MGT 301 Final

· Individual and organizational benefits of networking MORE IN TEXTBOOK MAYBE

Individual: pay, promotion, effectiveness, job satisfaction, happiness, health, organizational performance.

· Cultural differences in decision making and creativity

o West: Novelty o Non-West: appropriateness o Two explanations: (1) individualism - collectivism, creativity as an expression of individuality vs. creativity as a means to an end; (2) ecological argument - pursuit of novelty vs. survival.

What are the 7 outcome variables relevant to OB?

1) attitudes and stress 2) task performance 3) organizational citizenship behavior 4) withdrawal behavior 5) group cohesion 6) productivity 7) survival

· 5 bases of power (including which are formal vs. personal), and which are most effective

1. Coercive a. Police have power because they can arrest you if you do not comply. b. Formal power 2. Reward a. If the President likes you, they can give you a position in power. b. Formal power 3. Legitimate a. Recognize they have power because of their position. b. Formal power 4. Referent a. Look at this person as a reference, they desire to be like this person; desirable qualities; follow and be more like them. b. Personal power 5. Expert a. Have expertise or special skills in a particular domain. b. Personal power o Bases of power are most effective § Personal sources: · Higher satisfaction with supervision · Look up to them like a role model or they have expertise. · Higher organizational commitment · Higher performance § Reward and legitimate power unrelated to these outcomes § Coercive power can backfire à some people may not be particularly happy about following along.

· Outcome variables relevant to OB (i.e., task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, withdrawal behavior, group cohesion, group functioning, productivity, survival)

Attitudes and stress · • Employee attitudes are the evaluations employees make, ranging from positive to negative, about objects, people, or events. · • Stress is an unpleasant psychological process that occurs in response to environmental pressures. · Task performance · • The combination of effectiveness and efficiency at doing your core job tasks is a reflection of your level of task performance. · Organizational citizenship behavior · • The discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements, and that contributes to the psychological and social environment of the workplace, is called organizational citizenship behavior. · Withdrawal behavior · •Withdrawal behavior is the set of actions that employees take to separate themselves from the organization. · Group cohesion · •Group cohesion is the extent to which members of a group support and validate one another at work. · Group functioning · •Group functioning refers to the quantity and quality of a group's work output. · Productivity · •An organization is productive if it achieves its goals by transforming inputs into outputs at the lowest cost. This requires both effectiveness and efficiency. · Survival · • The final outcome is organizational survival, which is simply evidence that the organization is able to exist and grow over the long term.

· Motivation definition - intensity, direction, persistence - grit

Motivation: the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. § Level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times. § Intensity: concerned with how hard a person tries. § Direction: the orientation that benefits the organization. § Persistence: a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort. o Grit § Looking for employees who show potential, not pedigree in hiring decisions. § Emphasize the processes that lead to learning, such as seeking help from others, trying new strategies, and capitalizing on setbacks. § Talent game systems that reward "stars" make it difficult to share information, collaborate, innovate, seek feedback, or admit and learn from errors. § Make advancement and development opportunities available broadly.

Vroom's Theory

Vroom's decision tree model: autocratic, consultative, consensus, situational contingencies.

· The 3 criteria for ethical decision making

o (1) Utilitarianism: a system in which decisions are made to provide the greatest good for the greatest number. § Decisions are made solely on basis of their outcomes or consequences. o (2) Focus on rights: calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges as set forth in document such as Bill of Rights. § Protects whistle-blowers. § Whistle-blowers: individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders. o (3) impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially to ensure justice or an equitable distribution of benefits and costs.

· Benefits and costs of impression management

o Impression management § Common ways we want to appear - competent, independent, superior/better, conform (to please others), self-image. § People most often use IM when -- highly desirable outcomes; many obstacles to getting these outcomes.

o 360-degree evaluation

o 360-degree evaluation § Individual task outcomes: if ends count rather than means, management should evaluate on outcomes such as quantity produced, scrap generated, and cost per unit of production for a plant manager, or on overall sales volume in the territory, dollar increase in sales, and number of new accounts established for a salesperson. § Behaviors: if it is hard to identify the contribution of each group member, management will often evaluate the employee's behavior. § Traits: having a good attitude, showing confidence, being dependable, staying busy, or possessing a wealth of experience can be desirable in the workplace; but it's important to remember they may not be highly correlated with positive task outcomes. § Who should evaluate? · Traditionally, the manager, but today that is changing. · Now peers, subordinates, and the employee can be involved.

· Affect vs. emotions vs. moods

o Affect: broad range of feelings. o Emotions: specific § More likely to be caused by a specific event and are more fleeting than moods. § Some researchers speculate that emotions may be more action oriented - they may lead us to some immediate action. o Moods: generalized § Moods may be cognitive, meaning they may cause us to think or brood for a while.

· Why and how emotions/ moods matter for OB (e.g., for leadership, creativity, safety, etc.)

o Affective events theory (AET): employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work and this influences job performance and satisfaction. o Can impact... § Safety/injury at work à people get into more workplace accidents when experiencing negative emotions. § Deviant workplace behaviors à people experiencing negative emotions are more likely to commit actions that violate norms and threaten the organization. o Can improve... § Decision-making: people in a negative mood are more discerning when it comes to deciding between truthful and untruthful information; positive emotions can make us more aware of opportunities and come with better decisions, particularly strategic decisions that require the integration of multiple perspectives. § Creativity: people in a positive mood take in more perspectives and are more creative. § Motivation: positive moods increase performance expectations, motivating employees to perform at their best. § Leadership: people in a positive mood are more receptive to a leader's message. § Customer service: emotional "contagion" (emotions catch on) and employees in a good mood put customers in a good mood.

Common biases and errors in decision-making (e.g., overconfidence, anchoring, escalation of commitment, etc.)

o Anchoring bias: a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information. o Conformation bias: the tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgements. o Availability bias: the tendency for people to base their judgements on information that is readily available to them. o Escalation of commitment: an increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information. o Randomness error: the tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events. o Risk aversion: the tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff. o Hindsight bias: the tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome. o Reducing biases and errors: § Focus on goals, look for information that disconfirms your beliefs, don't try to create meaning out of random events, increase your options.

o Cognitive dissonance:

o Any incompatibility an individual might perceive between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. o Research has (generally) concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and behavior.

· The 3 components of attitudes

o Attitudes: evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. o Cognitive component: the opinion or belief segment of an attitude; evaluation. o Affective component: the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude; feeling. o Behavioral component: an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something; action.

· Attribution theory—and how we determine whether behavior is internally or externally caused

o Attribution theory: an attempt to determine whether an individual's behavior is internally or externally caused. o That determination depends largely on three factors: (1) distinctiveness, (2) consensus, and (3) consistency. o Internally caused behaviors are those an observer believes to be under the personal behavioral control of another individual. o Externally caused behavior is what we imagine the situation forced the individual to do. o Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behavior in different situations. o If everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior shows consensus. o An observer looks for consistency in a person's actions.

· Barriers to effective communication (e.g., facework, hierarchies, nonverbals, culture)

o Barrier 1: Facework § People cooperatively try to enhance their own and the other's self-esteem during communication. § Prevalent § Read between the lines o Barrier 2: Hierarchies § Flows of communication in organizations § Upward: flows to a higher level in the group/organization; used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals, and relay current problems; bad news; opportunities. § Downward: flows from level of a group/organization to a lower level; groups leaders and managers use it to assign goals, provide job instructions, explain policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and other feedback; mission and goals; feedback. § Lateral: when communication occurs between members of the same workgroup, members at the same level in separate workgroups, or any other horizontally equivalent workers; saves time and facilitates coordination; functionally-specific; comparison, competition. o Barrier 3: Nonverbals § Most informative § Leakage hierarchies: Nonverbal is "leakier" than verbal; words, gestures, macro facial expressions, micro facial expressions, tone of voice. § Problem: nonverbals can be easily misunderstood. o Barrier 4: Culture § Language, meanings, silent language § Caused by semantics: words mean different things to different people, particularly people from different national cultures. § Caused by word connotations: words imply different things in different languages. § Caused by tone differences: in some cultures, language is formal, others informal; people speak differently at home, in social situations, and at work. § Differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts: people from individualistic cultures tend to be more comfortable with direct conflict and will make sure the source of their disagreements overt. § High vs. Low context cultures · Indirect vs. direct communication. · High context: China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam; people rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communication with others, and a person's official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable weight. · Low context: rely essentially on spoken and written words to convey meaning; body language and formal titles are secondary.

· Indecisiveness

o Indecisiveness: pre-decision, decision, post-decision. o Some people are habitually more indecisive than others. § Highly indecisive people are also more likely to be perfectionists and have obsessive compulsive personalities.

· Big Five Model—what each trait is and what work outcomes it predicts

o Big Five Model: a personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions. § Test scores of these traits do a very good job of predicting how people behave in a variety of real-life situations. § Conscientiousness: a personality dimension that describes that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized. § Emotional stability: a personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, and secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative). § Extraversion: a personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive. § Openness to experience: a personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitivity, and curiosity. § Agreeableness: a personality dimension that describes someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting. § Big five traits have the most verifiable links to important organizational outcomes, but they are not the only traits a person exhibits.

Boundary Spanning

o Boundary spanning: occurs when individuals form relationships with people outside their formally assigned groups. o Positive results are especially strong in organizations that encourage extensive internal communication; in other words, external boundary spanning is most effective when it is followed up with internal boundary spanning. o Gathering information from external knowledge sources is especially advantageous in highly innovative industries where keeping up with the competition is challenging. o One method is to assign formal liaison roles or develop committees of individuals from different areas of the organization. o Employees with experience in multiple functions are more likely to engage in boundary spanning.

· Broken windows theory and how to diminish unethical behavior

o Broken windows theory: disorderly and decayed urban environments foster criminal activity because they signal antisocial norms. o Sets norms for honesty and moral behavior: stop lying to yourself; set signals of ethical behavior; set up systems that reward honesty.

· Centralization vs. decentralization

o Centralization: refers to the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. o Formalization: the degree tow which jobs within an organization are standardized. o Advantages of a decentralized organization: § Can act more quickly to solve problems. § More people provide input into decisions. § Employees are less likely to feel alienated from those who make decisions that affect their work lives.

· Chain of command

o Chain of command: an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom. § Once a basic cornerstone in organization design. § Two complementary concepts: authority and unity of command. § Authority: the rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders and to expect the orders to be obeyed. · To facilitate coordination, each managerial position is given a place in the chain of command, and each manager is given a degree of authority in order to meet his or her responsibilities. § Unity of command: the idea that a subordinate should have only one superior to whom he or she is directly responsible. · Helps preserve the concept of an unbroken line of authority. If the unity of command is broken, an employee might have to cope with conflicting demands or priorities from several superiors. o Less relevant today because of technology and the trend of empowering people. § Operating employees make decisions once reserved for management. § Increased popularity of self-managed and cross-functional teams. o Many organizations still find that enforcing the chain of command is productive.

· Channel richness and which channel to use when

o Channel richness: the amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. § Face-to-face conversation scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the most information per communication episode - multiple information cues (words, postures, facial expressions, gestures, information), immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the personal touch of being present. § Impersonal written media such as formal reports and bulletins rate lowest in richness. o Channels differ in their ability to convey information. § Richer channels convey more information (i.e., multiple cues, immediate feedback, personal). § Rich channels give us the chance to observe. The unconscious aspects of communication help us understand the full meaning of a message. When these aspects are missing, we must look for other clues to deduce the sender's emotions and attitudes. o Choose richer channels for non-routine information. o Formal channels: communication channels established by an organization to transmit messages related to the professional activities of members. o Informal channels: communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as responses to individual choices. o Some are rich in that they can (1) handle multiple cues simultaneously, (2) facilitate rapid feedback, and (3) be very personal.

o Common biases and errors in evaluating

o Common biases and errors in evaluating § Positive leniency § Negative leniency § Halo error § Similarity error § Political motives o Ways in which managers can improve performance evaluations (e.g., training, due process, etc.) • What you can do to improve performance evaluations: - Use multiple evaluators. - Evaluate selectively. - Train evaluators. - Provide employees with due process. • Three features of due process. • Post appraisals online o Components of constructive feedback - The solution to the problem is not to ignore it but to train managers to conduct constructive feedback sessions • 1) Appraisal is fair • 2) Manager is sincere • 3) Climate is constructive

· Individual and organizational ways of managing stress at work (e.g., time-management, goal-setting, sabbaticals, etc.)

o Consequences of stress: § Physiological symptoms: research supports the link between job stress and poor health. § Psychological symptoms: job dissatisfaction is an obvious cause of stress. § Behavioral symptoms: reductions in productivity, absence, turnover, as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking and/or consumption of alcohol, rapid speech, fidgeting, and sleep disorders. o Individual approaches: § An employee can take personal responsibility for reducing stress levels. § Individual strategies include: time-management techniques, increased physical exercise, relaxation training, expanded social support networks. o Organizational approaches: § Better selection and placement, goal-setting, redesigning jobs, employee involvement, organizational communication, employee sabbaticals, wellness programs.

· Strategic contingencies and 3 important situations

o Contingent on the situation, strategic for organizations and individuals, power arises from alignment [of the individual] with the environment. o Three important situations: 1. Uncertainty a. Power comes from expertise in the most uncertain element of the environment. b. Changes over time 2. Criticality a. Power comes from having the most critical information b. Want to have people who have critical info to be in positions where they can communicate the info they have. c. Misalignments between criticality and status cause problems d. Allowing them to be heard is important 3. Scarcity a. Power comes from having scarce (low supply and substitutability) resources. b. Budget allocation: if your department is bringing in the money, you have reason to ask for more of the budget to be allocated to your department.

· Areas of ineffective communication and what happens (e.g., couching, mum effect)

o Criticisms: sandwiching, couching, mum effect; not well received. o Requests: newcomers, feedback, help.

· "Dark" personality traits (e.g., Machiavellianism, Narcissism, etc.)

o Dark Triad: a constellation of negative personality traits consisting of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. o Machiavellianism: the degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes the ends can justify means. § Tendencies may have ethical implications. § One study showed high-Mach job seekers were less positively affected by the knowledge that an organization engaged in a high level of corporate social responsibility (CSR), suggesting that high-Mach people may care less about sustainability issues. § High-mach - engage more in IM and often win in the short run but lose in the long run. o Narcissism: the tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement. § One of the largest predictors of increased CWB in individualistic cultures - but not in collectivist cultures that discourage self-promotion. § Narcissists may be more charismatic than other; also, might be found in business more often than in other fields; more likely to be chosen for leadership positions, and medium ratings of narcissism are positively correlated with leadership effectiveness. § Special attention has been paid to narcissistic CEOs who make more acquisitions, pay higher premiums for those acquisitions, respond less clearly to objective measures of performance, and respond to media praise by making even more acquisitions. o Psychopathy: the tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm. § One review found little correlation between measures of psychopathy and job performance or CWB. § People who score high on psychopathy may thus help them gain power in an organization but keep them from using it toward healthy ends for themselves or their organizations. o Studying dark side traits: § Antisocial people are indifferent and callous toward others and show a lack of remorse. § Borderline people have low self-esteem and high uncertainty/instability à if they receive negative feedback, they may start lashing out. § Schizotypal individuals are eccentric and disorganized and tend to be suspicious of others and superstitious. § Obsessive compulsive people are perfectionists and can be stubborn, yet they attend to details, carry a strong work ethic, and may be motivated by achievement. § Avoidant individuals feel inadequate and hate criticism, leading them to avoid situations that might embarrass them.

· Definition of a decision and types of decisions

o Decision: a commitment to an action that is intended to yield satisfying states of affairs for parties, called the beneficiaries of that action. o Types of decisions: § Choice decisions: the decider is faced with two or more discrete, specified alternatives and must choose a subset from that pool. § Accept/reject decisions: the decider is presented with one option only and must either take it or leave it. § Evaluation decisions: the decider must commit to a course of action based on the assessment of the worth of some entity (evaluations). § Construction decisions: the decider must use available resources to try to assemble the ideal alternative, subject to constraints (negotiations).

· Relational model of power and 2 problems

o Dependencies: § Power (A-B) = dependence (B-A) § Power (B-A) = dependence (A-B) § Not a zero sum game § Resources are: important, scarce, not available elsewhere. o Problems: 1. Inequality: workers and management, power management has over workers is much greater than the opposite; the solution is workers unionize to increase 2. Intensity: if there is too much dependency; power struggle with slight imbalance; the solution is the division of labor.

· Characteristics of effective communication

o Effective communication: exchange of all relevant thoughts and feelings. o Communication: the transfer and understanding of meaning.

· Emotional Intelligence

o Emotional intelligence: the ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information. o Perceive emotions in self and others. o Understand the meaning of emotions. o Regulate emotions.

· Emotional labor and emotion regulation strategies (e.g., surface acting, deep acting, cognitive reappraisal, etc.)

o Emotional labor: a situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work. o Felt emotions: the individual's actual emotions. o Displayed emotions: required or appropriate emotions. o Surface acting: hiding one's inner feelings and foregoing emotional expressions in response to display rules. o Deep acting: trying to modify one's true inner feelings based on display rules.

· Application of biases to OB problems (e.g., interviews, performance evaluations, etc.)

o Employment interview § Evidence indicates that interviewers make perceptual judgements that are often inaccurate. § Interviewers generally draw early impressions that become quickly entrenched. § Studies indicate that most interviewers' decisions change very little after the first four or five minutes of the interview --> first impressions matter. o Performance expectations § Evidence demonstrates that people will attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when those perceptions are faulty. § Self-fulfilling prophecy characterizes the fact that people's expectations determine their behavior à expectations become reality. o Performance evaluation § An employee's performance appraisal is very much dependent upon the perceptual process. § Many jobs evaluated in subjective terms § Subjective measures are problematic because of selective perception, contrast effects, halo effects, and so on.

Equity Theory

o Equity Theory § Equity theory: individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequalities. § When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices: · Change their inputs, change their outcomes, distort perceptions of self, distort perceptions of others, choose a different referent, leave the field. § Organizational justice: overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice. · Distributive justice: perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals; perceived fairness of outcome. · Procedural justice: perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome. · Interactional justice: perceived degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect.

o Expectancy Theory

o Expectancy Theory § Expectancy theory: a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. § Three relationships: effort-performance relationship; performance-reward relationship; rewards-personal goals relationship. § Helps explain why a lot of workers aren't motivated and do only the minimum. § Three questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is to be maximized: · If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal? · If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards? · If I'm rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?

· Intra- vs. Inter-group conflict

o Functional vs. dysfunctional intra-group conflict § Functional conflict: conflict that supports the goals for the group and improves its performance. · Improves group performance · Task conflict § Dysfunctional conflict: conflict that hinders group performance. · Relationship conflict · Toxic coworkers o 3 ways to diffuse intergroup conflict § Process: manage the contact § Context: create interdependencies § Skills: negotiate Intergroup conflict refers to disagreements that occur between two or more different groups. Intragroup conflict refers to disagreements that occur between two or more members of the same group

· Common biases and errors in perception (e.g., fundamental attribution error, halo effect, stereotyping, self-fulfilling prophecy, etc.)

o Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgements about the behavior of others. § Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort, while blaming failure on external factors such as bad luck or difficult coworkers. o Self-serving bias: the tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors. § People tend to attribute ambiguous information as relatively flattering, accept positive feedback, and reject negative feedback. o Shortcuts in Judging Others § Selective perception: the tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of one's interests, background, experience, and attitudes. § Halo effect: the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic. § Contrast effect: evaluation of a person's characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. · In a series of job interviews, for instance, a candidate is likely to receive a more favorable evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants and a less favorable evaluation if preceded by strong applicants. Thus, interviewers can make distortions in any given candidate's evaluation as a result of his place in the interview schedule. § Stereotyping: judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs. Self-fulfilling prophecy: a situation in which a person inaccurately perceives a second person, and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception.

o Goal-setting Theory

o Goal-setting Theory § Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. § Evidence suggests: specific goals increase performance; difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback. § Other factors influencing goal-performance relationship: · Goal commitment: most likely to occur when goals are - made public, and internal locus of control. · Goals affect performance more strongly if task characteristics are: simple rather than complex, well-learned rather than novel, independent rather than interdependent. · National culture: collectivistic and high-power distance cultures find moderate goals more motivating than difficult ones. § Promotion focus: strive for advancement and accomplishment and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals; useful orientation for high levels of task performance, innovation, and citizenship behavior. § Prevention focus: strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals; useful for safety performance. § SMART Goals: specific, measurable, agreed upon, realistic, time-based. § We may forgo mastering tasks and adopt avoidance techniques so we don't look bad, both of which can incline us toward unethical choices.

· Types of groups

o Group: defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. o Formal groups: those defined by the organization's structure. o Informal groups: alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined.

· Determinants of personality (i.e., heredity, etc.)

o Heredity: factors determined at conception; one's biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup. o Heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. o People's scores on dependability tend to increase over time, as when young adults start families and establish careers. o Strong individual differences in dependability remain; everyone tends to change by about the same amount, so their rank order stays roughly the same. o Personality traits: enduring characteristics describe an individual's behavior. § The more consistent the characteristic over time, and the more frequently it occurs in diverse situations, the more important the trait is in describing the individual.

o Herzberg's Two-factor Theory

o Herzberg's Two-factor Theory § Two-factor theory: a theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Also called motivation-hygiene theory. § Concluded that intrinsic factors (motivators), such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement seem to be related to job satisfaction. § Dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic factors, such as supervision, pay, company polices, and working conditions. § Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are independent. · When hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied but neither satisfied. § Criticisms: methodological concerns; some research suggests motivational and hygiene factors can both be motivational.

o How can orgs increase social identification?

o How can orgs increase social identification? 1. Stereotyping the outgroup: highlight one-dimensionality (i.e. war on terrorism) 2. Build up the ingroup: depersonalization (uniforms, hair, language, i.e. military) 3. Clarify group boundaries: restrict entry (i.e. college applications, fraternities/sororities); make boundary crossing a taboo.

o How do social identities affect us?

o How do social identities affect us? 1. Source of self-esteem. a. Our groups make us feel competent and able; feel especially good about ourselves when the group does well. 2. Skew our perceptions. a. Ingroup favoritism occurs when we see members of our group as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same; whenever there is an ingroup, there is by necessity an outgroup, which is sometimes everyone else, but is usually an identified group known by the ingroup's members (show prejudice towards the outgroup); we use group membership to make inferences about group members.

· Implications of individualism vs. collectivism for OB

o Individualism: independent self-concept; personal needs/goals are priority; many casual relationships; value achievement, competition, freedom, autonomy, individual rights, uniqueness; focus on individual attributes to explain behaviors (internal attributions). o Collectivism: interdependent self-concept; ingroup needs/goals are priority; few close relationships; value obedience, duty to group, reciprocity, ingroup harmony, fitting in; focus on social and contextual factors to explain behavior (external attributions).

· Outcomes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction

o Job performance § Happy workers are more likely to be productive workers. o OCB § People who are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to engage in OCB. o Customer satisfaction § Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. o Life satisfaction § Research shows that job satisfaction is positively correlated with life satisfaction.

· Major job attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, etc.)

o Job satisfaction: a positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. o Job involvement: degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. o Organizational commitment: identifying with a particular organization and its goals and wishing to maintain membership in the organization. o Perceived organizational support (POS): degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. § Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision making, and supervisors seen as supportive. § POS is important in countries where power distance is low.

· Individual and organizational ways of building effective communication (e.g., Model I vs II, organizational cultures) FIND IN TEXTBOOK

o Ladder of inferences o Model I vs. Model II communication § Model I: stays at theory level, problematic because new information doesn't get incorporated. § Model II: moves down the ladder of inferences, taking in new information to update one's theories. § Model II is more effective. o Organizational cultures: openness to criticism, constant inquiry (requests)

· Leadership definition

o Leadership: the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. · Leadership models and theories from 4 approaches (descriptive, person-oriented, contingency, functional) o Trait theories of leadership: theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders. o Descriptive o Person-oriented § Do leaders have special traits, temperament, skills, or abilities? · Traits: big 5 (extraversion); more closely related to leader emergence than effectiveness. · Motivation: power · Emotional skills: emotional intelligence (EI); own vs. others, thinking behind emotions, anticipating behavior, manage own reactions; leaders vs. non-leaders differ in EI. o Contingency § Depends on situation § Problems: over-attribute to leaders, complexity, assumes leaders can change style. o Functional § What is a good leader? § What does it mean to be led? § Getting critical functions accomplished.

· Theories of Motivation - pros and cons of each, how they can be integrated, implications for management maslow's hierarchy of needs

o Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs § Hierarchy of needs: Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of five needs - physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization - in which, as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. § Intuitively logical and easy to understand; some research has validated it. § Most research does NOT validate this theory, especially when applied to diverse cultures.

o McClelland's Theory of Motivation

o McClelland's Theory of Motivation § Need for Achievement (nAch): drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed; highly motivated when jobs have a high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk. § Need for Power (nPow): need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise; successful leaders. § Need for Affiliation (nAfl): desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. § Best support: less practical effect then others; argues that three needs are subconscious - may rank high on them but not know it - measuring them is not easy; more common to find situations in which managers are aware of these motivational drivers; label employees based on observations made over time.

Selecting

o Model of selection process in organizations § Initial selection: use for preliminary "rough cuts" to decide whether an applicant meets the basic qualifications for a job; applicant meets basic qualifications. · Application forms and resumes are initial selection devices; sometimes background checks. § Substantive selection: determine the most qualified applicants from among those who meet basic qualifications; applicant is among best qualified if selected. § Contingent selection: make final check before making offer to applicants; applicant receives job offer if selected.

· How culture increases creativity

o Multiculturalism enhances creativity § Cognitive processes that link creativity and multicultural experience § Broader access to ideas § Unconventional associations § Novel conceptual combinations

· Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)—trait dimensions, combinations of traits, weaknesses/ drawbacks, how managers can use it effectively

o Myers-Briggs Type Indicators (MBTI) § Most widely used personality framework among professionals. § Individuals are classified as: · Extroverted or Introverted (E/I) · Sensing or Intuitive (S/N) · Thinking or Feeling (T/F) · Perceiving or Judging (P/J) § Results: · INTJ - visionary · ESTJ - organizer · ENFJ - teacher · ENTP - conceptualizer § Weaknesses: · Main criticism is that it creates types and there is little to no room for in-between. · It is also not reliable, difficulty of interpretation, unrelated to job performance. § There are separate meanings for certain combinations of facets, results from the MBTI tend to be unrelated to job performance. § Valuable tool for increasing self-awareness and providing career guidance. § Managers do use the MBTI to increase self-awareness.

Negotiation—understand the terms, recognize examples, know how to use it

o Negotiation: a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them; process by which parties mutually decide what each will give and take in the context of their relationship. o When to claim vs. create value: • Claim value: Maximize own outcome - Short term relationship (one shot deal) - Opposing interests • Create value: Maximize joint outcome • Long term relationship (reputation) • Multiple issues • Some convergent interests o Anchoring o Congruent vs. distributive vs. integrative issues Congruent Issues Identical preferences • What's good for me is ALSO good for you • NOT a zero-sum game - win-win situations Not uncommon for congruent issues to be missed... WHY? • Assume it IS a zero-sum game (win-lose) • Distorted perceptions: assume opposing positions and interests - Assume partner is being dishonest • Negotiation tactics - We're not honest about our true preferences - We settle for good enough and don't work to maximize Distributive Issues Dividing the pie/ value-claiming • Zero-sum game (win-lose situations) • Most competitive and stressful issues • We push the hardest on these Integrative Issues Enlarge the pie/ value-creating • Win-win solution even though preferences are not identical • How? - Focus on NEEDS (interests) rather than POSITIONS - Multiple issues at play (pairs value the issues differently) - Effective log rolling: understand how each party views and values the issues and trade off issues accordingly o Log rolling: understand how each party views and values the issues and trade off issues accordingly o Needs vs. positions o BATNA = best alternative to a negotiated agreement - BATNA is your power in a negotiation! o 4 common mistakes and how to fix them Management Implications: Common mistakes and how to fix them 1) Misconceptions of the other side - Correct skewed vision by asking about needs - Build a "golden bridge" à find a way to actually connect your needs to expand the pie 2) Letting price bulldoze other interests - Cultivate a process that feels fair and build long-term relationships 3) Searching too hard for common ground - Use "log rolling" (trading off on integrative issues) 4) Neglecting BATNAs - Improve your BATNA before a negotiation

· Characteristics of networks (i.e., size, density, homogenous, strong vs. weak ties) and how to use networks effectively

o Network size: 2,500-3,000 people; in 2 links, you get to 9 million people; in 3 links, you get to 27 billion people. o Constraints: density (redundancy); homogeneous (similar), prefer strong ties to weak ties. o Using networks effectively: remember your 3,000; heterogeneous network; go to weak ties, unique information and resources; strategically designed to fit your goals; turn social contacts into social capital.

· Structure of mood and cultural differences in ideal affect

o People do not interpret emotions from vocalizations (such as sighs or screams) the same way across cultures. While vocalizations conveyed meaning in all cultures, the specific emotions people perceived varied. o Six universal emotions - anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise. We sometimes mistake happiness for surprise, but rarely do we confuse happiness and disgust. o US: high intensity --> excited o East Asia: low intensity --> serene

· Factors affecting perception (i.e., in the situation, perceiver, target)

o Perception: a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. o Perceiver § When you look at a target, your interpretation of what you see is influenced by your personal characteristics - attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations. o Target § We don't look at targets in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background influences perception, as does our tendency to group close things and similar things together. § Novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity. o Context § The time at which we see an object or event can influence our attention, as can location, light, heat, or situational factors. § Time, working setting, social setting § People are not even that perceptive about their own abilities.

· Sources of moods (e.g., time of day, personality, stress, etc.)

o Personality § Moods and emotions have a trait component. § Affect intensity: how strongly people experience their emotions. · Affectively intensive people experience both positive and negative emotions more deeply; when they're sad, they're really sad, and when they're happy, they're really happy. o Age § Older people experience fewer negative emotions. o Sex § Women tend to be more emotionally expressive, feel emotions more intensely, have longer lasting moods, and express emotions more frequently than men. o Stress § Even low levels of constant stress can worsen moods. § Mounting levels of stress can worsen our moods, as we experience more negative emotions. Although sometimes we thrive on it, most of us find stress usually takes a toll on our mood. o Social activities § Physical, informal, and dining activities increase positive moods. o Sleep § Poor sleep quality increases negative effect. § Poor or reduced sleep also makes it difficult to control emotions. Even one bad night's sleep makes us more angry and risk-prone, possibly because poor sleep impairs job satisfaction and makes us less able to make ethical judgements. § Increased regular sleep enhances creativity, performance, and career success. o Exercise § Does somewhat improve mood, especially for depressed people.

· Main causes of job satisfaction (e.g., personality, job conditions, etc.)

o Personality § People who have positive core self-evaluations, who believe in their inner worth and basic competence, are more satisfied with their jobs than those with negative core self-evaluations. o Job conditions § The intrinsic nature of the work itself, social interactions, and supervision are important predictors of job satisfaction. o Corporate social responsibility (CSR) § Corporate Social Responsibility: § Includes environmental sustainability initiatives, nonprofit work, and charitable giving. § Increasingly affects employee job satisfaction. § Particularly important for millennials à but, not everyone finds value in CSR.

· Personality-job fit theory and person-organization fit

o Personality-job fit theory: a theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. § In individualistic countries where workers expect to be heard and respected by management, increasing person-job fit by tailoring the job to the person increases the individual's job satisfaction. § In collectivistic countries, person-job fit is a weaker predictor of job satisfaction because people do not expect to have a job tailored to them, so they value person-job fit efforts less. o Person-organization fit: a theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values and leave when there is not compatibility. § Research on person-organization fit has also looked at whether people's values match the organization's culture. A match predicts job satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and low turnover.

· How to measure personality

o Personality: the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. o Personality tests § Self-report surveys are the most common means of measuring personality. · When people know their personality scores are going to be used for hiring decisions, they rate themselves as about half a standard deviation more conscientious and emotionally stabled than if they are taking the test to learn more about themselves. · Another problem is accuracy - a candidate who is in a bad mood when taking the survey may have inaccurate scores. § People in individualistic countries trend toward self-enhancement, while people in collectivist countries like Taiwan, Chine, and South Korea trend toward self-diminishment. § Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent assessment of personality.

· Positivity offset

o Positivity offset: at zero input, most people tend to be in a slightly positive mood. § Textbook definition: the tendency of most individuals to experience a mildly positive mood at zero input (when nothing in particular is going on).

· Hofstede's value dimensions (e.g., power distance, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, etc.)

o Power distance: a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. § A high rating on power distance means large inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the culture, as in a class or caste system that discourages upward mobility. § A low power distance rating characterizes societies that stress equality and opportunity. o Individualism: a national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups. o Collectivism: a national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. o Masculinity: a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism. § A high masculinity rating indicates the culture has separate roles for men and women, with men dominating the society. o Femininity: a national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society. o Uncertainty avoidance: a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them. § In cultures scoring high on uncertainty avoidance, people have increased anxiety about uncertainty and ambiguity and use laws and controls to reduce uncertainty. § People in cultures low on uncertainty avoidance are more accepting of ambiguity, are less rule oriented, take more risks, and more readily accept change. o Long-term orientation: a national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. o Short-term orientation: a national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and accepts change.

· Definition of power

o Power: potential to get others to do something they normally wouldn't. o Not only position or status. o Models of Power: 1. Individual: 5 bases of power, power resides within the individual. 2. Relational: dependencies between A and B, power resides in the relationship between A and B. 3. Strategic

· Rational model of decision-making vs. bounded rationality; satisficing

o Rational decision-making model § (1) define the problem; (2) identify the decision criteria; (3) allocate weights to the criteria; (4) develop the alternatives; (5) evaluate the alternatives; (6) select the best alternative. § Assumptions: the decision maker... (1) has complete information; (2) is able to identify all the relevant options in an unbiased manner; (3) guided by prior experiences; (4) chooses the option with the highest utility. § Most decisions in the real world don't follow the rational model. o Bounded rationality: a process of making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all of their complexity. § Individuals operate within the confines of bounded rationality. § How it works? · Once a problem is identified, the search for criteria and options begins. · A limited list of the more conspicuous choices is identified. · The decision maker then reviews the list, looking for a solution that is "good enough." § Intuition · Intuitive decision making occurs outside conscious thought; relies on holistic associations, or links between disparate pieces of information, is fast, and is affectively charged, meaning it usually engages the emotions. · The key is neither to abandon nor rely solely on intuition, but to supplement it with evidence and good judgement.

o Reinforcement Theory

o Reinforcement Theory § Reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of its consequences. § Reinforcement conditions behavior; behavior is environmentally condensed; ignores inner state of individual and concentrates on what happens when he or she takes action; provides powerful means of analyzing what controls behavior, and this is why we typically consider it in discussions of motivation. § Operant conditioning theory: people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don't want. · Reinforcement: increase desired behavior · Punishment: decrease undesirable behavior · People learn to associate stimulus and response, but their conscious awareness of this association is irrelevant. § Social learning theory: we can learn through both observation and direct experience. · Models are central · Extension of operant conditioning - that is, it assumes behavior is a function of consequences - it also acknowledges the effects of observational learning and perception.

o Roles

o Roles § Roles: a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. § Role perception: one's perception of how to act in a given situation. § Role expectations: how other believe one should act in a given situation; psychological contract. § Role conflict: situation in which an individual faces divergent role expectations. · We can experience interrole conflict when the expectations of our different, separate groups are in opposition.

o Self-determination Theory

o Self-determination Theory § People prefer to feel they have control over their actions - people paid for work feel less like they want to do it and more like they have to do it. § Seek ways to achieve competence and positive connections to others. § Extrinsic rewards should be used cautiously, and intrinsic rewards tend to sustain motivation for longer. · Pursuing goals for intrinsic reasons lead to greater likelihood that goals will be attained and greater happiness, whether the goal is achieved or not. · People who pursue work goals for intrinsic reasons are more satisfied with their jobs, feel they fit into their organizations better, and may perform better. § Acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. § Individuals: choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards § Organizations: provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives.

o Self-efficacy Theory

o Self-efficacy Theory § Self-efficacy theory: an individual's belief or confidence that he or she is capable of performing a task. § The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed. § Self-efficacy can create a positive spiral in which those with high efficacy become more engage in their tasks and then, in turn, increase performance, which increases efficacy further. § Goal-setting and self-efficacy don't compete, they complement each other. § High: increase effort § Low: decrease effort § Increasing self-efficacy: managers can set difficult goals (communicates confidences); managers can use verbal persuasion (builds confidence); enactive mastery (gain experience to build confidence); vicarious modeling (watch similar others succeed to gain confidence); arousal (get "psyched up" to build confidence). § Implications: best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the self-fulfilling property - believing in something can make it true; training programs often build self-efficacy, especially when there is immediate feedback.

· Spontaneous vs. deliberate self-presentation

o Self-presentation: people seek to present a desirable self or image to others. o Spontaneous: occurs unconsciously and without effort. § Different contexts evoke different selves. § "Mirroring" during interviews o Deliberate: conscious and effortful process to control the impressions others form. § Impression management

o Shared leadership (e.g., Orpheus)

o Shared leadership (e.g., Orpheus) § Orpheus: people are responsible for themselves it seems, they get leadership from different members; a few concert masters, rather than just one; core group is different for every piece, so that everyone got a chance; they all work together to figure out what works; degree of trust, then the group is able to function ideally; core group instead of conductor for each piece, these people oversee process just for that piece; democratic. § Delegating leadership § Task: rotating core structure; everyone gets a turn; people take personal responsibility. § People: musical skills, interpersonal skills. § Process: experiment, voice (every idea is tried). § Pros: more effective?; clients happy; group intact; individual growth and satisfaction. § Cons: conflict; inefficiencies (rehearsals take 3x longer); risky.

· Situation strength theory

o Situation strength theory: a theory indicating that the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation. § Clarity - the degree to which cues about work duties and responsibilities are available and clear. · Jobs high in clarity produce strong situations because individuals can readily determine what to do. § Consistency - the extent to which cues regarding work duties and responsibilities are compatible with one another. · Jobs with high consistency represent strong situations because all the cues point toward the same desired behavior. § Constraints - the extent to which individuals' freedom to decide or act is limited by forces outside their control. · Jobs with many constraints represent strong situations because an individual has limited individual discretion. § Consequences - the degree to which decisions or actions have important implications for the organization or its members, clients, supplies, and so on. · Jobs with important consequences represent strong situations because the environment is probably heavily structured to guard against mistakes. o Some researchers have speculated organizations are, by definition, strong situations because they impose rules, norms, and standards that govern behavior.

Social Identity Theory

o Social identity theory: suggest that we all belong to many social groups. § Feelings of belonginess to a group (not just membership); being part of the group defines who you are; we have multiple social identities (different ones are salient/important at different times).

· Cialdini's 6 principles of social influence—be able to identify examples of each and know how to use them (LRSCAS)

o Social influence: getting people to say "yes" to you. § Conceptualized as mostly anecdotal, soft skill. § A lot of science behind what works - one of the most well-tested and extensively researched topics. § Skills anyone can use, skills work across a variety of settings, ethical constraints. § Principles: distilled, empirically-validated, provide practical strategies for how to influence others; emerged from the field, testing in multiple experiments; most effective when used in combination. 1. Liking: powerful, but underused; two ways to establish liking - similarity and praise. 2. Reciprocity: people feel an obligation to give back to others what they gave (gifts); most powerful if norms of reciprocity are created in groups. 3. Social proof: people are influenced by the observable actions of others (commercials). 4. Consistency: people are more willing to follow through if it is consistent with a commitment made voluntarily and publicly (esp. in writing). 5. Authority: people defer to perceived experts; cues can be faulty. 6. Scarcity: people value what is perceived to be scarce; "loss language"

What is socialization and what does social knowledge include?

o Socialization: the process by which new employees first "learn the ropes" or acquire the social (not technical) knowledge required to succeed in the organization. o Social knowledge includes: § Norms & rituals: appropriate and inappropriate behavior (i.e. spending time with colleagues outside work). § Cast of characters: who is influential beyond their formal role. § Unspoken values, taboos, and expectations.

Span of control

o Span of control: the number of subordinates a manager can efficiently and effectively direct. o All things being equal, the wider or larger the span, the fewer level, the more employees at each level, and the more efficient the organization.

· How to foster creativity

o Step outside the box to think outside the box; independence; openness to new experiences; risk taking; intrinsic motivation; gain focus; positive mood; management matters. o In society: outside cultural influences increase creativity o In groups: heterogeneous groups are more creative o In the individual: immigrants and ethnic minority group members are highly creative.

· Recruiting—what works (e.g., internship programs, referrals, how recruiters should treat recruits)

o Success in recruiting: most research suggests that the best system attracts candidates who are highly knowledgeable about the job and the organizations. § Such candidates are likely to have a better fit between their skills and job requirements, and to be more satisfied in the jobs they take. § Some of the most effective recruiting techniques include internal referrals, internship programs, and other methods tat give potential applicants enough information to adequately evaluate the toles they may be occupying. § The most effective recruiters - internal or external - are well informed about the job, are efficient in communicating with potential recruits, and treat recruits with consideration and respect. § Recruiters also use a variety of online tools, including job boards and social media, to bring in applications.

· Characteristics of a learning organization

o There exists a shared vision that everyone agrees on. o People discard their old ways of thinking and the standard routines they use for solving problems or doing their jobs. o Members think of all organizational processes, activities, functions, and interactions with the environment as part of a system of interrelationships. o People openly communicate with each other (across vertical and horizontal boundaries) without fear of criticism or punishment. o People sublimate their personal self-interest and fragmented departmental interests to work together to achieve the organization's shared vision.

· The 3-stage model of creativity

o Three-stage model of creativity: the proposition that creativity involves three stages: causes (creative potential and creative environment), creative behavior, and creative outcomes (innovation). o Causes: intelligence and creativity; personality and creativity; expertise and creativity; ethics and creativity. o Behavior: problem formulationàinformation gatheringàidea generationàidea evaluation o Outcome: creative behavior does not always produce an innovative outcome; novelty and usefulness.

· Trait activation theory

o Trait activation theory: a theory that predicts that some situations, events, or interventions "activate" a trait more than others. o We can foresee which jobs suit certain personalities. o Also applies to personality tendencies. o Together, situation strength and trait activation theories show that the debate over nature versus nurture might best be framed as nature and nurture.

· Leadership models and theories from 4 approaches (descriptive, person-oriented, contingency, functional)

o Trait theories of leadership: theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders. o Descriptive o Person-oriented § Do leaders have special traits, temperament, skills, or abilities? · Traits: big 5 (extraversion); more closely related to leader emergence than effectiveness. · Motivation: power · Emotional skills: emotional intelligence (EI); own vs. others, thinking behind emotions, anticipating behavior, manage own reactions; leaders vs. non-leaders differ in EI. o Contingency § Depends on situation § Problems: over-attribute to leaders, complexity, assumes leaders can change style. o Functional § What is a good leader? § What does it mean to be led? § Getting critical functions accomplished.

· The effect of technology on communication

o Videoconferencing permits employees and clients to conduct real-time meetings with people at different locations. o Conference calling is generally limited to telephone exchanges where some people may gather around one speaker phone, and others call in through a secure line. o It's important to deliberately stimulate questions and involve all participants in this forum to avoid having someone who is on the call but disengaged, a common problem. o Solutions: 1. Set more explicit agendas and firmer rules than for face-to-face meetings. 2. Have callers begin by introducing themselves, their roles in the project, and what they are looking for in the meeting. 3. Leaders should talk about 40% of the time and listen 60% of the time. 4. Distribute discussion questions before the meeting and note the responses of each participant during the meeting. 5. Assign a moderator for the meeting (not the leader) and a secretary (not the leader). 6. Understand people's preferences for videoconferencing versus conference calling before the meeting and make sure everyone understands the technology.

· Links between structure and employee satisfaction and organizational performance

o Work specialization contributes to higher employee productivity. o No evidence supports a relationship between span of control and employee satisfaction or performance. o Fairly strong evidence links centralization and job satisfaction, meaning that less centralization is associated with higher satisfaction. o Simple structure: an organizational structure characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization. o National culture influences the preference for structure.

· Costs of discrimination to organizations (6)

· 1. Employee turnover · •2. Employee absenteeism · •3. Difficulties recruiting the best talent · •4. Reduced productivity · •5. Bad PR · •6. Legal disputes · • McKinsey Report · • U.S.-based small and medium sized businesses face an almost 12% chance that they it will be hit with an employment claim · • The median judgment for cases that go to trial is approximately $200,000 · • And 1 in 4 cases in a recent study resulted in a judgment of $500,000 or more

· Accurate judgments vs. stereotypes

· Accurate generalization · - Descriptive · - Represents a central tendency · - Based on evidence or statistical estimates · - Rational way to categorize · Stereotype · - Passes judgment · - No room for exceptions · - One category dominates all other features of the person · - Unchanging, even with contrary evidence · - Drawn from anecdotes/ experiences/ assumptions (i.e., not evidence)

· Lewin's three-step change model

· Lewin's three-step change model o Unfreezing the status quo. o Movement to a desired end state. o Refreezing the new change to make it permanent. o Driving forces: forces that direct behavior away from the status quo. o Restraining forces: forces that hinder movement from the existing equilibrium.

o Functions of organizational cultures, including culture as a liability

§ Boundary-defining role: creates distinctions between organizations. § Conveys a sense of identity for members § Facilitates the generation of commitment to something larger than individual self-interest. § Enhances the stability of the social system: culture is a social glue that helps hold the organization together by providing standards for what employees should say and do. § Serves as a sense-making and control mechanism that guides and shapes employees' attitudes and behavior. § Defines the rules of the game § Culture as an asset: cultures can contribute to the bottom line § Culture as a liability: institutionalization, barriers to change, barriers to diversity, strengthening dysfunctions, barriers to acquisitions and mergers. § Individual-organization "fit": whether the applicant's or employee's attitudes and behaviors are compatible with the culture; influences who gets a job offer, a favorable performance review, or a promotion.

Charismatic leadership

§ Charismatic leadership: (1) vision and articulation, (2) personal risk, (3) sensitivity to follower needs, (4) unconventional behavior. · States that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.

o Cohesiveness

§ Cohesiveness: the degree to which members are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group. § Some workgroups are cohesive because members have spent a great deal of time together, the group's small size or purpose facilitates high interaction, or external threats have brought members close together. § Affects group productivity. § Studies consistently show that the relationship between cohesiveness and productivity depends on the group's performance-related norms.

§ Combining traits and contingencies (Goleman):

§ Combining traits and contingencies (Goleman): · Leadership that gets results; choose the right style for the situation. · 6 styles: o Coercive: "do what I tell you: o Authoritative: "come with me" o Affiliative: "people come first" o Democratic: "what do you think?" o Pacesetting: "Do as I do, now" o Coaching: "Try this"

Job Characteristics Model

§ Core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity and task significance; autonomy; feedback.

o How employees learn culture

§ Culture is transmitted to employees through: · Stories · Rituals: repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization, which goals are most important, which people are important, and which are expendable. · Symbols o Material symbols what conveys to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of behavior that are appropriate. · Language o Positive organizational culture: a culture that emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards more than punishes, and emphasizes individual vitality and growth.

Fielder contingency theory

§ Fielder contingency model: the theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader. · The individual's leadership style is assumed to be permanent.

o Examples of formal/explicit and informal/implicit forms of socialization

§ Formal/Explicit socialization: rules about appearance and language. § Informal/Implicit socialization: very first interactions; imprinting (behaviors that are learned early on become entrenched and hard to reverse); newcomer success (proactive information seeking first month into a new job); early socialization occurs quickly and implicitly; your initial interactions can have a long-term effect on your success and satisfaction in the organization; socialization is not a one way street - employees have to be proactive in obtaining social information; do not underestimate the useful knowledge you can acquire from careful observation and from informal interactions were peers.

o 3 ways to create organizational culture

§ Founders hire employees who think and feel the way they do. § Employees are indoctrinated and socialized into the founders' way of thinking. § Founders' own behavior encourages employees to identify with them and internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions.

o Processes that make group beginnings important (e.g., entrainment, positive/negative tracks, habitual routines)

§ Imprinting § Freud § First impressions § Decision making: intimal decision has tremendous weight; people don't recognize sunk costs; NBA study - playing time predicted by draft order even when on-court performance is low. 1. The Task: setting clear and objective goals; specific, realistic, idiosyncratic demands, appropriate task autonomy. 2. Group boundaries: defining who's in and who's out; not enforcing internal split. 3. Establish norms: setting standards and expectations for behavior; explicit, explained. 4. Authority balance beam: establishing authority while acknowledging incompetence; giving others some authority.

performance evaluation

· Performance evaluation o Purpose: help management make general human resource decisions about promotions, transfers, and terminations; also identify training and development needs; pinpoint employee kills and competencies; provide feedback to employees on how the organization views their performance and are often the basis for reward allocations.

o How managers can affect motivation (e.g., job design (rotation, relational, job sharing, telecommuting), employee involvement (participative management, representative participation), variable pay programs, flexible benefits, employee recognition programs)

§ Job rotation: periodic shifting from one task to another. · Strengths: reduces boredom, increases motivation, and helps employees better understand their work contributions. · Weaknesses: creates disruptions, requires extra time for supervisors addressing questions and training time, and reduce efficiencies. § Rotational job design: to make jobs more prosocially motivating, connect employees with the beneficiaries of their work, meet beneficiaries firsthand. § Employee involvement: a participative process that uses employees' input to increase their commitment to the organization's success; participative management, representative participation. § Participative management: joint decision making, acts as a panacea for poor moral and low productivity; trust and confidence in leaders is essential; studies of the participation-performance have yielded mixed results. § Bonuses: significant compensation for many jobs; increasingly include lower-ranking employees; the downside is that employees' pay is more vulnerable to cuts. § Profit-sharing plans: organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula centered around a company's profitability; appear to have positive effects on employee attitudes at the organizational level (employees have a feeling of psychological ownership). § Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP): a company-established benefit plan in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their benefits; increases employee satisfaction and innovation, employees need to psychologically experience ownership; can reduce unethical behavior.

Leader member exchange (MLX)

§ Leader-member exchange (MLX) theory: a theory that supports leaders' creation of ingroups and outgroups; subordinates with ingroup status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction. · Proposes that early in the history of the interaction between a leader and a given follower, the leader implicitly categorizes the follower as an "in" or an "out."

o Norms

§ Norms: acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members. § Positive norms and group outcomes: · One goal of every organization with corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives is for its values to hold normative sway over employees. · If employees aligned their thinking with positive norms, these norms would become stronger and the probability of positive impact would grow exponentially. · Positive group norms may well beget positive outcomes, but only if other factors are present.

o Definition of organizational culture

§ Organizational culture: a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. § Seven primary characteristics: innovation and risk taking; attention to detail; outcome orientation; people orientation; team orientation; aggressiveness; stability.

o Stage vs. phase models

§ Stage models argue that groups go through critical stages as they develop over time § Phase models argue that groups hit important time points during their development, rather than activities - those critical timepoints affect how open the group is to intervention.

o Strong vs. weak cultures

§ Strong culture: core values are intensely held and widely shared. · Cohesiveness, loyalty, organizational commitment, lower turnover. · Less management intervention through formal rules and regulations. · Increasingly important, but difficult to establish, in decentralized organizations. · A strong culture should reduce employee turnover because it demonstrates high agreement about what the organization represents. § If most employees have the same opinions about the organization's mission and values, the culture is strong; if opinions vary widely, the culture is weak.

o 3 major types of behavior to consider—task performance, citizenship, counter productivity

§ Task performance: the combination of effectiveness and efficiency at doing your core job tasks. · Performance of the duties and responsibilities that contribute to the production of a good or service, or to administrative tasks. These include most of the tasks in a conventional job description. § Citizenship: actions that contribute to the psychological environment of the organization, such as helping others when not required, supporting organizational objectives, treating coworkers with respect, making constructive suggestions, and saying positive things about the workplace. § Counterproductivity: actions that actively damage the organization, including stealing, behaving aggressively toward coworkers, or being late or absent.

Transformational Leadership

§ Transformational leaders: leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. · Can have an extraordinary effect on their followers, who respond with increased levels of commitment. · Organizations with transformational leaders generally have greater decentralization of responsibility, managers with more propensity to take risks, and compensation plans geared toward long-term results - all of which facilitate corporate entrepreneurship.

o Substantive selection tools—different types, pros and cons of each, and how managers should use them (e.g., written tests, work sample tests, assessment centers, unstructured interviews, etc.)

§ Written tests: typically tests of intelligence, aptitude, ability, interest, and integrity; intelligence tests are particularly good predictors for jobs that require cognitive complexity; evidence shows that these tests are good predictors, but care should be taken to use the "right" test. § Performance-stimulation tests: have higher face validity and their popularity has increased; work sample tests; assessment centers; situational judgement tests; realistic job previews. · Work sample tests: hands-on simulations of part or all of the work that applicants for routine jobs must perform. · Assessment centers: off-site places where candidates are given a set of performance-stimulation tests designed to evaluate their managerial potential. · Situational judgement tests: substantive selection tests that ask applicants how they would perform in a variety of job situations; the answers are then compared to the answers of high-performing employees. · Realistic job previews: substantive selection tests that are job tryouts to assess talent versus experience. § Interviews: the most frequently used selection device, carries a great deal of weight; unstructured interviews are not as effective as structured ones, particularly behavioral structured interviews; panel interviews minimize the influence of individual biases and have higher validity. · Unstructured interviews: short, casual interviews made up of random questions. · Structured interviews: planned interviews designed to gather job-related information. · Panel interviews: structured interviews conducted with a candidate and a number of panel members in a joint meeting.

· Direct vs. indirect confrontation

· Who uses Direct Confrontation? · • Characteristic of Western managers · • Typically in individualistic cultures · • A kind of direct communication typical in low context cultures · • In interpersonal settings, promoting self-interest · • In work settings, more focused on the task than on relationships · What does Direct Confrontation look like? · • Problem-solving is action-oriented and solution-minded · • Parties state the problem clearly and explain why it is a problem · • Accused party openly and directly accepts or rejects responsibility for the problem · • Negotiation may ensue · • It's acceptable to use threats or power · • Involving a third party (e.g., superior) is a last resort, because it is believed that effective managers should be able to resolve conflict themselves · Who uses Indirect Confrontation? · • Characteristic of East Asian managers · • Typically in collectivistic and hierarchical cultures · • A kind of direct communication typical in high context cultures · • Concerned with saving face (a person's social reputation) · • Direct confrontation causes both parties to lose face (accuser is using incorrect confrontation style and accused may be guilty of not following through on social obligations) • Indirect confrontation withholds blame and responsibility · What does Indirect Confrontation look like? · • Existence of a problem is signaled or cued, never stated directly · • E.g., telling a story that has a lesson embedded, using a metaphor or imagery, asking more questions, providing noncommittal responses, delaying, postponing, stalling · • Blame is withheld to save face for both parties · • Involving a third party (e.g., superior) is not uncommon, even before there has been any confrontation between the parties

· How cultural differences in values (e.g., power distance, etc.) manifest in OB (e.g., work motivation, supervisor-subordinate relationships, etc.)

· Work Motivation · • The motivation to work differs across cultures · - masculinity-femininity index · • high masculinity score prefers "to live to work" than "to work to live" · • Hierarchy of needs theory · - Individuals will fill lower-level needs before moving to higher level needs · • The ranking of needs differs among cultures · Relationship Preferences · • Relationship preferences differ by culture · • Power distance · • high power distance implies little superior-subordinate interaction · • autocratic or paternalistic management style · • low power distance implies consultative style · • Individualism versus collectivism · • high individualism - welcome challenges · • high collectivism - prefer safe work environment · Risk Taking Behavior · • Risk taking behavior differs across cultures · • Future orientation · • delaying gratification · • Uncertainty avoidance · • handling uncertainty · Information and Task Processing · • Cultures handle information in different ways · - Perception of cues · - Information processing · • Monochronic versus polychronic cultures -Monochronic cultures like to do just one thing at a time. They value a certain orderliness and sense of there being an appropriate time and place for everything. They do not value interruptions. -Polychronic cultures like to do multiple things at the same time. · - Obtaining information · • low context versus high context cultures

· Characteristics that can be the basis for discrimination

· • Biological characteristics are personal characteristics that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. · • Variations in these can be the basis for discrimination · Age · •The U.S. workforce is aging. · • Does job performance decline with increasing age? · • Studies show that turnover and absenteeism rates are lower among older workers, and age is not associated with lower productivity. · Sex · • There are no consistent male-female differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability, or learning drive. · • i.e., no performance differences · • But women earn less than men for the same positions and have fewer professional opportunities. · Race and Ethnicity · • Employees tend to favor colleagues of their own race in performance evaluations, promotion decisions, and pay raises. · • African Americans and Hispanics perceive higher levels of discrimination in the workplace. • African Americans generally fare worse than Whites in employment decisions. · Disabilities · • The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission classifies a person as disabled who has any physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. · • Workers with disabilities receive higher performance evaluations, but may have lower performance expectations. · Hidden Disabilities · • Sensory disabilities, chronic illness or pain, cognitive or learning impairments, sleep disorders, and psychological challenges. · •U.S. organizations must accommodate employees with a very broad range of impairments. · Tenure · • Tenure is a good predictor of employee productivity. · • Tenure and job satisfaction are positively related. · Religion · • U.S. law prohibits discrimination based on religion, but it is still an issue, especially for Muslims · Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity · • Federal law does not protect employees against discrimination based on sexual orientation, but this may soon change · •Most Fortune 500 companies have policies covering sexual orientation and about half now have policies on gender identity • Every single company on Fortune's list of "100 best companies to work for" includes sexual orientation in their nondiscrimination policy

· What is culture and how to deal with cultural differences

· • Culture refers to the learned norms based on values, attitudes, and beliefs of a group of people · • Culture is an integral part of a nation's operating environment · • every business function is subject to potential cultural differences · Cultural Responsiveness · • Companies need to decide when to make cultural adjustments · • Fostering cultural diversity can allow a company to gain a global competitive advantage by bringing together people of diverse backgrounds and experience · Cultural Awareness · • Problem areas that can hinder managers' cultural awareness... · • Subconscious reactions to circumstances · • subcultures exist within nations · • similarities link groups from different countries · • Tip: Managers that educate themselves about other cultures have a greater chance of succeeding abroad

· Surface level vs. deep level diversity

· • Surface-level diversity represents the characteristics that are easily observed such as race, gender, age, etc. · • Deep-level diversity represents the aspects that are more difficult to see at first glance such as values, personality, and work preferences.

· How to effectively attract, select, develop, and retain diverse employees (e.g., targeting recruiting messages, mentoring, etc.)

· • Target recruiting messages to specific demographic groups. · • Ensure that hiring is bias free. · •Create a positive diversity climate. · • Establish mentoring programs. · Diversity in groups · •Most people in groups need a common way of looking at and accomplishing major tasks, and they need to communicate well with each other. · • Emphasize higher-level similarities among people · Effective diversity programs · • Teach managers about the legal framework for equal employment opportunity and encourage fair treatment of all people. · • Teach managers how a diverse workforce will be more effective at serving a diverse customer base. · • Foster personal development practices that bring out the skills and abilities of everyone.

· Why few absolutes apply to OB (i.e., independent variables, dependent variables, contingency variables)

· • There are few, if any, simple and universal principles that explain organizational behavior. •Contingency variables situational factors are variables that moderate the relationship between the independent variables (IVs) and dependent variables (DVs). independent variables: the presumed cause of some change in the dependent variable. dependent variable: a response that is affected by an independent variable. What we are interested in explaining

· How managers should talk about bias

· • When told biases are common, people actually become more biased · Talking about bias at Wharton: "I don't ever want to see this happen again." · 65% increase in the number of female MBA students who sought out leadership roles

· The manager's roles and skills

· •Management Skills · • Technical Skills - the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job. •Human Skills - the ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in groups. · •Conceptual Skills - the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations.

o 4 ways of negotiation (i.e., competitive, collaborative, etc.)

• "Dividing the Pie" / Value-claiming / competitive - Win/Lose situation - Cut the pie so you get more than half and the other party gets less than half - Competitive style to handle conflict • "Enlarge the Pie" / Value-creating / collaborative - Win/Win situation - Seek solution so that both parties receive more than half - Focus on needs, not positions • Third party intervention - Arbitration: Parent cuts the pie - Mediation: Parent advises and suggests principles (e.g., one child cuts, another chooses) Conflict avoidance Accommodate