MGMT 310 Exam 2 Review

Merely ethical behavior

adheres to some minimally accepted standard of morality (obeying rules and laws) - comply w contract

Motivation --> 2. intensity of effort

after direction has been decided, must determine how hard an employee works for it (ex: do you work as hard as you can, or only at half speed?)

What decision making problem can prevent employees from translating learning into accurate decisions?

all types of employees can make bad decisions at work

emotion regulation

* ability to quickly recover from emotional experiences and control ones feelings * similar to emotional labor (not showing the true emotions if not appropriate in situation)

Thinking vs Feeling

T: logic/critical analysis F: decisions based on others needs/feelings

Projection bias

faulty perception by decision makers that others think, feel, and act the same as they do... this limits our ability to develop appropriate criteria for decision/evaluating decisions carefully

G factor

five facets come together to form a composite of cognitive ability known as ones general cognitive ability (aka g factor)

What is whistle blowing?

former/current employee exposes illegal or immoral acts by organization

What is the ethical component of social responsibility?

organizations have obligation to do what is right, just, fair and to avoid harm --> speaks to benevolence and integrity components

With performance prove/avoid orientation employees are...

more likely to work on tasks he/she is already good at (less focused on learning)

What is the citizenship component of corporate social responsibility?

organizations should contribute resources to improve quality of life in communities they work in (like donations)

What is learning, and how does it affect decision making?

* A relatively permanent change in an employees knowledge/skill that results from experience --> has a significant impact on decision making (generating/choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem) * The more knowledge/skills employee possess, more likely they are to make accurate/sound decisions

What is ability? How does it differ from personality?

* Ability is the relatively stable capabilities people have to perform a particular range of different but related activities * different from skills because skills are more trainable/improvable * It is similar to personality because about half of variation in ability is due to genetics (depend on both nature and nurture) * it is different from personality because multiple abilities combine to reflect what people CAN do, where as personality defines what people MIGHT do)

What do we mean by inputs/outputs of equity theory?

* All fall within mental ledger, outcomes are what individual uses to compare with others and inputs are the contribution or investments that lead to outcomes * Ex: pay (output) based on effort (input), seniority benefits (output) based on performance (input), fringe benefits (output) based on skills and abilities (input), status symbol (output) based on education (input) * Equity theory argues that you compare ratio of outcomes/inputs to the ratio of some comparison other (some person who seems to provide an intuitive frame of reference for judging equity)

What is psychological empowerment?

* An energy rooted in the belief that tasks are contributed to some larger purpose * Represents form of intrinsic motivation - aka merely performing tasks serves as its own reward to supply intrinsic outcomes * similar set of concepts can make work tasks intrinsically motivating

When your ratio of outcomes/inputs is less than your comparison other...

* An imbalance in ratios triggers "equity distress" - an internal tension the can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios * When someone is under rewarded, equity distress likely takes from negative emotions such as anger/envy * To fix this distress... restore balance in two ways: 1) constructive practice by talking to boss and explaining why you deserve better outcomes --> result in growth and restore balance 2) counterproductive behavior like theft --> aka destructive (usually use this bc angry) * Could also restore balance by shrinking inputs, which lowers intensity/persistency of effort

How does cognitive ability effect job performance?

* Cognitive ability has a strong positive effect on task performance, the correlation is higher for more complex jobs and lower for less or below average complex jobs. * Cognitive ability has close to zero effect on citizenship behavior and counterproductive work behavior

What is ethical behavior?

* Culture of an org can endorse doing unethical things "bad barrels" + Moral identity: degree to which someone considers themselves to be moral person, allows an individual to resist situational factors (good apple)

How does goal commitment (moderator of goal setting theory) effect motivation?

* Degree to which a person accepts a goal and is committed to reach it * When goal commitment is high, assigning specific and difficult goals will have a significant benefits for task performance * When GC is low, effects will be much weaker - raises question of how to foster commitment when assigning goals to employees

Masculinity vs Feminity

* Degree to which culture values stereotypically male traits (masculinity) or stereotypically female traits (femininity)

How does task complexity (moderator of goal setting theory) effect motivation?

* Degree to which info and actions needed to complete a task are complicates * aka how complicated info and actions involved in tasks are + task changes (simple task are twice as strong as complex tasks)

How does feedback (moderator of goal setting theory) effect motivation?

* Degree to which the job itself provides info about how well job holder is doing in goal setting theory, refers to progress updates on work goals (employees progress toward goal attainment)

Motivation vs. Engagement

* Engagement is a term used in contemporary workplace to summarize motivation levels. * Ultimately a synonym for high levels of intensity/persistence of work effort * Engagement typically measured using annual employee surveys (assess factors believed to foster intense/persistent work effort)

How does motivation organizational commitment?

* Equity has a moderate positive effect on organizational commitment because people with high equity tend to feel high levels of affective commitment + normative commitment. Effect on continuance commitment is weaker. Less is known about the other theories of motivation impact on organizational commitment * High equity = more citizenship behavior + low counterproductive behavior + more emotionally attached + feel stronger sense of return

what is cognitive distortion

* a reevaluation of inputs an employer brings to job, often occurring in response to equity distress * allows you to restore balance mentally, not alter behavior

What types of knowledge can employees gain as they learn/build expertise? What makes these types of knowledge distinct from each other?

* Expertise refers to knowledge/skills that distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people * Differences between experts/novices is almost always a function of LEARNING as opposed to more popular view that INTELLIGENCE/innate differences is a driver * Knowledges can be either 1) Explicit or 2) Tacit

How does expertise factor into decision making?

* Experts often respond to an identified problem by realizing they have dealt with it before --> realization triggers programmed decision that is implemented and evaluated according to ability to deliver expected outcome * experts with high explicit/tacit knowledge usually use programmed decision making bc many decisions they face are of this programmed variety * decisions aren't easy, but expereince/knowledge allows them to see problems more easily/recognize + implement solutions more quickly

Explicit vs Tacit

* Explicit: transferred through written verbal, readily available to most, learned through books, always conscious/accessible info, general info * Tacit: very difficult, if not impossible to articulate to others, highly personal in nature, based on experience, sometimes holders don't even recognize that they possess it, job/situation specific

What do we need to know about intrinsic/extrinsic sources of motivation in organizations? How do they relate to different work related outcomes?

* Extrinsic Motivation: Desire to put forth work effort due to some contingency that depends on task performances, aka outcomes like bonuses, promotions, and praise that result from others (more materials) * Intrinsic Motivation: Desire to put forth work effort due to the sense that task performance serves as its own reward- aka outcomes such as enjoyment, interestingness, and personal of performing the task fosters this (more feelings) * When taken together, extrinsic & intrinsic motivation rep an employees "total motivation" level * Extrinsic outcomes: pay, bonuses, promotions, benefits/perks, spot awards, praise, job security, support, free time, (lack of) disciplinary actions, (lack of) demotions, (lack of) terminations * Intrinsic outcomes: enjoyment, interestingness, accomplishments, knowledge gain, skill development, personal expression, (lack of) boredom, (lack of) anxiety, (lack of) frustration

Why are specific/distinct goals better than "do your best" goals?

* Few people know what their best is (managers don't know employees bests either) * Give people a number to shoot for "a measuring stick" * ex: "have assignment on my desk by 10:30 am on Tuesday with two or less mistakes"

What steps can organizations take to increase employee motivation at unit focused level?

* Gainsharing --> bonus received for meeting unit goals for criteria controllable by employees. * no change made to base salary * Potential bonus = "at risk" pay that may be re-earned each year * Base salary may be decreased if potential bonuses are increased

How can trust affect different types of exchange relationships that employees have with their supervisor?

* If employee trusts authority, they have a social exchange --> aka mutual investment with employees willing to engage in "the extra mile" behaviors because they trust their efforts will be rewarded * If employee does not trust authority, they have an economic exchange --> work relationships that resemble a contractual agreement by which employees fulfill job duties in exchange for financial compensation ONLY

Vocational Interests

* Interests = expressions of personality that influence behavior through preferences for certain environments/activities * explain likes and dislikes that draw people near or away from careers

What are self set goals and what shapes them?

* Internalized goals that people use to monitor their own progress (if no assigned goal, employees may not create self goals) * When self set goals become more difficult, the intensity and persistence of motivation increases * Specific/difficult goals shape or dictate self set goals

How does the enforcement of code of conduct affect unethical behavior?

* It is one of the strongest predictors of unethical behavior * Only works on individuals w high conscientiousness * Low conscientiousness participants engaged in more unethical behavior when codes were strongly enforced (opposite result of intent)

What are "task strategies" and what triggers them?

* Learn plans/problem solving approaches used to achieve successful performance * specific/difficult goals trigger task strategies so you can plan how to achieve goal

What makes an outcome have high valence?

* More motivated with more attractive outcomes- outcomes deemed more attractive when they help satisfy a number of needs (ex: praise (outcome) can satisfy relatedness needs & self esteem needs

How does motivation relate to job performance?

* Motivation has a strong positive effect on job performance * People with high levels of motivation tend to have high levels of task performance * People with high self efficacy/compitence have strongest impact on JP, then goal difficulty (when goals are difficult outperform easy goals), then valence/instrumentality/expectancy combo (motivate task performance the strongest), and equity has weakest effect on task performance (bc more mental)

What shapes personality? Nature, nurture, or both?

* Nature --> your personality, behaviors etc is due to your genetics * Nurture --> your personality, behaviors etc is due to your environment * both affect personality * study shows that 35-49% of your personality is due to genetics (nature)

What role do needs play in expectancy theory? What kinds of needs do people have, and which are most important?

* Needs: can be defined as cognitive groupings that are viewed as having critical psychological/physiological consequences * Needs impact attractiveness of outcomes which impact high and low valence * Needs are not universal * Common needs (in hierarchical order) --> 1) Existence needs (physiological/safety) 2) Relatedness needs (love/belongingness) 3) Control (autonomy/responsibility) 4) Esteem (self regard/growth) 5) Meaning (self actualization)

Goal Orientation (Method 3 of learning)

* People learn differently as a function of goals/activities they prioritize * divided into three goal orientations: 1) learning orientation 2) performance prove orientation 3) performance avoid orientation

self awareness

* ability of individual to understand emotions he/she is experiencing, willingness to acknowledge those feelings, and cabibility to express them accurately

Informational justice

* Perceived fairness of communication provided to employees from authorities * fostered when authorities adhere to two rules: 1) justification rule: authorities explain decision making procedures and outcomes in a comprehensive/reasonable manner (often hard when need to share bad news) 2) truthfulness: explanation of decision making procedures must be honest * low levels of this are bad for company in the long run

Distributive Justice

* Perceived fairness of decision making outcomes * Employees gauge this by asking whether decision outcomes (pay, rewards, evaluations, promotions, work assignment) are allocated using proper norms * proper norms = equity (more outcomes allocated to those who contribute more inputs) * equity norms = all team members receive same amount of relative reward (used in student project groups) when don't use proper/equity norm... use... * equality norm = all team members receive same amount of relative reward (used in student project groups) * need norm = welfare of employee is critical concern (ex: protect new employees from committee assignments so they can get career off to productive start)

What is personality? What is it comprised of? What are traits/cultural values?

* Personality: structures/propensities inside a person that explain his or her characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior- captures what people are like * comprised of traits/cultural values * Traits: recurring trends in peoples responses to their environment (ex: adjectives like responsible, easy going, polite) * Cultural values: shared beliefs about desirable end states/modes of conduct in a given culture that influence expression of traits "captures what cultures are like"

What steps can organizations take to increase employee motivation at a organization focused?

* Profit sharing --> bonus received when publicly reported earnings of company exceed some minimum level, with magnitude of bonus contingent/magnitude of profits * no change made to base salary * bonus reps "at risk" pay that must be reared each year * base salary may be to decrease in cases when potential bonuses are increased

How does socioeconomic status play a role as a downside for using cognitive ability for selection?

* Socioeconomic status plays role because coming from a more disadvantaged background means some may not have access to resources that develop cognitive ability (SES is typically inherited aka have no control)

What are SMART goals?

* Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Time Sensitive goals * Used for each employee to link rewards directly to goal achievement * Acronym omits "difficult" characteristic, even tough it is still relevant to SMART goals. * When employees and managers work together to set these, come to find the "how" of achievement, not just the "what"

Do integrity tests work?

* Surprising that integrity tests work, because we would expect people to lie (or at least exaggerate) integrity * faking scales are often included in integrity tests to combat this * predict job performance/org commitment well * clear purpose is better than veiled purpose

In relation to the four component model, what do we mean by "bad apples" and "bad barrels in ethics? How abut "good apples" and "good barrels" ?

* Term to show that unethical behavior can be triggered by characteristics of a person or situation --> "one bad apple can spoil the barrel" means that ethical behavior can be driven by both good vs bad apples and good vs bad barrels * individual factors = apples (good/bad) (high moral identity = good apple) * situational factors = barrels (good/bad) (unethical business culture = bad barrel)

What is expectance theory

* Theory describes the cognitive process employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses * Argues that employee behavior is directed towards pleasure and away from pain (aka toward certain outcomes rather than away from others) * Based on our past learning/experience: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

How do the three beliefs work together (aka expectancy, instrumentality, valence?)

* Theory suggests that multinational force to perform a task/action can be described using this formula --> Motivational Force = (E --> P) x SUM((P --> 0) x V)) aka Expectancy x SUM of instrumentalities and valences (judged w/ various outcomes) * Motivation increases as successful performance is linked to more & more attractive outcomes * The multiplication sign shows that Motivational force will equal zero (aka none) outcomes if one of the three beliefs is zero (none), so it doesn't matter how well your performance is evaluated/rewarded if you do not BELIEVE you will perform well.

What is trust, and how does it relate to justice/ethics?

* Trust is defined as the willingness to be vulnerable to an authority based on positive expectations about the authority's actions/intentions * If a company trusts the quality go a company products/services, customer is willing to accept the consequences of paying money to the company * If potential recruit trusts companies management, willing to accept consequences of becoming member of organization * willingness to "put yourself out there" * Trust depends on 1) justice: perceived fairness of authority decision making (when employees perceive high justice levels, believe decision outcomes are fair) 2) ethics: degree to which behaviors of an authority are in accordance with generally accepted moral norms (when employees perceive high levels of ethics, believe things are being done "how they should be")

How do the four types of justices interact w one another?

* When all four taken together, used to describe how fairly employees are treated by authorities * all four justice types have correlation with employee trust levels * distributive justice + procedural justice combine to influence employees reactions

What types of tests can organizations use to test cognitive ability?

* Wonderlic Cognitive Ability test: 12 min test of general cognitive ability questions used for hiring purposes (receive one point for each correct answer and are summed up for total score) * may unintentionally discriminate

When your ratio of outcomes/inputs is balanced with your comparison other...

* You feel a sense of equity and are likely to maintain your persistency/intensity of effort * No actions are needed to restore balance * Ex: offered play off tickets, just like your college

What is learning orientation (method 1 of goal orientation)

* a predisposition/attitude according to which building competence is deemed more important by an employee than demonstrating competence * failure is ok, if means more knowledge is attained in long run * aka building . demonstrating competence * self confidence, feedback seeking behavior, learning performance

Expectancy Theory --> 3) valence

* anticipated value of outcomes associated with performance * valences can be positive (ex: prefer having outcome X as opposed to not) * valences can be negative (ex: I would prefer not having outcome X as opposed to having it) * or valences can be zero... (ex: im bored... are we still talking about outcome x?) * "positive valenced" include: salary increases, bonuses, informal rewards * "negative valenced" include: disciplinary actions, demotions, terminations * employees are more motivated when successful performance helps them attain attractive outcomes, such as bonuses, while helping them avoid unattractive outcomes, such as disciplinary actions * outcomes = more attractive when they... help satisfy needs

Stereotype

* assumptions are made about someone based upon their classification into some social group * decision making becomes faulty when we make inaccurate generalizations * can lead to illegal discrimination within work place

What is self serving bias?

* attribute own failures to external factors and our successes to internal factors * leads to over claiming credit * use decision framework to arrive at attributions

Faulty attribution (3/4 categories for bad decisions) refers to...

* attributions: conclusions about why something has happened * when people view an event, they determine if internal (caused by me) or external (caused by someone/something else) * Fundamental attribution error (FAE) * self serving bias

What is moral intent?

* authorities degree of commitment to moral course of action (may know its wrong but still do it) * influenced by situational factors / economic pressure --> against moral convictions

Expectancy Theory --> 2) instrumentality

* belief that successful performance will result in outcome * subjective probability, ranging from 0 (no chance) to 1 (a mortal lock) that successful performance will result in outcomes * (aka P --> O) * "instrumental" when helps attain something else * evidence shows that employees don't perceive high levels of instrumentality in workplace (only 35% viewed performance as a key driver)

Reinforcement (Method 1 of learning)

* classic theory from BF Skinner- behaviorism "operant condition" * people will exhibit behaviors if they're rewarded for doing so * repeat behaviors with good outcomes/consequences we like * behaviors desired by management need to be rewarded (positive reinforcement) and behaviors that are not desired need to be punished or extinguished * managers can also use negative reinforcement (unwanted outcome is removed following behavior)

What is the difference between veiled/clear purpose integrity tests?

* clear purpose: ask people questions designed to directly measure attitudes relating to dishonest behaviors, often ask questions directly related to applicants own involvement in illegal/wrong behavior (ex: did you ever think about taking one from where your worked, but didn't go through with it?) * veiled purpose: do not reference dishonesty explicit but instead assess more general personality traits that are associated with dishonesty (ex: do you agree with this statement: I like to plan things carefully/ahead of time)

What role does self efficacy play in expectancy theory? What influences self efficacy?

* critical factor that shapes expectancy that is the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to perform behaviors required on some task * aka kind of self confidence/task specific version of self esteem- employees w high self efficacy for a particular task will perceive a high level of expectancy and therefor will choose to exert high levels of effort * influenced by: 1) past accomplishments --> level of success/failure with similar job task in past work 2) vicarious experiences --> observe/discuss with others who have performed task 3) verbal persuasion --> pep talks that lead to employees to believe they can "get job done" 4) emotional cues --> positive/negative feelings that can drive/hinder task accomplishment

availability bias

* decision making bias where people base judgements on info that is easy to recall * ex: are there more words that begin with letter R, or more words that have R as third letter? or is flying more dangerous than driving a car?

Escalation of commitment (4/4 categories for bad decision) refers to...

* decision to continue to follow a failing course of action * "throwing good money after bad" * people feel obligation to stick with the decisions they made, even if they are bad/failing * try to avoid looking incompetent * avoid admitting they made a mistake * unjustified optimism --> "it has to turn around soon" * organization/social rewards for consistency * slow/irregular decline in rewards * tends to occur when people have invested lots of time, money, resources, etc.

Non programmed decision

* decisions made by employees when a problem is new, complex, or not recognized * organizations are complex, dynamic, and changing environments * in uncertain situations, employees have to use rational decision making- step by step approach to making decisions that is designed to maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives to guide appropriate outcomes * view as step by step way to come up with an appropriate solution

Short term vs Long term

* degree to which a culture stresses values that are past or present orientated (short term) or future oriented (long term)

Uncertainty Avoidance

* degree to which a culture tolerates ambiguous/uncertain situations (low UA) or feels threatened by them (high UA)

Power Distance

* degree to which culture prefers equal power distance (low level) or unequal power distance (high) * Low Power Distance: culture prefers power to be distributive uniformity where possible, more equalitarian ex: US, Germany, Netherlands * High Power Distance: culture accepts power is usually distributed unequally and respects higher power ex: Russia, China, Indonesia

Change comparison other (internal vs. external)

* external comparison: refer to someone in different company * internal comparison: refer to someone in same company * if given comparison results creates high levels of anxiety/guilt or anger/envy, frame of reference can be shifted

Are the big 5 stable over time?

* extraversion and openness to experience are relatively stable over an individuals life span (because they are related to genetics) * research shows that conscientiousness and agreeableness grows higher over life span * research shows that neuroticism decreases over life span

Expectancy Theory --> 1) expectancy

* high level of effort will result in successful performance of task * subjective probability, ranging from 0 (no chance) to 1 (a mortal lock) that specific amount of effort will result in specific level of performance * aka E --> P * ex 1 : not good at writing romantic poetry = not motivated to write about it because you know that your effort (despite how hard you try- 0), will not "move" your significant other * ex 2 : if you're confident that trying hard will make you complete poem successfully- 1, you are more motivated

When your ratio of outcomes/inputs is greater than comparison others....

* imbalance triggers "equity distress" and results in feelings of guilt anxiety * can restore balance by... 1) shrinking outcomes (take less money, give something back to comparison other) - very unlikely 2) increase inputs - increase intensity/persistence of effort or decide to engage in "extra mile" citizenship behavior * analyze your outcomes in mental ledger or realign * can use cognitive distortion * change comparison other to restore balance (from external to internal)

What is fundamental attribution error (leads to faulty attribution)

* judge others behaviors due to internal factors * less harsh when judging ourselves * bad outcome: more likely to judge others behaviors as being internal but we view our own behaviors as stemming from outside sources * good outcome: more likely to judge others behaviors as being external, but we view our own behaviors as being internal * ex: your colleague got a bonus? he/she was lucky or a teachers pet. you got a bonus? you worked hard/earned it * ex: your colleague was late? he/she is lazy/unmotivated. youre late? it was traffic/alarm didn't go off

How does cognitive ability effect organizational commitment?

* no effect on all three types of commitment... aka smarter employees are no more/no less likely to stay with an organization because of their intelligence level

quantitative cognitive ability

* number facility: ability to do simple math * mathematical reasoning: choose/apply formulas to problems or situations * ex: engineer, accountant

verbal cognitive ability (1/5 cognitive ability types)

* oral comprehension/expression * written comprehension/expression * important with jobs where understanding and communicating ideas through oral/written is important * ex: business execs, police/firemen, clinical psychologists

What is a potential downside of using cognitive ability for selection/promotion purposes?

* people can perform poorly on cognitive ability tests due to factors outside of actual general mental ability * ex: test anxiety or socioeconomic status

Procedural justice

* perceived fairness of decision making processes * considers process that led to outcomes * fostered when authorities adhere to rules of fair process * rules analyzed: 1) voice: give employees chance to express opinions/views during course of decision making 2) correct-ability: provides employees with chance to request an appeal when a procedure is seemingly worked ineffectively * voice and correct ability give employees a sense of ownership * other rules (for neutrality) to avoid bias: 1) consistency --> are procedures consistent across all people and time? 2) bias suppression --> procedures neutral/unbiased 3) representativeness --> procedures consistent w needs of all groups? 4) accuracy rules --> procedures based on accurate info?

Interpersonal justice

* perceived fairness of interpersonal treatment received by employees from authorities * fostered when authorities adhere to two rules: 1) respect rule: authorities treat employees w respect 2) property rule: authorities refrain from making improper/offensive remarks * "interpersonal injustice" (aka opp.) occurs when employers are rude/disrespectful to employees, or when they refer to them w inappropriate labels --> leads to abusive supervision: sustained display of hostile/nonverbal behaviors (besides physical contact) * employees who are abused by supervisors report... more anxiety, burnout, strain

Are personality tests useful for hiring? WB integrity tests? concerns?

* personality tests can be useful when making hiring decisions, but should be paired with other types of tests * high # of integrity tests used for hiring because measure high consciousness, low neuroticism, and high agreeableness * applicant faking isn't much of a concern

Disposition based trust

* personality traits include a general propensity to trust others aka trust rooted in one's own personality, as opposed to careful assessment of trustees trustworthiness * less to do w trustee, more to do w truster * trusters can be high/low in trust propensity: general expectations that words, promises, statement of individuals and groups can be relied upon- most obvious in interactions with strangers * guides us when we don't have data on trustee * based on nature vs nurture, early childhood experiences, continue to be shaped over life, and nationality

Competence (factor of psych empowerment)

* persons belief in their ability to perform work tasks successfully * identical to self efficacy, strong sense of this leads people to believe they can execute particular behaviors needed to achieve success @ work * brings pride/mastery that is intrinsically motivating * Managers can instill by providing employees for training/knowledge gain + express positive feedback + challenging employees skill levels * Employees can build it by self directed learning, seeking feedback from employers and colleagues, and managing work loads

What is performance avoid orientation (method 3 of goal orientation)

* predisposition/attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating their competence so others do not think badly/poor;y of them * associated with low levels of learning + high anxiety

What is performance prove orientation (method 2 of goal orientation)

* predisposition/attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating their competence so that others think favorably of them * associated with mix bag outcome

reasoning cognitive ability

* problem sensitivity: sense problem now, or that is likely to occur (ex: anesthesiologists) * deductive reasoning: general rules to solve problems (ex: trial judges) * opposite of this is inductive reasoning: consider specific info to reach conclusions (ex: detectives) * originality: develop novel ways to solve problems (ex: entrepreneurs)

RIASEC Model defines that interests can be summarized into 6 personality types...

1) Realistic 2) Investigative 3) Artistic 4) Social 5) Enterprising 6) Conventional

What are the methods by which employees learn in organizations?

1) Reinforcement 2) Observation 3) Goal Orientation

Self determination (factor of psych empowerment)

* sense of choice in initiation/continuation of work tasks * Employees with high self determination can choose what task to work on/how/how long to work on. * Strong driver of intrinsic motivation bc allows employees to pursue activities that they find interesting * Employees instill by negotiating with boss * Managers can instill by delegating and letting employees pick tasks they like or are good at

Impact

* sense that persons actions "make a difference" - progress is being made toward fulfilling some important purpose * phrases like "moving forward" , "being on track" , "getting there" convey impact * opposite of this - "learned helplessness" aka sense that it doesn't matter what a person does, nothing will make a difference - phrases like "stuck in a rut" "at a stand still" and "going nowhere" * managers can instill by celebrating milestones along journey * Employees can attain deeper sense of impact by building collaborative relationships and initiating own celebrations of "small wins" along the way

Motivation

* set of energetic forces that determine the direction, intensity and persistence of an employees work effort * motivation = important because effective job performance requires high ability + motivation

Culture

* shared values, beliefs, motives, identities, and interpretations that result from common experiences of members of a society/transmitted across generations * patterns resulting from societal traditions/collective programming of mind * shared values, societal traditions, collective programming of mind = culture influence of development of our personalities while shaping the way our traits are expressed

heuristics

* simple, efficient rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily * lead to correct decisions more often than not but can lead to inaccurate decisions if overused

Observation (Method 2 of learning)

* social learning theory: argues that people in organizations learn by observing others * primary way of gaining info on the job (what one is supposed to do) * ex: behavioral role modeling- when employees observe the action of others, learn from what they observe, repeat observed behaviors)

Programmed decision

* somewhat automatic responses * peoples knowledge/experience allow them to quickly identify the solution/course of action needed * intuition or "gut feeling"

spatial cognitive ability

* spatial orientation: understanding where one is relative to other objects within environment (pilots, boat captain) * visualization: ability to imagine how separate things will look when put together (ex: designers, sketch artists)

perceptual cognitive ability

* speed/flexibility of closure- ability to pick out patterns of info quickly * perceptual speed- ability to examine and compare numbers, letters, objects quickly * ex: CIA, code breakers, proof readers

What is locus of control?

* strongly correlated with neuroticism * reflects distinction between believing events are driven by luck, chance or fate, vs peoples own behaviors * Internal LOC: believe your own behavior dictates events (less neurotic people) ex: success depends on hard work * External LOC: believe events are driven by luck, chance, or fate (neurotic people) ex: unhappy things are due to bas luck, getting job depends on being in right place at the right time

What is equity theory (for motivation)?

* theory suggests that employees create a mental ledger of outcomes they receive for their jobs inputs, relative to the comparison of other * aka motivation does not depend on own beliefs/circumstances, but also on what happens to other people * outcomes of a personal mental ledger are completely up to you & depends on what you find valuable (some common outcomes include: pay, seniority benefits, fringe benefits, status symbols, satisfying supervision workplace perks, intrinsic rewards)

Affect based trust

* trust depends on feelings toward the authority that go beyond rational assessment * rooted in reason, more emotional than rational * trust bc we have feelings for person in question- we really like them/have fondness for them, prompt us to be vulnerable * can be chemical

Cognition based trust

* trust that is rooted in a rational assessment of authority trustworthiness * trustworthiness = characteristics/attributes of a person that inspire trust, including competence, character, and benevolence * driven by authority track record (if trustworthy, we can trust) * gauge by ability (skills in specific area), benevolence (belief that employee wants to do good by employee), and integrity (authority adheres to set of values/principles truster finds acceptable)

Key take aways from learning/decision making

* types of learning (reinforcement, observation, goal orientation) leads to explicit/tacit knowledge --> expertise --> programmed/non programmed decision making --> decision making problems * diff bias: influence ability to make accurate decisions * learning = decision making * higher expertise = better at decision making

Meaningfulness (factor of psych empowerment)

* value of work goal/purpose, relative to a persons own ideals and passions. * if a task is relative to a meaningful purpose, easier to concentrate/get excited ab it * working on tasks that aren't meaningful brings emptiness/detachment- aka force yourself to do the ask * Managers can instill meaningfulness through "visions" + employees can instill by identifying own passions

What is goal setting theory?

* view goals as primary drivers of intensity and persistence efforts * goals = objective aim of an action + typically refer to attaining a specific standard go proficiency, often within a standard (specific) time limit * theory assigns employees specific and distinct goals --> will result in higher levels of performance than assigning no goals, easy goals, or "do your best" goals

What is moral judgement?

* when an authority can accurately identify the "right" course of action * important factor: cognitive moral development (3 stages) as people age/mature, move through states of moral development, each more mature/sophisticated than the prior one (if more mature moral development... demonstrate a BETTER moral judgement)

What is moral awareness?

* when an authority recognizes that a moral issue exists in a situation or that an ethical code/principle is relevant to circumstance * based on moral attentiveness (degree in which people perceive/consider issues of morality during experiences) and intensity (degree in which n issue has ethical urgency based on potential harm/social pressure)

What are the four steps to behavioral role modeling that are utilized in observation learning method?

1) Attentional processes 2) Retention processes 3) Production processes 4) Reinforcement

What are the different schedules of reinforcement?

1) Continuous 2) Fixed Interval 3) Variable Interval 4) Fixed ratio 5) Variable ratio

What taxonomies can be used to define cultural values

1) Hofestede Dimensions 2) Project Globe Dimensions

Hofsteded Framework

1) Individualism vs Collectivism 2) Power Distance 3) Uncertainty avoidance 4) masculinity vs femininity 5) short term vs long term *FOCUS ON FIRST THREE* major factors for JP and OC

Four beliefs that foster psychological empowerment

1) Meaningfulness 2) Self Determination 3) Competence 4) Impact

What are the four component model of ethical behavior (in order) ?

1) Moral awareness 2) Moral judgement 3) Moral intent 4) Ethical behavior

What taxonomies can be used to describe personality, other than the big 5?

1) Myers Briggs Type Indicator 2) vocational interests 3) RIASEC model

What are three possible outcomes that occur when comparisons are made?

1) Ratio of outcomes/inputs is balanced between you and comparison other 2) Ratio of outcomes/inputs is less than your comparison other 3) Ratio of outcomes/inputs is more than your comparison other

What types of striving/goals are associated with each dimension of big 5?

1) conscientiousness --> focuses on accomplishment striving- strong desire to achieve task related goals (biggest influence on performance) 2) agreeableness --> prioritize communion striving- strong desire to obtain acceptance in personal relationships (focus on getting along more than getting ahead) ex: good customer service workers 3) extraversion --> prioritize status striving- strong desire to obtain power/influence within social structures as a means to express personality (leaders, easiest to judge when first meeting someone) 4) neuroticism --> negatively related to performance on most jobs 5) oppenness to experience --> jobs w challenging demands are good for people w high openness bc require more creativity

What are the "Big Five" ?

1) conscientiousness: dependable, organized, reliable, ambitious, hardworking, perseverance 2) agreeableness: kind, cooperative, sympathetic, helpful, courteous, warm 3) neuroticism: nervous, moody, emotional, insecure, jealous, unstable 4) openness to experience: curious, imaginative, creative, complex, refined, sophisticated 5) extraversion: talkative, sociable, passionate, assertice, bold, dominant

Examples of each type of justice:

1) distributive --> proper norm/equity example: how most businesses judge pay/rewards equality norm example: student project group need norm example: protect new employee so they can get on their feet 2) procedural --> giving employees opportunities to express opinions, make hiring process fair w unbiased questions 3) interpersonal --> civility trainings promote, if not followed employees will be unhappy/strike 4) informational --> study w midwestern mftg company that showed having more sincere explanation will cut costs/make employees happier in long run

What are the four types of justice

1) distributive justice 2) procedural justice 3) interpersonal justice 4) informational justice

What are two aspects of extraversion

1) enthusiasm (fun loving, excitable) 2) assertiveness (take charge) * also able to engage in emotional labor more easily

What steps can organizations take to increase employee motivation at individual level?

1) individual focused: * individual achievement believed to alter competition of workforce overtime * high achievers drawn to organization, lower motivated employees selected out * elements for individuals: piece rate, merit pay, lumps bonuses, recognition awards * merit pay allows for improvement in employee productivity (bc increase to base salary based on achievement --> want to improve each year) * piece rate plans (pay for each unit sold/made etc.) or merit pay plant lead to high instrumentality/equity levels * merit pay = most common (once a year can hinder effectiveness

What are the two aspects of openness to experience?

1) intellect (like complex problems) 2) openness (artistic/creative)

Four categories of reasons for why bad decisions may happen...

1) limited info 2) faulty perception 3) faulty attribution 4) escalation of commitment

What are the different types of reinforcement that can occur?

1) positive reinforcement 2) negative reinforcement 3) extinction 4) punishment

What are the stages of Kohlberg's moral development? How do they affect moral behavior/justifications people provide for moral behavior?

1) pre conventional: right vs wrong based on consequences of various actions for individual (ex: children seek to avoid punishment but disregard moral order) 2) conventional: at this stage, right vs wrong based on one's family/society (aka seek approval from others like friends/fam members) 3) principled/post conventional: at this stage, right vs wrong depends on a set of defined, established, moral principles (fewer than 20% of Americans reach this stage) guided by moral principles: prescriptive guides for making moral judgements

What two methods can employees use to make decisions?

1) programmed decision 2) non-programmed decision

What are the various types emotional ability/intelligence?

1) self awareness 2) other awareness 3) emotion use 4) emotion regulation

various types of physical ability

1) strength 2) stamina 3) flexibility/coordination 4) psychomotor 5) sensory

What are the three main categories of ethical behavior?

1) unethical 2) merely ethical 3) especially ethical

What are the various types of cognitive abilities?

1) verbal 2) quantitative 3) reasoning 4) spatial 5) perceptual

What are the two aspects of neuroticism?

1) withdrawal (expression/anxiety) 2) hostility (anger)

What is differential exposure within neuroticism?

Appraise a day to day situation as stressful ,feeling stressors are encountered more frequently

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Created by Carl Jung, based of four preferences: 1) Extraversion vs Introversion 2) Sensing vs Intuition 3) Thinking vs Feeling 4) Judging vs Perceiving

Which types of justice interact with one another in order to influence employee reactions?

Distributive justice + procedural justice * when outcomes of distributive justice are good procedural justice is less important * when outcomes of when outcomes of distributive justice are bad procedural justice is more important (negative events cause thorough exam of process + make adherence to rules more vital) * procedural > distributive when driving reactions to authorities

How does equity theory drive direction/intensity/persistence?

Doesn't just depend on personal direction, intensity, persistence- but also other peoples outcomes (motivating force is your outcomes vs. others outcomes)

Extraversion vs Introversion

E: energized by people/social I: energized by private time/reflection

How does expectancy theory drive intensity/persistence/direction?

Expectancy theory relies on high level of effort to drive motivation... so it relates to an increase of direction, persistence, and intensity of effort. In other words, the effort you put in will lead to outcome (motivating force = effort)

How do perceptions of trust in relationships evolve over time- aka which is likely to develop first, secondary, third?

First: Disposition based trust (new relationship) aka trust relies solely on our trust propesnsity Second: Cognitive based test (most relationships) bc overtime propensity gets supplemented by knowledge ab ability, benevolence, and integrity Third: Affect based (few relationships) used when emotional bond develops and our feelings for trustee increase our willingness to be vulnerable. Characterized by mutual investment of time, energy sense of deep attachment, and realization of both parties would feel sense of loss if relationship were dissolved.

What is the legal component of corporate social responsibility?

Follows society's laws since signify right vs wrong

How does conscientiousness effect job performance?

Has a moderate positive effect on job performance. High conscientiousness people have high levels of task performance, are more likely to engage in citizenship behavior, and less likely to engage in counterproductive behavior

How does conscientiousness effect organizational commitment?

Has a moderate positive effect on organizational commitment. High conscientiousness people are more likely to have affective and normative commitment. conscientiousness has zero effect on continuance commitment

Tacit Knowledge

Knowledge that is learned through EXPERIENCE - aka not easily communicated but could very well be the most important aspect of what we learn in organizations) ex: acquired sole through experience - training

How can we use the Big Five to tap into someones integrity?

Integrity must have: * High conscientousness * Low neuroticism * High agreeableness --> number of organizations are attempting to measure "honesty/integrity" for use of hiring

What three characteristics of a trustee does truster judge when assessing trustworthiness from a cognitive perspective?

Integrity, benevolence, ability

Judging vs Perceiving

J: planning/setting goals P: flexibility/spontaneity

Explicit Knowledge

Knowledge that is easily communicated and available to everyone (ex: knowledge is kind of info you are likely to think about when someone sits at a desk to learn- usually in books/websites/aka written down)

How does psychological empowerment drive direction/intensity/persistence?

Larger purposes (meaningfulness, competence, impact, self determination) drive direction/intensity/persistence of effort. (motivating force is internal forms or intrinsic motivations aka larger purpose)

Attentional processes (step 1/4 in behavioral role modeling) refers to...

Learner focuses attention on critical behaviors exhibited through the model (aka pay attention to model)

Production processes (step 3/4 in behavior role modeling) refers to...

Learner must have appropriate skill set and be able to reproduce the behavior (aka reproduce model behavior)

Retention processes (step 2/4 in behavior role modeling) refers to...

Learner must remember the behaviors exhibited by model once the model is no longer present (aka remember model behavior + how they did it)

Reinforcement (step 4/4 of behavior role modeling) refers to...

Learner must view model receiving reinforcement for behavior and then receive it themselves (notice desired behavior being reinforced either positively/punishment)

How does learning affect job performance?

Learning has a moderate positive effect on performance. Employees gain more knowledge/skill tend to have higher task performance. Not a lot is known on impact on citizenship behavior/counterproductive work behavior

How does learning affect organizational commitment?

Learning has weak positive affect on commitment. Employees with high knowledge/skill tend to have high levels of affective commitment. Less is known on impact on continuance/normative commitment

What is differential reactivity within neuroticism?

Less likely to believe one can cope with stressors experienced on a daily basis

What role does moral identity and ethical culture play in ethical behavior?

Moral identity is the degree in which someone considers themselves to be moral, if someone has high/low moral identity they can resist or conform to situational factors (good/bad apples). Ethical culture can endorse company to do either ethical/unethical things (ie if company has unethical culture, they are instigating bad behavior - good/bad barrels)

After conscientiousness (top influence on performance) what is the second most important big 5 in relation to job performance?

Neuroticism

What is a difficult goal?

One that stretches employees to perform at their maximum level while still staying within boundaries of their ability (if goals are easy, no reason to work for them)

Why does cognitive ability effect performance?

People with high cognitive ability are better at learning and decision making, and able to gain knowledge at a faster rate

What are the pros and cons of MBTI?

Pros: "not a bad type" aka no one views profile and receives a negative outcome/news, better for team building to understand individual characteristics Cons: little evidence that is useful tool in predicting Job performance, motivation, commitment. - not good for use of hiring/selection tool

Which is better: variable or fixed reinforcement schedules?

Research shows that variable schedules > fixed schedules ... aka enable higher performance

Sensing vs Intuition

S: clear concrete facts/data I: hunches/speculations based on theory/imagination

How does trust effect job performance?

Trust has a moderate positive effect on job performance. Employees willing to be vulnerable to authorities have high levels of task performance, more likely to engage in citizenship behavior, and less likely to engage in counterproductive work behaviors

How does trust effect organizational commitment?

Trust has a strong positive effect on commitment. Employees willing to be VULNERABLE to authorities have higher levels of Affective commitment and Normative commitment (Staying based on feelings of emotion or bc you ought to). Trust does not effect continuance commitment (staying based on personal situations aka family/financial reasons)

How does goal setting theory drive intensity/persistence/direction?

Views goals as primary driver of direction, intensity, persistence of effort bc you have clear expectations to achieve (motivating force = specific/set goals)

How do these comparisons effect motivation?

When comparison is balanced, typically causes motivation (intensity/persistency) to stay the same, but when employee feels under/over rewarded can either hinder or propel individuals intensity/persistency - all relative to ones mental ledger + comparison other (who they are comparing)

other awareness

ability of an individual to recognize and understand emotions that other individuals are feeling

emotion use

ability of individual to harness emotions and use them to improve chances of being successful in a given area

Unethical behavior

behavior that breaks workplace norms/provides benefits to the actor (ex: discrimination, harassment, false advertisements, fabricate test results, etc)

Emotional intelligence

capabilities related to management and use of emotions when interacting w others?

Positive reinforcement focuses on

consequence/outcome is positive and follows desired behavior (example: reward)

What demonstrates procedural justice in action?

consumer reports

Different dimensions of corporate social responsibility

corp social responsibility = perspective that acknowledges the responsibilities of a business encompasses economic, legal, ethical, citizenship expectations of society

Individualism vs Collectivism

degree in which culture has loosely knit social framework (individualism) ex: US, Netherlands, France or tight social framework (collectivism) ex: China, Indonesia, West Africa

In what three sources can trust be rooted?

disposition based, cognitive based, affect based

recency effect

emanated from availability bias- pay more attention to recent events bc they are more available in memory

Especially ethical

exceeds the minimum standard (charitable giving/whistle blowing)

Motivation --> 3. persistence of effort

how long are you going to work for it (ex: 5 minutes or 5 hours?)

Social identity

people identify themselves to groups they belong to; perceive judge others by their group membership (ex: 1) demographic- gender, race, religion, hair color 2) occupational info- scientists, engineers, accountants 3) where they work 4) what country they are from)

Selective perception

people see environment only as it affects them/as it is consistent with their expectations (effects ability to identify problems, generate/evaluate alternatives, and judge outcomes)

Hofestedes framework...

provides researchers w quantitative tool to summarize and compare/contrast cultures of different societies

Limited info (1/4 categories for bad decisions) refers to...

refers to bounded rationality: decision makers do not have ability or resources to process all info and or alternatives when making optimal decisions (simplification lets them to miss info when perceiving problems)

What is continuous reinforcement schedule?

reward after every desired behavior (ex: praise) is impractical/hard to maintain but it works well

What is fixed interval reinforcement schedule?

rewards given in fixed time period (ex: paycheck every two weeks) is most common

What is variable interval reinforcement schedule?

rewards given in variable time periods (aka random point in time) (ex: supervisor walk by) moderately high effectiveness

What are some powerful strategies to foster goal commitment?

rewards, publicity, support, participation, resources

What is fixed ratio reinforcement schedule?

reinforce after fixed # if desired behaviors have been exhibited (ex: piece rate pay) high effectiveness

Extinction focuses on

removal of positive outcome following and unwanted behavior (ex: take away a reward when perform badly)

What factors influence individuals perceptions of disposition based trust?

trust propensity is influenced by... 1) our parents 2) early childhood experiences 3) gain throughout life experiences 4) nation in which we live

Punishment focuses on

unwanted outcome follows unwanted behavior (ex: negative consequence when perform badly)

Negative reinforcement focuses on

unwanted outcome removed following desired behavior (ex: perform task to avoid getting yelled at)

What is radical candor?

used to foster trust between managers and employees by having two dimensions: 1) "care personally" - involves viewing employee as whole human being rather than just a set of skills (benevolence) 2) "challenge directly" - being truly honest w employees ab their performance when it is good and (especially) when it is bad (ability/integrity) * combo = important bc need to prove that they truly care ab employees to reserve of goodwill during times when challenging is needed

What is variable ratio reinforcement schedule?

variable # if desired behaviors have been exhibited (ex: commission based pay, like button on social media) very high effectiveness

Faulty perception (2/4 categories for bad decisions) refers to...

variety of causes including: 1) selective perception 2) projection bias 3) social identity 4) stereotype 5) heuristics 6) availability bias 7) recency effect

Motivation --> 1. direction of effort

what an employee is doing at a given moment, aka the direction in which their effort is channeled (ex: working on assignment your boss gave you yesterday, checking social network, or surfing web)