McKays (12-25)

Philip II

( 1556-1598) son of Charles V, readied a fleet to sail from Lisbon to Flanders, Spanish Armada lost to the English, was prevented from reimposing Catholicism on England by force. Got power of the Netherlands from his father.

Francisco Petrarch

(1304-1374) - studied classical era through Roman ruins and classical manuscripts -2 centuries before the Renaissance - insisted liberal studies which was education through Latin works from ancient Rome - father of humanism

Christine de Pisa

(1363-1431) feminist, french, poet, scholar, La cite de dames - showed men what women can do when they're educated

Jan Van Eyck

(1366-1441) flemish painter - artistic equal of Italian painters - one of the earliest artists to use oil-based paints successfully / religious scenes and portraits all show realism and focus on human personality

Leonardo Bruni

(1374-1444) humanist historian / Florentine city official - linked decline of Latin after Cicero's death to the decline of the Roman Repubic / first to divide history into ancient, medieval, and modern / republicanism = best gov

Leon Battista Alberti

(1404-1472) recognizes own achievements - wrote novels/plays/legal treatises/1st scientific analysis of perspective /// designed churches/palaces // invented codes // autobiography in third person // Renaissance man / Believed women should only work in household

Lorenzo Valla

(1406-1457) author of standard Renaissance text on Latin philology - exposed the Donation of Constantine as a fraudulent document - said emperor Constantine gave vast territories to Europe - contained non-classical Latin usages anachronistic terms

Savonarola

(1452-1498) Dominican friar - lectured in Florence before French invasion - predicted Italy would be punished for corrupt leadership - took over after medici's were expelled / laws against: improper dress, same-sex relations, adultery, and drunkenness / Had bonfires of the vanities in the main square of Florence where they would burn fancy materials - excommunicated/tortured/and burned at the bonfire spot

Leonardo da Vinci

(1452-1519) Ultimate renaissance man, studied dead and alive bodies, experimented with perspective works include: Mona Lisa and The Last Supper

The War of the Roses

(1455-1471) - civil war between York and Lancaster houses - york = white rose / lancaster = red rose. hurt the trade, agriculture, and domestic industry

Pico della Mirandola

(1463-1494) knew Hebrew, Arabic, Latin, and Greek - developed 900 theses about philosophical, religious and magical subjects passionately, Pope accused him of heresy and he was arrested - bailed out by Lorenzo Medici but Savonarola took his money and ideas "On the Dignity of Man" = intro to 900 theses

Desiderius Erasmus

(1466-1536) Dutch humanist - The education of a Christian Prince: joined idealistic and practical suggestions (rulers should rule through Bible and classical works) The Praise of Folly - witty satire mocking political/social/religious institutions / translated new testament to Latin and Greek

Niccolo Machiavelli

(1469-1527) best known political theorist of the time / civic humanist / after medici was forced out became secretary of gov body in Florence - in charge of citizen army. When they came back he was tortured and arrested - later released and wrote political theory/poetry/prose works - the Prince - rulers must use brutality/lying to preserve order and security - First modern guide to politics

Ferdinand and Isabella

(1474-1516) Spanish throne - Spain was a confederation of different kingdoms with separate governments - originally accepted Jews after they were exiled from France and England; then expelled muslims and jews who wouldn't convert - son was Charles

Baldassare Castiglione

(1478-1529) author of the Courtier: treatise intended to train the courtly ideal gentleman (a man who could write poetry, wrestle, and sing while playing and instrument, or solving hard math) (a woman who was well educated, could play an instrument, paint also being beautiful, modest, and delicate) influenced elite groups in Renaissance

Sir Thomas More

(1478-1535) - english humanist - wrote utopia (means nowhere in Greek) - community on a random island - everyone gets good education in Greco Roman classics and adults do intellectual activities - no poverty or hunger and there is religious toleration

Henry VII

(1484-1509) England - in the Tudor dynasty - reestablished royal prestige/crushed power of nobility/ was ruthless and efficient - distrusted royal council and instead worked with small landowners/urban residents to negotiate with foreign governments - left country at peace domestically and globally

Titian

(1490-1576) - Venetian - produced portraits/religious subjects/mythological scenes - made techniques of oil painting without drawing first which sped up the process - manerism art (used distorted figures/heightened colour = emotion and drama)

paracelsus

(1493-1541) - Swiss physician and alchemist - early proponent of the experimental method in medicine. Pioneered the use of chemicals and drugs to address chemical imbalances (not humoral).

Charles I/Charles V

(1500-1558) - ruler of spain and Holy Roman Empire, became emperor at 19, ruled from 1515-1556, vigorous Catholic, called Imperial diet in 1530 at Augsburg, rejected Augsburg confession,participated in Habsburg-Valois wars, fought for a unified state, agreed to Peace of Augsburg in 1555, nephew of Catherine of Aragon. Political objectives worked against reconciliation, Inherited the 17 provinces: current day belgium and holland. Grew up in the Netherlands, son was Phillip II.

John Knox

(1505?-1572) Scotland - led to establishment of a state church. copied setup of Geneva to form the Scottish Church. Worked with Calvin in Geneva. Persuaded Scottish parliament to rule by bishops, substituting governance by presbyters, or council of ministers rather than papal authority.

St. Teresa of Avila

(1515-1582) - Spanish Carmelite - founded new convents/reformed Carmelite order reverting it back to stricter expectations of asceticism and poverty - believed to be too strict - even interrogated by Spanish Inquisition to ensure she was inspired by God, not devil.

andreas vesalius

(1516-1564) - Flemish physician - studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies (usually executed criminals' bodies) 1543 - same year as one of Copernicus' books - he released On the Structure of the Human Body. Contained 200 precise drawings which changed the understanding of human anatomy.

Catherine de Medici

(1519-1589) Mother of the 3 weak sons, wife of Henry II. Monarchy at time was weak/ easy to invade. Behind St Bartholomew's day Massacre (her daughter's wedding) her death as well as Henry III's assassination = Henry of Navarre taking the throne.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

(1525-1569) undisputed paster of still life paintings - painted peasants being simple and happy as well as their weaknesses = human folly = audience sympathy (the peasant wedding - most well known work)

El Greco

(1541-1614) Born in Greece, trained in venice, settled in spain "The Greek" art was dramatic, distorted, and colourful (Burial of the Count of Orgaz - counter reformation propaganda)

Peace of Augsburg

(1546-1555) Temporary solution to the Protestant-Catholic religious wars. Zwingli's death in 1531 = treaty at the Imperial Diet in Augsburg. The Lutherans made the Augsburg confession, which Charles V declined. In effect a military alliance was formed within the Protestants which Charles could not respond to, bc he was in another war. Rematch started in 1546- Charles grew powerful therefor the pope withdrew papal troops. In 1555, Charles agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, officially recognized Lutheranism "in order to bring peace into the holy empire."

peter paul rubens

(1577-1640) - most outstanding and most representative of baroque painters - studied in his native Flanders and in Italy - influenced by masters of the High Renaissance (Michaelangelo) - developed his own style - colourful, rich, sensuous - characterized by animated figures / melodramatic contrasts / monumental size - glorified monarchs: Queen Mother Marie de Medici of France - devout Catholic - known for the fleshy sensual nudes: Roman goddesses, water nymphs, angels

The Union of Utrecht

(1581) When the ten southern provinces, also known as the Spanish Netherlands, came under control by the Spanish Habsburg forces, led by Holland, the 7 northern provinces made this document. declared their independence from Spain and the north became Protestant while the south stayed Catholic. Philip opposed this and the war kept going, bringing in England. ended in 1690 - Spain agreed to a truce that established the breaking off of the United Provinces.

cardinal richelieu

(1585-1642) - first minister of the french crown for young Louis XIII - allowed monarchy to maintain power within Europe and own borders despite the 30 years war - made an administrative system to strengthen royal control - extended use of intendants / commissioners for France's 32 districts appointed by the monarch - recruited men for the army / supervised tax collection / checked on local nobility / presided over administration of local law - repressed Protestantism - main foreign policy was to destroy Catholic Habsburg's grip on territories that surrounded France - signed a treaty with Lutheran king Gustavus Adolphus promising support against Hapsburgs in the thirty years' war.

Henry IV

(1589-1610) - a politique, originally Protestant, bridegroom during St Bartholomew's day, was willing to sacrifice religious principles for political necessity- this saved France. converted to Catholicism

louis XIII

(1601-1643) Supervised the seige at La Rochelle - important port city - took over at 9 years old - supervised by cardinal Richelieu - successor of Henry IV, his father - faced with a Huguenot rebellion in southern france in 1621

jean baptiste colbert

(1619-1683) - financial genius - central principle: wealth and economy of France should serve the state - Louis' controller general - rigorously applied mercantilist policies to France - insisted that French industry should produce everything needed by the French people. - To increase exports he supported old industries and made new ones - focussed on textiles - enacted new production regulations - guilds to boost quality standards - encouraged immigration to france of craftsmen - abolished domestic tariffs/raised tariffs on foreign products - founded Company of the East Indies - send colonists to Quebec - Mississippi river was temporarily named after him.

sir isaac newton

(1642-1727) - English scientist - studied the forces that control the movement of planets and objects on earth. Born into the lower English gentry - enrolled in Cambridge University - devout nonorthodox Christian - rejected the Trinity. Left journals of experiments to discover a way to turn metals into gold and silver. Studied natural world to understand the divine plan. Did not publish concepts of centripetal force and acceleration or law of universal gravitation because he didn't believe they were important. Briefly took up the study of optics. Philosophicae Naturalis Principia Mathematica - three laws of motion 1) law of universal gravitation: all objects are attracted to one another and force of attraction is proportional to objects' quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

the fronde in france

(1648-1653) A series of aggressive uprisings and riots in the early years of Louis XIV's reign - was triggered by growing royal control and increased taxation.

the nine years war

(1688-1697) - the War of the Grand Alliance - btwn Louis XIV of France & European-wide coalition: the Grand Alliance led by the stadtholder king William III of Orange, King Charles II of Spain, holy roman Emperor. William III and James II struggled for the British Isles - Louis was trying to stabilize the french frontiers so most battles were around france's borders. Later led to War of the Spanish Succession - ended with the Treaty of Ryswick (1697)

Locke's second treatise of civil government

(1690) maintained that a gov that oversteps its proper function (protecting the natural rights of life, liberty, and property) becomes a tyranny. natural rights refers to rights basic to all men because all have the ability to reason - his idea that there are natural/universal rights equally valid for all peoples was most popular in colonial america.

the war of spanish succession

(1701-1713) - When the childless spanish king Charles II died everyone struggled for the colonies and Spain - the will gave it to Philip of Anjou, Louis' grandson - violated the treaty previously agreed on to divide the Spanish possessions between the king of France and the Holy Roman emperor - brothers in law of Charles II - Louis broke the treaty and accepted the will and triggered the war. ended with the Peace of Utrecht - allowed Philip to be king of spain - stating the spanish and french crowns would never unite and france gave nova scotia, newfoundland, and the hudson bay territory to England - set limits on how much any power could expand.

joseph II of austria

(r1780-1790) son of Maria Theresa - Austrian Habsburg - drew on Enlightenment ideals and earned the title of "revolutionary emperor" - moved forward rapidly - abolished serfdom in 1781 and in 1789 decreed peasants could pay landlords in cash instead of labour - rejected by nobility and peasants. Succeeded by Leopold II - death turned the Habsburg empire into turmoil.

john cabot

1497 - Genoese merchant living in London - made a voyage to Brazil - instead discovered newfoundland. A year later he returned and reconnoitered the New England area.

jacques cartier

1534 and 1541 Frenchman - made several trips and explored St Lawrence region of Canada - tried to find a passage to the wealth of Asia. Explorations ended at the great rapids west of Montreal - named them La Chine - thought China was right near them

William Shakespeare

1564 - dramatist - stratford upon avon - renaissance man w deep appreciation of classical culture. Wrote comedies and historical plays as well as tragedies like Hamlet, Othello and Macbeth. Referenced the sub-Saharan Africans and Moors in Othello. The Tempest also highlights issues of race and religion.

the british east india company

1600 relied on trade concessions from the powerful Mughal emperor. When Mughal power waned, this increasingly intervened in local affairs as well as formed alliances / caused war against Indian Princes

the dutch east company

1602 established - founded with the stated intention of capturing the spice trade from the Portuguese.

the dutch war

1672-1678: second war of conquest - Louis XIV - aim was to establish French authority of Spanish Netherlands - army was under William III of Orange - French were winning when William opened the trenches around Amsterdam and flooded the area - Treaties of Nijmegen between France and Grand Alliance = no french possession of the Dutch Republic

St Bartholomew's Day Massacre

August 24, 1572 - Paris - marriage of the king's sister Margaret of Valois & Protestant Henry of Navarre. intended to make peace between the Catholics and Huguenots. took a massive turn leading instead to the Huguenots being massacred = a 15 year war

guns and gunpowder

Chinese invention - helped europeans advance militarily in overseas colonies and empires

philip iv

Faced revolts in Catalonia in 1640 - r. 1621 - 1665 - left the management and work of his job on the crown and his several kingdoms to Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares who was an able administrator usually compared to Richeliu - forced to surrender many territories to France by the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 to end French-spanish conflict

Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus

Fought in the third stage of the thirty years war - ablest administrator of his day / committed Lutheran / supported the empire's Protestants. Won two important battles but was later fatally wounded in combat. Died in 1632 during this phase of the war.

michel de Montaigne

Frenchman (1533-1592) - developed a new literary genre: essay (essayer- to test in french) to express ideas. 1580 - published essays - short reflections on extensive reading of ancient texts experience as a gov official / own moral judgement. Wrote in french in a conversational style.

The Institutes of Christian Religion

John Calvin's summary of Christian doctrine whilst in Geneva - was appointed as a systematic theology for Protestantism. It was first published 1536 and its final form was published in 1559. Explained his theology- belief in absolute sovereignty of God and total feebleness of humanity.

puritans

Members of a 16th and 17th century reform movement within the Church of England that advocated purifying it of Roman Catholic factors, especially including elaborate ceremonials, bishops, and wedding rings - James was against them - came primarily from the artisan and lower/middle classes.

parliamentary sovereignty

Part of the Glorious Revolution in England in 1688 and 1689 which represented the final destruction of the idea of divine right monarchy - ended through the English bill of rights signed by parliament in 1689. These events didn't constitute a democratic revolution but placed sovereignty in Parliament which represented upper classes

Spain under the Hapsburgs

Philip wanted to revert the Protestants in England back to Catholicism. When Elizabeth executed Mary, Queen of Scots, Philip sailed a large fleet from Lisbon to Flanders, where Spanish troops were due to the religious wars in the Netherlands. The Spanish Armada, (ironically the most fortunate fleet), met w english fleet in the channel before Flanders. English won w smaller more maneuverable ships. loss for the Spanish = improved fleets; regardless Philip was unable to reimpose Catholicism onto England.

the mayflower

Pilgrims went to Plymouth in 1620 and founded it as a colony and went on ____

viceroyalties

The spanish crown divided their New World properties into two - administrative divisions: New Spain and Peru. Later included New Granada and La Plata. Each had a ____, imperial governor, broad military, and civil authority as direct representative of spain

plantation economies

Sugar was a huge money maker in the new world - slaves were not necessarily by race - they were native islanders and africans. Sugar was hard to make and needed major work to be harvested and processed rapidly. Gave slavery a distinct shape - Europeans used the slaves to do all the work for them and got huge money off of it.

junkers

The nobility of Bradenburg and Prussia - reluctant allies of Frederick William in his consolidation of the Prussian state - dominated the estates of Bradenburg and Prussia - lost power when Frederick William persuaded them to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army.

frederick william I

The great elector of Prussia - elector = privilege of being 1/7 princes/archbishops to elect holy roman emperor - 20 when he came to power in 1640 - determined to unify Bradenburg; Prussia, and scattered territories along the Rhine - each had its own estates led by the Junkers - nobility. He convinced them to accept taxation without consent in order to fund a permanent standing army - they agreed for reconfirmation of their own privileges but he instead crushed opposition to his power from the towns - trippled state revenue during his reign & expanded the army- son was king

boyars

The highest ranking members of the Russian nobility - loyal to the Muscovite princes

France in the 30 years war

Took the lead in growing army size going from 125,000 men to 340,000 at the end of the 17th century - Louis XIV confronted his enemies' coalitions by fighting on multiple fronts with large armies. Wealthy and large in size. Louis XIV built a stronger more centralized state - had endless wars increased taxes and economic regulation, and glorious palace at Versailles - believed in divine right of kings.

Edict of Nantes

Under Henry IV - 1598 - Henry converted to Catholicism but made this ensuring liberty of conscience and freedom of public worship to the Huguenots in 150 secured towns. Paved way to absolutism and restored internal peace in France

double entry bookkeeping

Used by a majority of businesses to keep their books - helps minimize errors and up the chance of the books balancing. Entering all the transactions twice. Purchase with cash and credit.

mestizo

Used in Spanish America to describe the people of mixed European and Native American descent.

bankers and merchants

Venetian: specialized in goods like spices, silks, carpets. Rival of Genoa; important in atlantic slave trade. Genoese: helped finance the Spanish colonization of the new world.

politique

group of moderates of both Protestants and Catholics in France - believed restoration of a strong monarchy is the only thing that could change the move toward the collapse of France. Also wanted to accept the Huguenots as an official group. (Henry of Navarre)

mulatto

blanket term used for those of mixed African and European origin - translates to people of colour.

audiencias

board of 15 judges that served as the viceroy's advisory council and court of appeal. Less powerful than the viceroy.

triangle trade

a system effectively used by the mid 17th century - slaves crops and manufactured goods exchanged from American colonies to Africa to Caribbean.

virtu

admirable quality - not moral goodness but one's ability to shape the world around them according to their will - exhibited through one's work and influence on others

Nobles in Poland

admired the Reformed tradition of John Calvin because it originated in France/they didn't like Germany, emphasized power of church elders, also admired it Doctrinal contrasts between Calvinists, Lutherans, and others prevented a gathered opposition to Catholicism. Also the Counter-Reformation got more popular and the Jesuits led them to stay staunchly Roman Catholic.

mercantilism

collection of governmental policies for the supervision of economic activities by and for the state - aimed at increasing the power of the state because of the belief that a nation's international power was based on its wealth - most specifically the supply of silver and gold.

The Netherlands

controlled by Spain/ Charles V for a period of time, each province he controlled was allowed to have own laws, collect own taxes, and be self-governing. Protestants were primarily Calvinists; riot when they tried to suppress Calvinism, the Council of Blood on March 3, 1568 - 1500 men were executed and Calvinists believed Spanish rule was ungodly and should be overthrown.

the ecomienda system

established by the spanish - the crown granted the conquerors the right to take the native americans under their control and employ them as laborers or request them to pay tribute while in return the Native Americans would be provided with food and shelter.

The Spanish Inquisition

executed a handful of witches during the witch hunt time period.

caballeros and hidalgos in Spain

fighting men of the reconquista "knight." Used to be the nobility before they took over and dominated politics.

english bill of rights

formulated in response to Stuart absolutism - stated: 1) law was to be made in parliament and once it was made it could not be suspended by the Crown 2) parliament had to be called at least once every three years 3) independence of the judiciary was established 4) no standing army in peacetime 5) protestants can bear arms / Catholic minority couldnt 5) no catholic could inherit the throne 6) freedom of worship to protestant dissenters, not catholics - accepted by William and Mary - House of Parliament passed it in December 1689.

jamestown

founded by a private company of investors in 1607 - relied on their meals from the Powhatan Confederacy. Later starting producing tobacco for the European market. When they were working with the Powhatan confederacy, they had many diseases and broke out in war with the English - leading to population decline

Huguenots

group of French Calvinists - lived in major cities (Paris, Lyon, Rouen) 1/10 of population by 1559. Officially recognized in the Edict of Nantes. Attacked on Saint Bartholomew's Day (1572).

the catalan revolts in spain

in 1640 - under Philip IV of Spain - was the economic center of his realm - came from internal conflicts and fresh military defeats through the remainder of the 17th century

potosi

in present day bolivia - territory conquered by the Spanish from the Inca Empire - contained an extraordinary source of silver. Frigid place - nothing was grown or unsettled - half a century later it was populated by 160 thousand people.

the stadtholder

in the United Provinces of the Netherlands, each province's Estate would appoint an executive officer - carried out the ceremonial functions and was responsible for military defense - position was often held by the princes of Orange - because of this, tensions always lingered between supporters of the House of Orange and the staunchly republican Estates

compass

invented by the Chinese - enabled sailors to locate their direction and position while out sailing at sea

quadrant and astrolabe

invented by the ancient Greeks - later developed and perfected by the Muslim navigators. This determined the altitude of the sun and other celestial bodies. It allowed mariners to keep track of their latitude: their precise position north or south of the equator.

stern-post rudder

invented by the chinese - at the back of the ship in the center - helps with steering

oliver cromwell

led the Parliament army in the English Civil War to victory - captured the king in 1647 - member of the House of commons and devout puritan - him and his supporters enshrined a common wealth / republican government = Protectorate. legislative power = parliament / executive power = council of state. army controlled gov/army = military dictatorship. prepared a constitution "the Instrument of Government" in 1653 - invested executive power in himself - gave parliament only the power to raise taxes - when they disagreed he dismissed parliament in 1655 - continued standing army. divided England into 12 military districts led by major general - forbade sports/closed theatres/rigorously censored the press. - gave all christians except roman catholic to practice. adopted mercantilism policies - welcomed immigration of jews.

robert walpole

led the cabinet from 1721-1742 - royal minister of the cabinet - formulates common policy and conducts the business of the country - enjoyed the favour of the monarchy and the House of Commons and eventually was called the king's first / "prime" minister - held the legislative and executive power.

corregidores

local level - officials - held judicial and administrative powers.

baroque

may have come from the Portuguese word for an "odd shaped imperfect pearl" - commonly used by late 18th century art critics as their way of expressing scorn for what they considered an exaggerated uneven style - marked one of the high points in the history of Western culture - started by Rome and the revitalized Catholic Church of the late 16th century - finest examples of this style was by protestants - mostly music

horses

one of the animals Columbus brought to the New world on his 2nd voyage in 1493. enabled Spanish conquerors and native populations to move from place to place faster and farther as well as transport heavy loads.

Ursulines

order of nuns/ new religious order - formed by Angela Merici in 1535: established first women's religious order - focussed on re-Christianizing society: trained future wives and mothers - spread to France and the New World.

charles II

part of the restoration of 1660 - r1660-1685 - eldest son of Charles I - along with both houses of parliament being restored - failed to resolve: how should they feel about other religions in the country / what should be the relationship btwn parliament and the king - Parliament enacted the test act - against those outside the Church of England (no voting, public office, preach, teach, attend universities, assemble for meetings) - entered a secret agreement with cousin, Louis XIV, - to give him 200,000 euros annually and he would reduce laws against Catholics.

frederick II

prussia known as the soldiers king - ruled from 1713 to 1740 - eliminated last traces of parliamentary estates / local self gov - truly est Prussian absolutism and transformed Prussia to a military state - developed the fourth largest army in Europe by his death. Invaded Silesia leading to the war of austrian succession (which he won) - people teamed up against him in seven years' war - abolished torture and simplified laws - had a strong bureaucracy- cameralism: belief that monarchy is best form of gov

Index of Forbidden Books

published by Holy Office (est 1542 by Pope Paul III) - catalogue for forbidden reading - included writing from Christian humanists like Erasmus /protestants - little effectiveness outside the papal territories.

james I

r1603-1625 after Queen Elizabeth I of England - scottish cousin - came from the Stuart dynasty - was king of scotland for 35 years -not as eager to be a monarch - biggest problem was the absolutist belief (divine right of kings) - lectured the house of commons that he gets all the power - son was Charles the I who succeeded him - believed bishops were the among the chief supporters of the throne.

peter the great of russia

ruled from 1682- 1725 -(6'7) - determined to build the army/ continue Russian territorial expansion - led a group of 250 officials on a tour around western european capitals - secret alliance w Denmark/ Poland for sudden war of aggression against Sweden and Charles XII -Great Northern War - defeated / required nobles to serve in the army or civil administration for life. created schools for every young nobleman to spend 5 years away from home - military civilian bureaucracy - established a regular standing army of peasant soldiers - drafted for life - taxed the peasants heavily to fund the army - built the western style capital St Petersburg to compete with the cities of Europe - believed modernization = westernization.

Book of Common Prayer

satisfied Henry VIII's need of a standard religious works for the Anglican branch. Thomas Cranmer (worked under Henry -archbishop of Canterbury) invited Protestant theologians to England to help prepare it in 1549. Includes all services/ prayers of the Church of England in english.

the peace of utrecht

series of treaties - ended the war of the spanish succession as well as french expansion in Europe - marked the rise of the british empire - allowed Louis's grandson Philip to remain the king of Spain on the understanding and agreement that French and Spanish crowns would never unite. France surrendered Nova Scotia and Newfoundland - 1713

treaty of tordesillas

settled competing claims to the Atlantic discoveries. Pope Alexander VI organized it - 1494 - gave spain everything west of the Atlantic and Portugal everything to the east

Poland

very diverse by 1500 - had Germans, Italians, Tartars, and Jews. Each group spoke their native language, all educated people spoke Latin, King Sigismund I opposed the Lutheran ideas, and Germany. Although the nobles liked Calvinism, the counter reformation kept it Roman Catholic.