Memory unit

Working memory

(Very similar to short term) a memory taken from long term memory into short term- talking about them

"s"

...

Long term memory

300 trillion bits of info (basically limitless) permanent storehouse of memory system

Memory

A cognitive system that retains information. Similar to a computer's ability to retain information, your brain remembers bits of information such as your mother's name or first day of college. You would be unable to retrieve this information if you were unable to have it stored in your memory. There many components to memory including senory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, forgetting, and more.

Acoustic encoding

Acoustic Encoding is the process of remembering and comprehending something that you hear. Repetition of words or putting information into a song or rhythm uses acoustic encoding. Learning the multiplication table, for instance, can be an acoustic process. You see the numbers on the chart, and you do the work on paper, but many people can rhythmically recite "six times six is thirty-six" because of the attention that was given to the sound of the numbers when spoken. If you find yourself talking or reading aloud while doing your homework, you are using acoustic encoding.

Amnesia

Amnesia is the inability to recall past events. Amnesia can result from physical trauma (such as being in an accident and getting a blow to the head) or from psychological problems. One type of amnesia, dissociative amnesia, is the inability to recall events that results from psychological problems, specifically from too much stress. This is sometimes seen in victims of horrible events such as violent crimes, murder, war, etc. It is not a typical situation, but sometimes when an event is simply too difficult for a person to handle, they protect themselves by blocking the memory of the event. In these cases the problem is usually temporary.

Three sins of distortion

Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003 Oct;1001:226-39. The seven sins of memory: implications for self. Schacter DL1, Chiao JY, Mitchell JP. Author information Abstract We examine the relation between memory and self by considering errors of memory. We draw on the idea that memory's imperfections can be classified into seven basic categories or "sins." Three of the sins concern different types of forgetting (transience, absent-mindedness, and blocking), three concern different types of distortion (misattribution, suggestibility, and bias), and one concerns intrusive memories (persistence). We focus in particular on two of the distortion-related sins, misattribution and bias. By describing cognitive, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging studies that illuminate these memory sins, we consider how they might bear on the relation between memory and self.

Encoding

Any information which we sense and subsequently attempt to process, store, and later retrieve must be brought in through one of the senses and then transformed into some form that our bodies and minds understand. The process of breaking the information down into a form we understand is the process of encoding (and we later "decode" the information to recall it). But the process of getting into the memory system for storage and later retrieval is encoding.

Semantic encoding

As you know, encoding is the process of getting information into memory for storage. Semantic encoding is a specific type of encoding in which the meaning of something (a word, phrase, picture, event, whatever) is encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it. Research suggests that we have better memory for things we associate meaning to and store using semantic encoding.

Automatic processing

Automatic Processing is sort of like muscle memory. When you start to do something that you have done many times, and you can complete it successfully without giving it any thought, that's automatic processing. It can actually be disruptive to begin to think about the process once it has started automatically. If you have ever played the piano, or knitted a scarf, you know how your hands seem to move on their own while your mind goes somewhere else. When you look back at your music or yarn, you might lose your place and stumble over the next steps, interrupting the automatic process.

Chunking

Chunking: + add to my flashcards A very basic definition is that chunking is a way of organizing information into familiar groupings. This is done with all sorts of information, including numbers, single words, and multiple-word phrases which are collapsed into a single word, to create acronyms. The main advantage of this type of mnemonic device is that it enhances retention and memory. For example, how do you remember the names of the 5 Great Lakes? If you just remember the acronym, HOMES, you may find it easier

Storage decay

Decay theory proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time. .... to be remembered in order for it to be better processed and stored in memory.

Proactive inference

Difficulty in learning new information because of already existing information. For example, an English speaking person may have greater difficulty learning Spanish because of his or her tendency to want to apply English grammar to the new language. Some people have a harder time learning how to drive an automatic vehicle because of their preexisting knowledge of how to drive a stick shift. The driver may want to use his or her left foot for the break where they are used to having the clutch. The same person may have learned to drive an automatic more easily without his or her knowledge of a standard car.

Effortful processing

Effortful processing is just as the name implies; learning or storing (encoding) that requires attention and effort. We have the capacity to remember lots of things without putting forth any effort. However, there are lots of times when we must practice, rehearse, and try to remember things. When we engage in any technique to help remember information better, we are engaging in effortful processing.

Basic memory model

Encoding, storage, retrieval (Simple version of how memory works)

Explicit memory

Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory is a type of long-term memory in which we store memories of fact. In addition, explicit memory is divided further into semantic and episodic memories (please look those up for complete definitions). So, if you have memories of things such as when Columbus sailed to America or what day and time your baby brother was born, you have explicit memories.

Forgetting

Forgetting refers to the loss of information that was previously stored in memory, for example, if you can't recall the name of your first grade teacher or if you can't remember how to play a song on the guitar that you knew last year. Some memories are completely erased when forgotten, but in many cases a trace of the memory remains. Sometimes we just have difficult retrieving information, and we can pull it up with the proper cues. You can reduce the chance of forgetting something by periodically reviewing or rehearsing the information.

Deja vu

From French, literally meaning "already seen,' Deja vu is that eerie sense of "I've experienced this before." This may occur from the current situation producing some clues that may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. Deja Vu is that eerie sense of "I've experienced this before." This may occur from the current situation producing some clues that may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. As Yogi Berra said, "It's like deja vu all over again."

Herman Ebbinghaus

Herman Ebbinghaus, born 1850, was the psychologist commonly referred to as the Father of Memory. He was the first person to use nonsense syllables to determine how association with words can affect how well a person memorizes a list of items. Ebbinghaus discovered that repeating the learning procedure (studying the list of nonsense syllables) each day enabled him to remember more and more of the list the next morning. He called this phenomenon the learning curve.

Misinformation effect

Human memory is not as good as people like to think. There are times when you are 100% confident in your memory of something and the reality is, your memory is wrong. This is often seen in eye witness testimony situations. How is it that 10 people witness a crime and when asked, there are 10 different versions of the crime? According to the misinformation effect, when we witness an event and then get some incorrect information about that event, we incorporate that incorrect information (misinformation) into our memory of the event. The result in an altered memory of the event. You may not want to believe this one, but it's true and we are all susceptible to it.

Echoic memory

Humans remember sounds and words in slightly different ways. Memory for sound is referred to as echoic memories, which can be defined as very brief sensory memory of some auditory stimuli. Typically, echoic memories are stored for slightly longer periods of time than iconic memories (visual memories). Echoic and iconic memories are sensory memories, not types of long-term memory, and thus are very temporary and fad

Iconic memory

Humans remember sounds and words in slightly different ways. Memory for visual stimuli is referred to as iconic memory, which can be defined as very brief sensory memory of some visual stimuli, that occur in the form of mental pictures. For example, if I ask you to look at a picture and then close your eyes and try to see the picture, what you can "see" in your mind's eye is an iconic memory of the image in the picture. Typically, iconic memories are stored for slightly shorter periods of time than echoic memories (auditory memories). Please be aware that both echoic and iconic memories are sensory memories, not types of long-term memory, and thus are very temporary and fade quickly.

Rehearsal

I love pizza. Unfortunately I can never remember the phone number for pizza delivery and I'm not smart enough to write it down. So I have to call information for the number. To make sure I don't forget the number from the time the operator tells me to the time I dial it, I engage in rehearsal -- consciously repeating the information over and over so that I can keep it in temporary memory. Rehearsal can also be used to encode it for long-term memory storage, but I can't seem to get it in there and so I have to call the operator every time.

Imagery

Imagery is simply the formation of any mental pictures. This simple process has great benefit when it comes to memory. By using imagery, we can enhance the processing of information into the memory system. For example, trying to remember a phone number by repeating it in your head is a common method, but what might enhance your processing of the information might be to use imagery - maybe visualize the numbers being written on a chalk board. This allows you to create a mental picture of the numbers that may be processed more completely.

Sensory memory

Immediate recording of sensory info in memory system (smell, touch, taste)

Implicit memory

Implicit memory, also known as nondeclarative memory, involves recollection of skills, things you know how to do, preferences, etc., that you don't need to recall consciously. For example, if you know how to ride a bike and you can do so without having to think about it, you are demonstrating implicit memory.

Spacing effect

Learning info over time (30 min per day for 6 days works better than 3 hours of studying in one night)

Long term potentiation (ltp)

Long-Term Potentiation is the ability of brain cells to retain how frequently they send signals to other brain cells. Brain cells that are used for mental exercises (such as languages and math problems) have a tendency to last longer than those that aren't used. This can vary both from person to person and within a single person's activities. If you practice your foreign language but don't practice algebra, you are more likely to forget the algebra and remember the language.

Mnemonic

Mnemonics are simply memory aids. Anything you do (any technique you use) to help you remember something can be considered a mnemonic. For example, if you use the phrase "Emma has a dilemma" in order to remember how to correctly spell "dilemma" you are using a mnemonic.

Mood congruent memory

Mood-Congruent Memory indicates that, when humans store memories, they not only store the event, but they also store a memory of the mood they were in at the time. For this reason, when we feel happy we recall other happy memories. Likewise, when we feel depressed we remember other unhappy events. For this reason, it is easier to remember events when a person is in the same state of mind as when the memory was stored.

Storage

No, this does not refer to the amount of space on your hard drive or in your closet, but it is similar. Storage is a memory-related term that refers to the ability to retain information in the brain (in memory). Memory is a process of getting information into the brain (encoding), keeping information in the brain over time (storage), and then being able to get information out of the brain when needed (retreival). In modern theory of memory, we have different types of storage; short-term memory and long-term memory.

Over learning

Overlearning is the repeated practice of a skill or study of material to further strengthen memory and performance. Rehearsal enhances performance past the initial point of learning because the neural processes involved become more efficient and recall speed improves.

Parallel processing

Parallel processing is the ability of the brain to do many things (aka, processes) at once. For example, when a person sees an object, they don't see just one thing, but rather many different aspects that together help the person identify the object as a whole. For example, you may see the colors red, black, and silver. These colors alone may not mean too much, but if you also see shapes such as rectangles, circles, and curved shapes, your brain may perceive all the elements simultaneously, put them together and identify it as a car. Note that motion and depth of the object can also be perceived. These cues processed in the brain tell the person that the red car is headed straight at them so they jump out of the way. Without parallel processing, the brain would have to process each aspect of the car separately in progression. By the time the person identified the car, it would be too late.

Short term memory

Person juggling balls (7 + or - 2 Different "balls" or items at once) can only handle that much until you start dropping balls

Priming

Priming is an acuteness to stimuli because of exposure to a certain event or experience. For example, an individual who has just purchased a new car may now start to notice with more frequency other people driving her same make and model. This person has been primed to recognize more readily a car like hers because of the experience she has driving and owning one.

Recall

Recall is simply bringing a thought or idea learned previously, and thus stored in memory into conscious awareness. When you remember something you are actually "recalling" the memory. When you have to complete an essay exam, you are recalling information learned previously. This is different than recognition in which you only need to identify material you learned previously (e.g., multiple choice test).

Rosy retrospection

Recalling the high points while forgetting the mundane moments

Taped info

Registered by our ears but not remembered

Relearning

Relearning, also known as the Savings Method, is a way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten. To illustrate, let's say you had memorized Martin Luther King Jr's "I Have a Dream" speech at the beginning of your freshman year. It took you ten hours to memorize the entire speech. At the end of the school year, you had to relearn the material. But this time, you were able to recite the speech flawlessly after only five hours of studying. This would give you a savings of 50%, as it only took you half the time to relearn the material.

Retrieval

Retrieval is the process in which information in your memory can be recalled. Information concerning events, images and feelings are all stored in our memory. Just because you cannot remember something doesn't mean that it is not in your memory. It maybe a problem with being able to locate it for retrieval.

Retroactive inference

Retroactive interference is when a person has difficulty recalling old information because of newly learned information. For example, you may have difficulty skiing because of recently learning how to snowboard.

Source amnesia

Source Amnesia refers to an inability to remember from where existing knowledge was acquired. For a basic example, most of us remember learning how to read and write, but we don't remember learning to walk. This is believed to be caused by a sort of disconnect between semantic memory (verbal memory) and episodic memory (event memory).

Atkinson shiffin 3 stage processing model

Specifically encoding Give birth to memories through -fleeting (hit or miss) -short term memory -long term

Self reference effect

The Self-Reference Effect is a phenomenon of memory that causes an individual to encode information differently depending on the degree of personal involvement in the sequence of events being encoded. Research has shown that the greater the person's involvement, the greater the level and accuracy of recall. For instance, if an individual is involved in a car accident, the memory will be much more intense than if the accident had only been witnessed.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum is a structure often referred to as the "little brain" that is located in the rear of the brainstem. The cerebellum helps control voluntary movements such as eye movement and tracking of moving objects, as well as coordination and balance in behaviors that are very fast (for example, running or sprinting).

Three signs of forgetting

The first three are "sins of omission" that involve forgetting, and the second four are "sins of commission" that involve distorted or unwanted recollections. Transience--the decreasing accessibility of memory over time. While a degree of this is normal with aging, decay of or damage to the hippocampus and temporal lobe can cause extreme forms of it. Schacter cited as a somewhat facetious example former President Bill Clinton's "convenient lapses of memory" during the Monica Lewinsky investigation. Clinton claimed in the hearings that he sometimes couldn't remember what had happened the previous week. Absent-mindedness--lapses of attention and forgetting to do things. This sin operates both when a memory is formed (the encoding stage) and when a memory is accessed (the retrieval stage). Examples, said Schacter, are forgetting where you put your keys or glasses. He noted a particularly famous instance in which cellist Yo-Yo Ma forgot to retrieve his $2.5 million cello from the trunk of a New York City cab. Blocking--temporary inaccessibility of stored information, such as tip-of-the-tongue syndrome. Schacter recounted the embarrassment of John Prescott, British deputy prime minister, when a reporter asked him how the government was paying for the expensive Millennium Dome. Prescott struggled to find the word "lottery," trying "raffles" instead.

Hippocampus

The hippocampus is a part of your brain, specifically a part of the limbic system that is vital for the formation of memories. Without the hippocampus, you would not be able to remember anything that you are reading hear or anywhere else.

Flashbulb memory

The sudden onset of a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. When you are trying to remember something and then it "all of a sudden comes to you", you have experienced a flash bulb memory. It is like turning on a light.

Three stage model of memory

They also agree that the three stages involved in the memory process are encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Serial position effect

This term is a memory-related term and refers to the tendency to recall information that is presented first and last (like in a list) better than information presented in the middle. Sometimes I experience this when I go to the store and don't write a list. My wife tells me the things we need and I try to remember them by rehearsing them (I say the list over and over). This keeps the information in short-term memory longer. But in the time it takes me to get to the store and then with all the distractions of getting items, looking at labels, etc., I tend to remember the items that were first on the list (probably because I rehearsed them so much) and the last items (probably because those were the ones I heard most recently) but always forget the ones in the middle. I guess I should write them down, huh?

Next in line effect

We focus on our own performance and often fail to process the last persons words (reading in front of class, presentation)

Repression

When explaining repression, Freud compared the process to "condemnation" and stated the following: "Let us take a model, an impulse, a mental process seeking to convert itself into action: we know that it can suffer rejection, by virtue of what we call 'repudiation' or 'condemnation'; whereupon the energy at its disposal is withdrawn, it becomes powerless, but it can continue to exist as a memory. The whole process of decision on the point takes place with the full cognizance of the ego. It is very different when we imagine the same impulse subject to repression: it would then retain its energy and no memory of it would be left behind; the process of repression, too, would be accomplished without the cognizance of the ego."

Zeigarnik effect

When you are interrupted but still remember what you were last doing (no closure of a subject)

Hierarchies

a system of grouping things according to a hierarchy, or levels and orders. A hierarchy can be seen in positions of authority in which people are ranked in an unwavering order of authority, with a "boss" at the top and "entry level" employees at the bottom. The military uses hierarchical classification to organize its members: generals are at the very top, followed by colonels, captains, and then sergeants.

Visual encoding

refers to the process by which we remember visual images. For example, if you are presented a list of words, each shown for one second, you would be able to remember if there was a word that was written in all capital letters, or if there was a word written in italics. Information that was encoded visually is very fleeting, and tends to be forgotten very easily. We are usually better able to remember information that we hear, or those that are relevant to us.