (hormones) Corpus Collosum - R/L hemisphere Increasemeylination - faster connections More brain volume - synaptic pruning!!!!! (focus resources on neurons that are most important)

Classical Conditioning

Pavlovian Innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus S = stimulus: anything you can hear, see, smell, taste or touch R = response UCS = something that causes a UCR without anyone teaching anything unconiditioned = innate conditioned = learned hearing the bell ring = neutral stimulus - a stimulus you can sense, taste or hear - it doesn't NATURALLy cause excitement. Presentation of BOTH stimulus - "trail" --- pairing both stimuli is how you get the classical conditioning! what was once a neutral stimulus now becomes a CONDITIONED STIMULUS because it elicits a CONDITIONED RESPONSE (excitement) BEHAVIOR THAT IS TYPICALLY IN RESPONSE TO ONE STIMULI BECOMES THE RESPONSE DUE TO ANOTHER STIMULUS --- bc of pairing

Types of social network

Peer network Family network Community network

Why did people begin moving to urban areas?

People began losing their jobs because there was so many machines starting in industrialization. So, people had to move to cities to find work/housing and urban areas grew! There were better utilities - power, water, transit

4 theories of Social Movements - Rational Choice Theory

People compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and choose the one they think is the best for themselves. ---- A > B > C thing

Rural rebound

People getting sick of cities and moving back out to rural areas. People who can afford to leave the city and looking for simpler/slower life. Happens closer to urban areas so that residences have the convenience of a big city! Often people move to scenic rural areas (remember rural is not always poor, it's just a smaller population)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

People perform best when they are moderately aroused The relationship between LTM and fear == Y-D law Extreme emotional responses IMPACT MEMORY S

Continuity Theory

People try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime. As they age, people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging. ---> older generations have to continuously ADAPT

Group polarization

Phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members -- a stronger version of the decision is adopted What influences group's final decision? - all the view do not have equal influence -viewpoint share by the majority members of the group -arguments made tend to favor popular/majority group of view -any criticism is directed towards minority view

Phototopic, Mesopic and Scotopic vision

Phototopic Vision - high light levels Mesopic Vision - Dawn or Dusk and involves rods and cones Scotopic - Very low light

What are the 3 components of emotion?

Physiological - HR can increase, muscles tense, temperature increases Cognitive - mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about the situation -- they result form emotions, and can CAUSE emotions. Behavioral - emotions make different behavioral responses from either your body language/expressions *emotions are temporary, unlike moods which last a LONG TIME

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Pyramid

Please Safely Love (OR) Else Suffer Physiologial - food, water, breathing, sleep - basic needs Safety - employment, health, resources, property safety. bottom part of pyramid has to be met love - need to belong. family, friends, intimacy, love self-esteem - feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill self-actualization - reaching their maximum potential, achieving the most one can be.

Posterior and Vitreous Chamber Retina Macula Fovea Cones Rod Choroid Sclera

Posterior Chamber - behind iris to the back of lens, filled with aq humor. Vitreous Chaber - virt humour, gives pressure to the eyball and gives nutritents to inside of eye Retina - filled with photoreceptors. Light goes from waveform to electrochemical impulse. Macula (contains fovea) - Only cones, no rods. Choroid - pigmented black in humans. Blood v's that help nourish the retian Sclera - whites of the eye.

Arousal Theory

Previous practice on a skill will improve performance. If you're too high of an arousal state, it is detrimental to attention. Enhanced arousal can enhance attention. Difficult/novel task will require more attention to finish it

serial position effect

Primary and recency effects!!!!

What are the 2 stages of the cognitive stages of stress?

Primary appraisal = assessing stress in present situation - 3 categories of response to this primary appraisal - irrelevant, benign/ positive or stressful/negative. IF IT IS NEGATIVE/STRESSFUL, THEN WE MOVE ON TO THE SECONDARY APPRAISAL Secondary appraisal = evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with the situation ---- how prepared is the person. Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge, and how to overcome it. Harm = what damage has been caused already Threat = how much damage could be caused Challenge = how can situation be overcome or conquered

Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory

Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan ! Each stage depends on OVERCOMING CONFLICT --- 8 stages

Weak social constructionism - depends on 2 things

Proposes that social constructs depend on 1. BRUTE FACTS - most basic and fundamental facts 2. INSTITUIONAL FACTS - created by social conventions and do rely on other facts

Pros and Cons of a city

Pros - wide variety of culture, anonymity in a big city Cons - crowding can occur in cities. Too little space/too many people --- less sense of community

Psychosexual development Fixation

Psychosexual development - when the energy (libido) is stuck/fixated at a various stage -- there can be conflicts that occur that have LIFELONG effects. FIXATION at a particular stage is what predicts adult personality... someone fixed at oral stage (1st stage) might have oral personality - smoking, overly talkative, etc.

2 types of interference

RETROACTIVE = new learning -----| old information. Later information interfering with memory for earlier information. Ex - writing a new address ----| old address RETROGRADE AMNESIA = loss of stuff that happened BEFORE the accident PROACTIVE = something you learned in the past makes it harder for you to learn anything in the future ANTEROGRADE AMENSIA = inability to form new memories, after an injury

Statistical differences between racial and ethnic group

Racial and ethnic groups (except asians) have bigger families, less access to healthcare, higher jail rates, lower paying jobs and higher school dropout rates.

Racialization

Racial identity ascribed to a minority group

Cochlear Implants

Receiver goes to a stimulator, which reaches the cochlea. Receiver gets info from a transmitter -- which gets info from electrical info from speech processor. Speech processor gets info from microphone Sound -- microphone -- transmitter (outside skull) -- receiver (inside skull) -- stimulator -- cochlea -- electrical impulse into neural impulse -- brain

Famous conformity experiment ecolocial validity demand characteristics

SOLOMON ASCH --- he thought that humans had to be understood as a whole. He was also interested in how group behavior can influence an individual. he did a study and found that if the first person to speak said the wrong answer, then 75% of the participants would give the wrong answer. the rest of the group were confederates (ACTORS, WHO WERE TOLD WHAT TO DO) -- only perceived pressure to conform CRITICISM W/ STUDY: 1. all participants came from the same population -- minorities, women and blah blah maybe would have reacted differently 2. participants KNEW that they were coming in for the study - they were SUSPICIONS of the study! ECOLOCIAL VALIDITY - do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world -- if they don't we can only make limited conclusions!!!!!!! !!! DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS - describe how participants change behavior to match expectations of the experimenter

Hyperglobalist Persepective

Sees globalization as a new age in human history --> countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Countries become ONE GLOBAL SOCIETY ----

Self worth vs self esteem

Self Esteem - respect and regard one has for oneself Self worth - I am of value, I am loveable, necessary to this life, and i have incomprehensible worth. They both go HAND IN HAND

Looking glass self's relation to STIGMA

Self-concept is influenced by how we perceive that OTHERS are viewing us. Based on the L.g.s., someone who has a stigmatized illness is likely to internalize the stigmatization directed against him or her. ----- symbolic interactionist paradigm in society ----- the looking glass self suggests that the self-concept is more than the product of self-reflection, but THE WAY in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions

Gestalt Principles (6)

Similarity - Items similar to one another get grouped together by the brain. Putting similar shapes in columns vs rows. Pragnanz - Reality is organized into the simplest form possible. We are looking at the olympic ring as 5 circles rather than as different complex shapes. Proximity - objects that are closer together are grouped together. We naturally group the closer things together rather than things that are far apart. Continuity - lines are seen as following the smoothest path. - connect the dots to make a line, eg Closure - objects grouped together are seen as a whole. The mind fills in missing information -- cut our circles/triangle image Symmetry- the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point

Ipsilateral vs Contralateral: Smell, Vision, Taste, Hearing, Touch?

Smell and Taste = Ipsilateral (don't synapse onto thalamus) Vision, Hearing and Touch = Contralateral

Good ways of coping with stress

Social Support **** great Exercise Meditation - decrease HR/BP Religious beliefs/faith Cognitive Flexibility - change eprspective Coping ---- expending conscious effort to solve personal problems -- want to master, minimize or tolerate stress/conflict -- can be adaptive or maladaptive (non-coping!)

Race

Socially-defined category based on physical differences between groups of people. Racial formation theory --> looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities. Some differences are real, but some are only defined by history.

Ethnicity

Socially-defined category, not defined by physical characteristics like race, but these groups are defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, and other cultural factors. Ethnic MINORITY --> can be absorbed into majority after 1-2 generations. A minority is a group that makes up less than half the total population and is treated differently due to some characteristics.

Interposition (overlap)

Tells us that one object is in front of the other, and the object that is in the front is closer

Selective attention

TV + studying You are selecting one at a time -- only have ability to focus on one thing at the exclusion of everything else We don't consciously process all the stimuli we face

TYPES OF ERROR - LOOK THIS UP

TYPE 1 TYPE 2 power alpha Null Hypothesis - is a statment that suggest there is no relationship between two variables alternative hypothesis confidence interval variance beta

What does stress activate in our body?

The FIGHT OR FLIGHT SYSTEM ==> endocrine response increased HR, more respiration, more ATP + O2 in blood, less CO2 . More vasoconstriction - push blood to CORE AREAS. No digestion, immunity, ovulation. ENDOCRINE RESPONSE = adrenal glands (made form ectoderm) --> medulla releases catecholamines (EPI/NOREPI, tyrosine derivatives) adrenal cortex (endoderm) --> CORTISOL -- redistributes glucose energy in body and suppressing immune system. develops muscle/bones

SENSORY ADAPTATION (5 different types)

The ability for our senses to adapt to changes in their sensitivity to stimuli. HEARING ADAPTATION - for the inner ear muscle (cochlea) if we have a higher noise then the muscle will contract, and this decreases the vibrations int he inner ear, protecting the ear drum. (doesn't work for immediate stuff but if you're at a concert it works) TOUCH - temperature receptors desensitize over time (like being in a hot bath) SMELL, PROPRIOCEPTION - if you put on those goggles that completely change your vision over time you will be able to adapt and find your way around. SIGHT - down regulation: light adaptation, where the pupils constrict to enter less light into the eye, up regulation: when it's dark outside and the pupils dilate and the rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules!

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

Upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to *Relative Depreciation* is the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get

Dependence Theory

Use idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities b/w countries. 3rd world countries SEND STUFF to 1st world countries --- the 3rd world countries haven't been intregrated into the world economy. They don't even have the MEANS to become a developed country.

Top-down processing

Uses background knowledge to form a perception of something. THEORY DRIVEN. perception is influenced by our expectations. Deductive reasoning.

Dopamine (biogenic amine)

VTA (goes VTA to PFC -- cognition, affect) and substantia niagra (motor planning -- DA at SN goes to caudate and putamen), DA is made in the Arcutate Nucleus (if DA doesn't project to BG, (striatum) we get PARKINSON'S DZ) Inhibits prolaction seretion VTA --> CORT: negative symptoms VTA --> LIMBIC (NAcc, amygdala, HPC) --> positive symptoms

CONTROl - vehicular, positive, negative ???

Vehicular - what experimental group does without the direct desired impact --- if you're going to give saline + drug, the vehicular group will get ONLY the saline Positive - treatment with known response Negative - group with no response expected

Caste system

Very little social mobility, because your role is determined entirely by the class you're born into.

Phototransduction cascade

When light hits, the rod turns off. ==> there are optic disks made of retinal (11-cis retinal) inside the rod. When light comes in, some of it hits rhodopsin and causes the form to CHANGE TO 11-TRANS RETINAL. Then, transducin's (GPCR) alpha subunit binds off rhodopsin, when it changes shape. Alpha subunit goes to Phosphodiesterase. It takes cGMP to GMP (light = inc [GMP]) Normally, Na+ comes in through the channels bc cGMP is bound to the channel, keeping it open. But when GMP takes over, the Na+ channels close and the cell gets HYPERPOLARIZED and turns OFF. Rod = OFF, ON CENTER BP CELL IS ACTIVE, OFF CENTER BP IS INACTIVE. ON CENTER BPC activates ON CENTER RGC -- optic nerve signal o brain. *rods have rhodopsin, cones have photopsin*

McGurk effect

categorical change in auditory perception that occurs whenever the auditory stimulus does not match the visual stimulus during speech perception

Age

based on different cohorts. Each generation have similar events and time periods.

Strength of correlation

based on how close the correlation coefficient is to 1 or -1 Negative correlation: <0, >-1 , -1 --- one variable increases and the other decreases Positive correlation: >0, <1, +1 --- as one increases, the other also increases C.C. below -1 is likely the result of an error by the experimenter when computing the correlation between developmental dyslexia and illiteracy???? "Regression to the mean" is when, over time, scores become more average ---- with repeated testing, if more extreme measurements become more normal

Micro-culture

can't support people throughout lifespan, refers to groups/orgs that only affect LIMITED people in one's life. Girl's scouts, college sororities, boarding school.

ill health magnet Discrimination magnet

can also drag people away, can't participate in society. Certain groups can face discrimination based on their race/gender/sexual orientation. --- DISCRIMINATION MAGNET *people in periphery of society often have a lot of these magnets combined --- tremendous forces pushing them away*

emotional memories

can be + or - valenced. highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid = FLASHBULB MEMORIES --> people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received the news about an emotionally arousing event

poverty magnet

can drag people away from the core part of society and experience a greater degree of social exclusion :( societies are really good, but they can also cause a reduced right and access to reseources

auto-communication

can give information to themselves --> bats and echolocation and this allows them to gain information about the environment

narcolepcy sleep apnea sleepwalking/talking

can't help themselves falling asleep - going into REM sleep randomly. Have fits (usually 5 minutes) stop breathing while sleeping- body realizes you're not getting enough air and it gasps for air and goes back to sleep - 100x/night - not enough N3 sleep Genetic, occur during N3 and harmless.

neural plasticity

changes in brain/size and involves function of environmental influences

confounding variables

changes in dependent variable may be due to existence of or variations in a third variable --- this third variable can provide an ALTERNATIVE explanation to the relationship between the variables of interest

target characteristics

characteristics of listener, such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. HOW WE RECEIVE A MESSAGE

Self-report study

cheap, no labor, poor reliability, vulnerable to subjective interpretation, hard to compare, no research interference. Questionnaires and interviews they may exaggerate or under-report CLOSED QUESTIONS - provide quantitative data, no insights OPEN QUESTIONS - qualitiative data - ask participant to answer in their own words

learning (behaviorist) theory

childrne aren't born with anything, they only acquire it through OPERANT CONDITION. Associated with BF skinner

social potency

degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations --- common in twins reared separately

psychophysical testing methods

directly assess our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties. quantitatively investigates the results between physical stimuli and the sensations/perceptions they affect "analysis of perceptual processes by studying the effect on a subject's experience or behavior of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one or more phyiscal dimensions"

longitudinal study

data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, can take years or decades. Follow for LONG TIME to look or corrleations.

Stroop effect

demonstration of interference in the reaction time of a task. If you print the name of a color, written in a different color, it takes a while to name the color

dependent vs independent stressor

depressed person is expected to experience a greater number of stressful events that he/she influences occurs without person's influence!

obedience

describe how we follow orders/obey authority. NO NEGATIVE COMPONENT "i'm just following orders" can be + or - ==> you do what a teacher tells you to do, but also, so many more people died in WWII because people were just being "obedient"

content validity

describes the extent that the test measures the construct accurately. It's the estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct - "does the test measure everything that it's supposed to? measure of comprehensiveness and examines whether or not a test covers every single element of a construct

construct validity

describes the extent to which the theory is supported by the data of the research. does this test have results that's supported by what is expected?

socialization

describes the process by which people learn attitudes, behaviors, and values expected by their culture/community it occurs through observation of/interaction with people who we are surrounded by, and those who are close to us ---- like agents of socialization --- *also helps shape our self-image and self concept* Mature socialization is when an individual quite accurately predicts how other people think about him or her ---- such an individual has incorporated the "social" into the self :)

antithesis

desire of working class to change was the thesis --- the anti-thesis is the reaction to the thesis, the push back from those that are unhappy with the status quo

Theory of Differential Association

deviance is a learned behavior that stems from when people have continuous exposure to those who violate norms and laws --- learn form observation of others ---- as money sees money do

d'

difference between means of signal graph (on the right) and the noise graph (on the left)

discrimination

differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. can be based on different factors including race, age and religion

what are some deteriorating sx that come with AD?

difficulties with attention, planning, semantic memory, and abstract thinking as it gets worse, there is more language difficults and more memory loss. can't regognize close family and friends

Cognitive dissonance

discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, believes, values, emotional reactions) ---- these conflicting ideas can be fixed by alterations in our belief and behaviors. We want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/CONTRADICTIONS We do 4 things to reduce cognitive dissonance: 1. Modify our cognitions -- change/alteration in the cognition (thinking process) in a person's action/behavior to reduce the discomfort a person has 2. Trivialize - change importance of cognition 3. Add - add more cognitions, to make the contradiction more comfortable 4. Deny - deny the facts *many strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions and words. As SOON as our cognitions, attitudes and behaviors don't align, we have C.D

visual agnosia

disorder of the VENTRAL pathway because we can't recognize an image! ventral = the WHAT pathway - temporal lobe

eustress vs distress vs neustress

distress = bad eustress = positive stress that happens when you percieve a sitaution as challenging, but MOTIVATING Neustress = neutral stress = happens when youa re exposed to something stressful but it doesn't actively or directly fafect you --- ex, natural disaster on the other side of the world

mary ainsworth's strange situation

done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't... if mom and baby and stranger are in the room, and suddenly mom leaves, when she comes back there are 2 SPECIFIC RESPONSES --- secure attachment and insecure attachment

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE - media Gatekeeping

focuses on how the media portrays and reflects and exacerbates divisions that exist in society --> race, ethnicity, gender, social class Uses *gatekeeping* to describe the process by which a small number of people/corps control what info get presented on the media. Gatekeeping has more of an effect on SOME media than others --> gatekeepers are usually white, male and wealthy. Showing LGBT/minorities/women can be underrepresented or stereotyped. it can result in TOKENISM, where one minority character is added to a movie as a stand in for the entire group

Ethology

focuses on the observation of animal behaviors, call these OVERT behaviors -- not necessary obvious, but observable! -- innate, learned and complex behaviors COVERT BEHAVIOR = behavior that isn't observable

fundamental attribution error

focuses only on actions of others -- tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws idea of attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions -- how easy it is to think others are atrocious and evil, while people like us would only perform evil acts because they're misguided. truth is w'ere all misguided

cohort study

following a subset of population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristics ---- born at a certain time, etc RETROSPECTIVE COHORT - looks back at events that have already happened PROSPECTIVE COHOROT - design follows a group of individuals over a period of time

post-decision dissonance

follows after an impulsive purchase that is difficult to return

secondary groups

formal, impersonal, temporary and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. usually short-term and only see them sometimes. --- go to lunch to talk business.

what does carl rogers say about maslow's H.O.N

he says that a lot of the qualities are nurtured early in life -- self-actualizaiton is a constant growth process nurtured in growth-promoting climate!!!! he believes that it's achievable In order for this climate to work, and someone reaches, S-A, something has to happen 1. Growth happens when person is GENUINE -- one has to be open and revealing without fear of being wrong 2. Growth is nurtured through ACCEPTANCE -- unconditional positive regard from others HUMANIST MASLOW ACTUALIZES HUMANIST ROGERS ACCEPTS

representativeness heuristic

heuristic where people look for the most representative answer and then look to match a prototype - not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype of idea

legitimacy

legitimacy of authority - if wearing lab coat/carry a clipboard, we are more likely to obey.

What does the brain do when there is a gap in the memory

it might fill it with something that didn't happen to make up for the gap ex = someone tells a story of a fish that they caught. every time they tell the story the fish gets bigger

relearning

just because you can't retrieve something doesn't mean it's completely gone. one way you can tell if someoen has learned something before is by how quickly they can RELEARN. Savings = even if you forget completley, you still take less time to learn the list the 2nd time around. This means that some foundation of the memory still existed even if he couldn't produce it. *works for procedures too

hindsight bias

knew it all along effect or creeping determinsim - inclination, after an event, that that event was predictable, despite having been little or no objective bias for predicting it

linguistic determinism

language has an influence on thought -- A) WEAK: language influence sthought. it makes it easier/more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is constructed B) STRONG (Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis) = language determines thought completely. People underttand their wold through langauge, and language changes how they view the world.

Vygostky

language nd though are indepdent but CONVERGE through development. eventually we can learn both at the same time == socialization. kids got language when they talked to parents who already knew the language

macrosociology

large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population --- social structures and institutions, whole civilizations, populations --- deals with things like poverty, war, health care, world economy

Depression/Major depressive disorder (pg 173)

prolonged feelings of helplessness and discourgement about the future Sadness + SID: E CAPS Suicidal thoughts - low self-esteem interests decreased guilt energy decreased concentration decreased - can't make decisions appetite disturbance psychomotor changes (agitation/retardation) sleep disturbances "common cold" - not a good term because it adds euphamism to depression Biological - genetic component - 5-HTTLPR gene (increased with stressful enviorment). Dec PFC, Lower reward circuit activity, less 5ht Psychosocial - learned helplessness, cognitive distortons, attribution - pessimistic/negative attributional style -- link depression to INTERNAL CAUSES Sociocultural - co-ruminaton/empathy (if someone u know has depression, you're omre likely to get it), Low SES -- internalization of prejudice

Biopsychological theory of personality - jeffrey alan gray

proposed that personality is governed by behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system

Society

provides ORGANIZATION for people. Includes institutions --- family, education, politics, and basic human needs. Cultures provides guidelines for living -- culture is LEARNED, reshaped, and it makes a SOCIETY RUN. Society <------> Culture

aging = what declines

recall becomes more difficult = although recognition is stable. episodic memory declines (forming new ones is hard, old ones remain) processing speed (slower to output a response) divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and are easily distracted)

Symbolic Interactionism: changes in society

recently, medicalization of society , where everything has a medical fix. Standards of beauty have made many undergo unneeded plastic surgery or have C-sections. Normal behavior are being shown as illnesses, like depression.

perceived behavioral control

refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior

self-concept - 2 parts

self identity - how someone thinks about/perceives/evaluates themselves ---- self-awareness 1. Existential self - most basic part of the self-concept --- sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is CONSTANT/consistent throughout life - starts from very very young age when the baby realizes that that they exist in this world 2. Categorical self - comes once the baby realizes that they're separate --- become aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects, we also exist in this world WITH others. --- age & gender also play a role, and then skill and size. As we get older, we compare ourselves -- traits, career, etc. We are another "category" in the whole world

ego depletion

self-control is a limited resource. if you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can AFFECT a later unrelated task that also requires self-control --- because, self-control requires ENERGY and FOCUS --- get sleep after

subjective bias

self-reported information is always vulnerable to subjective bias

Aging = what improves

semantic memories improve till around age 60. so, older adults have better verbal skills! *crystallized IQ is improved = ability to use knowledge and experience. better at emotional reasoning

+ symptom: hallucinations

sensory perceptions w/o stimuli -

paraphilias

sexual sadism, masochism, transvestic (cross-dressing), voyeurism, frotteurism (touching/rubbing gentials against a non-consenting invidual)

Bobo doll exp

showed that aggression is something that the kids can see and learn! LEARNED-PERFORMANCE DISTINCTION --- learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things!!!!!!!!! They were taught how to hit the doll, but they didn't.

test-retest reliability

shown by a high positive correlation between the first and second administration of a test. RETEST RELIABILITY = when a measure is taken multiple times, or CONSISTENCY when a measure is taken multiple times

Quasi-Experimental design

similar to experimental design ---- LACKS random assignment! this type of design describes an effect on a *specific cohort of the population*

ANOVA

similar to t-test; compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups If value doubles, 100% icnrease

What is a big predictor of attraction?

similarity we tend to partner up with people who much our age, race, religion, and economic status/education level couples can also stay together due to "perceived similarity" --> because over time, interests/beliefs are more aligned. they become similar as time goes on. perceived similarity can be just perceived -- and we can ALSO think that someone is similar to us when they really aren't... *we can have SIMILARITY BIAS, where we don't befriend someone if they are not similar to us*