MGT 312 Final Exam
Discuss House's revised path-goal theory and its practical takeaways.
-8 Categories of Leader Behavior: 1) path-goal clarifying behaviors 2) achievement-oriented behaviors 3) work-facilitation behaviors 4) supportive behaviors 5) interaction-facilitation behaviors 6) group-oriented decision making behaviors 7) representation & networking behaviors 8) value-based behaviors -emphasis on need to foster intrinsic motivation thru employee empowerment -based on the premise that an employee does not have to be a supervisor or manager to engage in leader behavior; believes leadership is shared among all employees in organization -Takeaways: -effective leaders possess and use more than one style of leadership -leaders encouraged to clarify paths to goal accomplishment and remove any obstacles that may impair employee's ability to achieve goals; need to guide and coach employees during the pursuit of their goals -a small set of employee characteristics (ability, experience, need for independence) and environmental factors (task characteristics of autonomy, variety, significance) are relevant contingency factors
List six antecedents of conflict, and identify the desired outcomes of conflict.
-Antecedents: 1) incompatible personalities or value systems 2) role overload/ambiguity 3) Interdepartment/intergroup competition 4) Competition for limited resources. 5) Inadequate communication. 6) Interdependent tasks (rely on other people) 7) Organizational complexity (conflict tends to increase as the number of hierarchical layers and specialized tasks increase) 8) Unreasonable/unclear policies, standards, or rules 9) Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure 10) Collective decision making (greater number of people participating in a decision, greater potential for conflict) 11) Decision making by consensus 12) Unmet expectations (esp. if employees have unrealistic expectations) 13) Unresolved/suppressed conflicts -Desired Outcome: 1) Agreement (equitable & fair are best) 2) Stronger Relationships (build goodwill and trust, more trust = more likely to keep their end of the deal) 3) Learning (functional conflict promotes greater self-awareness and creative problem solving)
Explain the difference between distributive and integrative negotiation, and discuss the concept of added-value negotiation.
-Distributive: involves a single issue in which one person gains at the expense of the other, win-lose strategy -Integrative: agreement that is better for both parties than what they would have reached through distributive negotiation, progressive win-win strategy -Added-Value Negotiation: integrative approach 1) Clarify interests (establish tangible & intangible needs); jointly discuss respective needs, find common ground for negotiation 2) Identify options (identify elements of value, ie, money, behavior, etc); jointly create marketplace value by discussing these 3) Design alternative deal packages (mix & match elements of value in workable combos, think in terms of multiple deals); jointly exchange package deals 4) Select a deal (analyze deal packages proposed by other party); jointly discuss & select feasible deal packages, think in terms of creative agreement 5) Perfect the deal; jointly discuss unresolved issues, develop written agreement, build relationships for future negotiations
Distinguish between favorable and unfavorable impression management tactics.
-Favorable: upward impression management (trying to impress supervisor) 1) job-focused: manipulating info about one's performance 2) supervisor-focused: praising and doing favors for supervisor 3) self-focused: presenting self as nice and polite -Unfavorable: making a bad impression (often for avoidance, obtaining concrete rewards, exit, or power) 1) decreasing performance: restricting productivity, making more mistakes than usual, lowering quality, neglecting tasks 2) not working to potential: pretending ignorance, having unused capabilities 3) withdrawing: being tardy, taking excessive breaks, faking illness 4) displaying a bad attitude: complaining, getting upset and angry, acting strangely, not getting along with co-workers 5) broadcasting limitations: letting co-workers know about one's physical problems and mistakes, both verbally and nonverbally
Explain, according to Fiedler's contingency model, how leadership style interacts with situational control, and discuss the takeaways from this model.
-Premise: must be a match between leader's style and demands of situation for the leader to be effective -Situational Control: amount of control leader has in immediate work environment; range from high to low; 3 dimensions 1) leader-member relations: degree of confidence, trust, & respect subordinates have for leader 2) task structure: amount of structure contained within tasks performed 3) position power: degree to which leader has formal power to reward, punish, or otherwise obtain compliance -Connection: leaders must learn to manipulate or influence the leadership situation in order to create a match between their leadership style and the amount of control within the situation at hand -Takeaways: -leadership effectiveness goes beyond traits and behaviors; function of leadership style & situation -leaders are unlikely to be successful in all situations; if a manager is failing in a certain context, management should consider moving the individual to another situation (change situation, not style) -leaders need to modify their style to fit a situation; leadership styles are not universally effective.
Discuss the stress moderators of social support, hardiness, and Type A behavior.
-Social Support: amount of perceived helpfulness derived from social relationships; quality & quantity; esteem support, informational support, social companionship, instrumental support; positive social support positively impacts health; managers should provide access to support, company sponsored activities, give employees time away from work to build social relationships -Hardiness: personality characteristics that neutralize occupational stress; embraces the personality dimensions of commitment (extent to which individual is invested in what they're doing), locus of control (believe they can influence the events that affect their lives), and challenge (belief that change is a normal part of life) -Type A Behavior: (def.: action-emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or persons); should try to reduce hostility/neg. emotions, etc.; essentially, Type A stress more
Identify and briefly describe French and Raven's five bases of power, and discuss the responsible use of power.
1) Reward: obtain compliance by promising or granting rewards 2) Coercive: obtaining compliance thru threatened or actual punishment 3) Legitimate: power is anchored to one's formal position or authority; positive or negative; meant to build power holder's ego 4) Expert: obtaining compliance thru one's knowledge or info 5) Referent: obtaining compliance thru charisma or personal attraction; role models have referent power over those who identify closely with them -Responsible Use: sometimes threatening works, but it usually brings with it adverse consequences (like resentment and a desire to get even in some way); people don't like to be reminded that they're inferior in power or status; in business, it is important to motivate through the power of shared goals, shared objectives, and shared standards
Name at least three "soft" and two "hard" influence tactics, and summarize the practical lessons from influence research.
-Soft Tactics: 1) Rational Persuasion: trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts 2) Inspirational Appeals: trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others' emotions, ideals, or values 3) Consultation: getting others to participate in planning, making decisions, and changes 4) Ingratiation: getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request; being friendly, helpful, and using praise or flattery 5) Personal Appeals: referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request -Hard Tactics: 1) Exchange: making express or implied promises and trading favors 2) Coalition Building: getting others to support your effort to persuade someone 3) Legitimating: basing a request on one's authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or express or implied support from superiors 4) Pressure: demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats -Practical Lessons: 1)commitment is more likely when people rely on consultation, strong rational persuasion, and inspirational appeals and do not rely on pressure and coalition tactics 2) ingratiation can slightly improve your performance appraisal results and make your boss like you significantly more 3) commitment is more likely when the influence attempt involves something important and enjoyable and is based on a friendly relationship 4) when the relationship was not good, inspirational appeals and exchange tactics reduced helping behavior, with lack of credibility being the likely culprit; exchange tactics increased helping behavior when the relationship was good; consultation increased helping behavior, regardless of the quality of the relationship 5) interpersonal influence is culture bound
Explain the leader-member exchange model of leadership.
-based on the assumption that leaders develop unique one-to-one relationships with each of the people reporting to them; vertical dyads form & 2 distinct styles of leader-member exchanges evolve -in-group exchange: partnership characterized by reciprocal influence, mutual trust, respect and liking, and a sense of common fates -out-group exchange: leaders characterized as overseers who fail to create a sense of mutual trust, respect, or common fate
Review trait theory research and the takeaways from this theoretical perspective.
1) Research -Trait Theory: leadership abilities developed thru experience and learning -Core Traits: (1) intelligence (best predictor), (2) dominance, (3) self-confidence, (4) level of energy and activity, (5) task-relevant knowledge -Implicit Leadership Theory: based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers (a leadership prototype); typically masculine traits but current research shows shift to feminine/soft -Leader's Credibility: honesty, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent (Posner & Kouzes) -Emotional Intelligence associated with leadership effectiveness (not much research support) -Extraversion most postitively & consistently assoc w/ leadership, conscientiousness & openness to experience also positively correlated; intelligence only moderate correlation -Bad Leaders: incompetent, rigid, intemperate, callous, corrupt, insular, evil 2) Takeaways: -Key Positive Leadership Traits: task competence, interpersonal competence, intuition, traits of character, biophysical traits, personal traits -Applications: include personality & trait assessments in selection and promotion process, management development programs can be used to build a pipeline of leadership talent
Define the term stress, and describe the model of occupational stress.
-def.: adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or psychological processes, that is a consequence of any external action, situation, or event that places special physical and/or psychological demands upon a person -Model of Occupational Stress: individual appraises 4 types of stressors, which motivates them to choose a coping strategy aimed at managing stressors, which produces a variety of outcomes; model specifies several individual differences that moderate the stress process; moderator is a variable that causes the relationship between two variables (such as stressors and cognitive appraisal) to be stronger for some people and weaker for others -stressors: environmental factors that produce stress; individual, group, organizational, extraorganizational level -cognitive appraisal of stressors: individual's overall perception or evaluation of a situation or stressor; either primary (categorizing a situation or stressor as irrelevant, positive, or stressful) or secondary (occurs only in response to a stressful primary appraisal and entails an assessment of what might and can be done to reduce the level of perceived stress) -coping strategies: specific behaviors and cognitions used to cope with a situation; use a combination of control strategy (using behaviors and cognitions to directly anticipate or solve problems), escape strategy (avoiding the problem), or symptom management strategy (using methods such as relaxation, meditation, medication, or exercise to manage the symptoms of occupational stress) -outcomes: psychological/attitudinal, behavioral, cognitive, physical stress
Explain the concept of mutuality of interest.
-def.: balancing individual and organizational interests thru win-win cooperation -tug of war between self-interest and mutuality of interest
Explain behavioral styles theory and its takeaways.
-def.: focus on leader behavior, instead of on personality traits; believed that leader behavior directly affected work group effectiveness; researchers identify patterns of behavior (called leadership styles) that enabled leaders to effectively influence others -Takeaways: -leaders are made not born -no one best style of leadership; effectiveness of certain style depends on situation -drucker's 9 behaviors for managers to focus on to improve leadership effectiveness (table 16-4)
Define organizational politics, and explain what triggers it.
-def.: intentional enhancement of self-interest -Triggers: 1) unclear objectives 2) vague performance measures 3) ill-defined decision processes 4) strong individual or group competition 5) any type of change
Define the term empowerment, and explain why it is a matter of degree.
-def.: sharing varying degrees of power with lower-level employees to tap their full potential -Matter of Degree: from no power at all to total distribution; matter of steps 1) authoritarian/domination: manager makes all decisions 2) influence sharing/consultation: manager consults with lower-level people when making decisions 3) power sharing/participation: manager and followers jointly make decisions 4) power distribution/delegation: followers given authority to make decisions
Distinguish between functional and dysfunctional conflict, and discuss why people avoid conflict.
-functional: serves organization's interests -dysfunctional: threaten's organizations interests -why people avoid it: b/c we fear various combinations of: harm, rejection, loss of relationship, anger, being seen as selfish, saying the wrong thing, failing, hurting someone else, getting what you want (feel undeserving/fear consequences of success), and intimacy
Identify alternative strategies for overcoming resistance to change.
-if employees feel personal costs will overshadow benefits managers should: (1) provide as much information as possible to employees about the change, (2) inform employees about the reasons/rationale for the change, (3) conduct meetings to address employees' questions regarding the change, (4) provide employees the opportunity to discuss how the proposed change might affect them -obtain feedback from employees about obstacles impeding ability or willingness to accept change -6 strategies: 1) education + communication 2) participation + involvement 3) facilitation + support 4) negotiation + agreement 5) manipulation + co-optation 6) explicit + implicit coercion
Explain the dynamic model of resistance to change.
-resistance to change: emotional/behavioral response to real or imagined threats to an established work routine; dynamic interaction between 3 sources -3 Sources: 1) recipient characteristics: variety of individual differences, actions/inactions, perceptions of change of recipient (individual's predisposition toward change, surprise & fear of the unknown, fear of failure, loss of status/job security, peer pressure, past success) 2) change agent characteristics: variety of individual differences in agent (decisions that disrupt cultural traditions or group relationships, personality conflicts, lack of tact or poor timing, leadership style, failing to legitimize change) 3) change agent-recipient relationship: resistance is reduced when change agents and recipients have a positive, trusting relationship
Explain how managers can stimulate functional conflict, and identify the five conflict-handling styles.
1)How to Stimulate (programmed conflict): A) Devil's Advocacy: assign someone role of critic -proposed course of action generated -devil's advocate assigned to criticize proposal -critique presented to key decision makers -additional info relevant to issues gathered -decision to adopt, modify, or discontinue proposed course of action is made -decision is monitored B) Dialectic Method: managers to foster a structured debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a decision -proposed course of action is generated -assumptions underlying proposal are identified -conflicting counterproposal generated based on different assumptions -advocates of each position present & debate merits of proposals before key decision makers -decision to adopt either position (or compromise) made -decision is monitored 2) Five Conflict Handling Styles -Integrating (problem solving): interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generate and weigh alternative solutions, and select a solution; good for complex issues, long term effects but time consuming; high concern for self & others -Obliging (smoothing): neglect own concern to satisfy concern of the other party; playing down differences while emphasizing commonalities; good when possible to get something in return, encourages cooperation, but temporary fix; high concern for others, low for self -Dominating (forcing): other party's needs are largely ignored, relies on formal authority to force compliance; good when unpopular solution must be implemented, issue is minor, deadline is near, or crisis looms but breeds resentment; high concern for self, low for others -Avoiding: involves passive withdrawal from problem or active suppression of the issue; good for trivial issues or when the costs of confrontation outweigh the benefits of resolving the conflict, bad for worsening issues; buys time in ambiguous situation but temporary fix; low concern for self & others -Compromising: give-and-take approach; good when parties have opposite goals or possess equal power, bad when leads to inconclusive action; no losers but stifle problem solving & temporary fix; in the middle (moderate concern for self & others)
Describe Lewin's change model and the systems model of change.
A) Lewin's Model -three-stage model of planned change that explains how to initiate, manage, and stabilize the change process -operates on idea that change involves learning something new/discontinuing old, won't occur unless there's motivation to change, people are hub of all org change, resistance to change found even when goals are highly desirable, effective change requires reinforcing -3 Stages: 1) unfreezing: creates motivation to change; individuals encouraged to replace old behaviors and attitudes with those desired by management (can use benchmarking as technique) 2) changing: provides new info, new behavioral models, or new ways of looking at things 3) refreezing: helps employees integrate changed behavior; allow them to demonstrate behaviors & reinforce them B) Systems Model -big picture approach; based on the notion that any change, no matter how large or small, has a cascading effect throughout an organization -provides framework or model to use for diagnosing what to change and for determining how to evaluate the success of a change effort -Elements: 1) inputs: change should be consistent with org's mission, vision, or resulting strategic plan 2) strategic plan: outlines an organization's long-term direction and the actions necessary to achieve planned results; based on SWOT analysis, etc. 3) target elements of change: components of an organization that may be changed; organizational arrangements, social factors, methods, people 4) outputs: desired end results of a change; should be consistent with strategic plan; can be implemented at different levels
