MGT 461 Exam 2

noise

Communication breakdowns may occur because of noise. Examples of noise are distractions, ambiguous words, and incompatible electronic equipment used to transmit the message.

Guidelines For Making Decisions

Consider the Consequences - When the consequences of a decision are great, the supervisor should spend more time on the decision. Respond Quickly in a Crisis - In a crisis, the supervisor should quickly select the course of action that seems best. Inform the manager - the boss does need to know what is happening in the department. The supervisor should inform the boss about major decisions. Be Decisive Yet Flexible - decisive means reaching a decision within a reasonable amount of time. Avoid Decision-Making Traps - Avoid making a major issue out of each decision. Good planning can avert many crises, and life-and-death issues are not the usual stuff of the supervisor's job.

Content Theories of Motivation

Content theories of motivation focus on the content of the motivator. Abraham Maslow, David McClelland, and Frederick Herzberg.

behavior modification

Using reinforcement and punishment to motivate people in a certain way First, offer different types of rewards for employees according to the quality of their performance. Second, clearly communicate any feedback to employees by telling them what they are doing right and wrong. Third, if an employee requires punishment of some sort, be sure to deliver this punishment in the absence of other employees. Finally, supervisors should provide rewards and punishments that are substantial and communicate that they are taking the behavior modification program seriously.

encoding

This means the sender translates his or her thoughts and feelings into words, gestures, facial expressions transmits the encoded message by writing, speaking, or other personal contact

Piecework System

This system pays people according to how much they produce. It is often used to pay independent contractors, for example, farm workers and independent writers. Unlike independent contractors, however, few employees are paid under this system.

Punishment

an unpleasant consequence given in response to undesirable behavior.

Brainstorming

another way to generate ideas in a group. Group members state their ideas no matter how far-fetched they may seem. No one may criticize or even comment on an idea until the end of the process. All ideas are recorded on a flip chart or black (white) board. Evaluation or follow-up on ideas takes place after all ideas are suggested. Pitfalls of brainstorming include dominance of conversation by naturally talkative people. This problem can be circumvented by asking participants to come prepared to the brainstorming session with some ideas. Another approach would be to ask participants to first jot down their ideas and then discuss them.

extrinsic reward

recognition or compensation that is extraneous to the task accomplished ex) money

Theory Z

supervisors seek to involve employees in making decisions, consider long-term goals when making plans, and give employees relatively great freedom in carrying out their duties.

motivation

-Motivation leads to good performance when it is accompanied by ability, skills, equipment, supplies, and time -giving people incentives that cause them to act in desired ways -The objective of motivating employees is to lead them to perform in ways that meet the goals of the department and the organization

Overcome Barriers To Creativity

1) Ask if employees have questions. 2) Ask for ideas, what has been missed. 3) Review all options with employees before a final decision is made. Ask where else you can go for additional information. 4) Ask for employees' help with a problem or an idea you have. 5) Ask "How can we improve this?" (This is a good response when employees complain about a condition.) 6) Ask who else has information about a condition. 7) Tell employees when you don't know something and ask for their help. 8) Above all, thank employees for their help, and give credit whenever the opportunity arises.

steps in the rational decision making model

1) Identify the problem 2) Identify the alternative solutions 3) Gather and organize the facts 4) Evaluate the alternatives, 5) Choose and implement the best alternative 6) Get feedback and take corrective action.

Boss's expectations

1) Loyalty - The supervisor says only positive things about the company and his or her boss. 2) Cooperation - The supervisor works with others in the organization to achieve organizational goals. 3) Communication - The boss expects to be kept informed about the department's performance. 4) Results - The supervisor should see to it that the department meets or exceeds its objectives.

four major premises that provide the theoretical basis for the process improvement team concept

1) Ongoing management involvement is essential for effective performing work teams. Management must provide the resources for success, including the selection and training of teams, and help identify improvement opportunities. 2) Teams are sociotechnical systems and require a sound infrastructure to function effectively. This includes an explicit set of guidelines and rules that provide direction and focus for the completion of all tasks related to the teams' mission and purpose. Communication and human relations training must be based on actual work objectives. If this is not done, training will be viewed as irrelevant and probably will be ineffective. 3) The team needs effective leadership that is able to blend the diverse skills and personalities of all team members. Only by drawing on the diverse talents, abilities, and ideas of all team members will they create an effective team. Leaders cannot be autocrats. 4) Team members need skills training in process analysis, data collection and analysis, and unstructured problem solving. Teams should not be expected to produce results without the training to do so.

cultural differences in communicating

1) Stick to simple, basic words. 2) Use the literal meaning of words. 3) Avoid using jargon of their industries. 4) Be literal about what behaviors are desired when communicating goals and expectations. 5) Talk slowly and pronounce words carefully when speaking. 6) Supplement their words with gestures, illustrations, and facial expressions. 7) Seek feedback by asking the listener what he or she has heard. 8) Make sure what the other person is saying. 9) Ask for clarification when they need it. 10) Help the speaker relax, and invite him or her to speak more slowly. 11) Learn about the communication styles used by people from different cultures, and try to match them when appropriate. 12) Help their employees communicate by stressing the importance of keeping communications style simple. 13) Share what they learn about communication styles. 14) Compliment employees as they make progress in cross-cultural communication.

Organizational Communication Flow

1. downward so employees know what is expected of them and the supervisor understands what is happening in the organization 2. upward so his or her manager is aware of the supervisor's accomplishments and employees feel encouraged to offer ideas 3. laterally so that the work of the supervisor's department is well coordinated with the work of other departments. -facilitate achieving the department and company goals.

Absenteeism and Tardiness

An absent employee may be paid for the time off, or replaced with a less productive person. Also, missing work is often a sign of a deeper problem, such as a family crisis, anger about something at work, or plans to leave the organization. How a supervisor deals with this type of problem will depend somewhat on the employee involved. If this is a problem for new employees, it is likely the person will be dismissed before the end of the probationary period. Employees who have completed their probationary period will be dealt with in a variety of ways, including counseling and disciplinary action. Many organizations have a policy that defines excessive attendance problems. In a unionized organization, it will be spelled out in the union contract. Even though the policy allows a certain amount of absenteeism and tardiness without serious consequences, any unexpected absences will make it more difficult for supervisors to meet department objectives. The supervisor may want to take some action before the employee reaches the point where disciplinary action must be taken, such as a reminder of the policy and the employee's current attendance record. Sometimes a company policy can actually encourage absenteeism. One of the reasons that employees have excessive absenteeism is that they believe they are entitled to the time off. For example, if five absences are allowed before a disciplinary warning is issued and ten days before there is any serious consequence, the employee may think he or she is entitled to the five days off. This may be more likely to happen if it is paid time off. Another policy used by some organizations is a "no fault'' policy, where no questions are asked and the absenteeism can be for any reason. In contrast to an organization where there are excused and unexcused absences, the "no fault" policy does not require the employee to justify his or her absence. Since an employee can take a day off for no reason at all, some employees are absent whenever they feel like it and may use up all of the allowed time. These employees may then have an emergency and have to take a day off. This employee may find disciplinary action follows what they believe is a legitimate reason for being absent.

Process Theories of Motivation

Another way to explain motivation is to look at it as a process. Two major process theories are: Vroom's expectancy-valence theory Skinner's reinforcement theory

Increased Customer Contact

Another way to make work meaningful is to give employees some contact with the people who receive and use their products or services. Sometimes the supervisor can arrange to have workers visit the users of the products or services. For example, when a user of manufactured products is having trouble, a visit from employees may serve two purposes. First, employees may be able to help the user of the product. Second, employees will learn and understand more about the product from the users' point of view.

stereotypes

Broad generalizations about a category of people. negative conclusions are called prejudices and they can distort perceptions.

Guidelines For Thinking Creatively

Creativity is the ability to bring about something imaginative or new. 1) Gather the raw materials by learning about the problem and by developing your general knowledge. 2) Work over those materials in your mind. As you think of partial ideas, jot them down so you can refer to them later. 3) Incubate; let your unconscious mind do the work. Instead of thinking about the problem, do whatever stimulates your imagination and emotions, such as listening to music. 4) Identify an idea. It will probably pop into your head unexpectedly. Sometimes creative ideas come from dreaming or daydreaming, or they just seem to pop into your head while you are doing something else. 5) Shape and develop the idea to make it practical. Seek out constructive criticism.

Positive Discipline (preventative)

Discipline designed to prevent problem behavior from the beginning making sure employees know and understand rules they must follow and the consequences of violating rules Conditions that may lead to problems include unrealistic goals, unsafe working conditions, and feeling as if one is not an important part of the organization. As a result, employees believe that they are at odds with management rather than working together, so they see what they can get away with. To combat such problems, the supervisor needs to be aware of and responsive to employees' needs and ideas. He or she should encourage upward communications, promote teamwork, and encourage employees to participate in decision-making and problem solving. Effective use of motivation techniques also helps prevent the frustration and alienation that can lead to problem behavior. positive discipline includes a day off for employees who fail to respond to efforts to educate them about following the rules and meeting performance standards. This decision-making leave is a day off during which the employee is supposed to decide whether to return to work and meet standards or to stay away for good.

Theft

Employee theft is another serious employee problem. Employees take companies' inventory, supplies, and money as well as "steal time" by giving the employer less work than they are paid for. There are many reasons for stealing the company's materials and time. Some of the reasons are related to personal problems, such as financial problems. Other reasons are related to attitudes toward the company and management. Some employees think the company owes them because they are underpaid or in some other way taken advantage of. Supervisors can help reduce theft if they are aware of employee attitudes and if they recognize and respect the employees' contributions. A supervisor should take measures to prevent and react to theft. In addition to organizational procedures, supervisors should carefully check the background of anyone they plan to hire. They should make sure that employees follow all procedures for record keeping. They should also build employees' morale and involvement, make sure employees understand the costs and consequences of theft, and set a good example. All suspected employee theft should be reported to the supervisor's manager and appropriate authorities.

Production Bonus System

Employees in a production department may receive a basic wage or salary plus a bonus that consists of a payment for units produced. If employees do not appear to be motivated by a production bonus system, the bonus may not be large enough to be worth the extra effort. Employees who work faster earn more money under such a system, but the pay system does not necessarily encourage high-quality work.

channels of communication

Formal communication is work related. It usually follows the lines of the organization chart. Informal communication is directed toward individual needs and interests. It is not necessarily work related. Policies, procedures, and directives follow the formal communication lines. Informal communication includes gossip, rumors, and personal information. It is transmitted by the organization's grapevine.

Voting

If everyone agrees, the team can quickly move on to the next item. If they do not agree, it is not so simple. Remember, one of the advantages of team decision-making is that if a team determines the solution, they are more likely to support the decision and help sell the idea to others.

Commissions

In a sales department, employees may earn commissions, the payment linked to the amount of sales completed. Most organizations that pay a commission also pay a basic wage or salary.

Payments for Suggestions

In companies with suggestion programs, employees are paid for suggestions for improvements. Typically, for the employee to receive payment, the suggestion must be adopted or save some minimum amount of money. A common practice is for payment to be linked to the saving realized.

Job Enlargement

Job Enlargement means that duties are added to a job. For example, in a factory a machine operator may be given the added task of setting up the machine.

Job enrichment

Job enrichment is the incorporation of motivating factors into a job. The kinds of factors that are considered to enrich a job are the ones Herzberg called motivators. Specific factors include giving employees more responsibility to make decisions and more recognition for good performance, and making jobs more challenging.

Job rotation

Job rotation involves moving employees from job to job so as to give them more variety. Job rotation requires that employees have relatively broad skills. This means the supervisor and organization must provide for cross-training or training in the skills required to perform more than one job. The opportunity to learn new skills can in itself motivate employees.

the article, "Team Up for Quality Improvement"

John Persico Jr. presents some of the myths of traditional team models and major premises that provide the theoretical basis for the process improvement team concept. Without the recognition of the misconceptions and the remedies for the conditions, management is simply looking for a simple and inexpensive way to get others to solve organizational problems. The following three myths are the most problematic in team problem solving: 1) Workers are fully capable of identifying and directing improvement efforts and can decrease problems and costs without the help of or interference from management. 2) A happy and motivated team is an effective work team. Team-building and communication skills training ensure effective teamwork. 3) Experienced employees have needed skills, knowledge, and technical expertise to identify and solve major organizational problems.

Group Incentive Plans

Organizations today are increasingly focusing on ways to get employees and their supervisors to work together as teams. The group incentive plan pays a bonus when the group as a whole exceeds some objective. For example, a company may pay a bonus when a department, sales region, or other work unit meets sales goals. The bonus may also depend on meeting organizational goals either by itself or in combination with work unit goals. One such frequently used type of group incentive is the profit-sharing plan. Under such a plan, the company sets aside a share of its profits earned during a given period, such as a year, and divides these profits among the employees.

Insubordination and Uncooperativeness

Poor performance may result from not understanding how to do something. This can be corrected by proper training. insubordination: the deliberate refusal to do what he or she is told. examples: 1) General poor attitude-criticizing, complaining, and showing dislike for the supervisor and organization, 2) Making an art out of doing as little as possible, 3) Spending most of the day socializing, joking around, or moving as slowly as possible, and 4) Regularly failing to follow rules-forgetting to wear safety equipment or sign out at lunchtime. 1) Whether the employee has performed better in the past. If he or she has, then something has changed with the employee, the work to be performed, or the supervisor. With some thought, the supervisor may be able to figure out what might be a cause of the problem before discussing performance with the employee. 2) Whether the employee knows and understands the objectives he or she is to accomplish. When the pace of work increases after a slow period, employees may not pick up the pace or may complain about the heavier work load. This situation may be improved by the supervisor discussing anticipated changes in the workload. If it is returning to a more normal pace, the supervisor may want to express that the workload may seem to be heavier, but it is what they were doing at a previous time. 3) Whether the supervisor is providing enough feedback and support. Employees like to feel they are doing a good job. A supervisor should not neglect telling employees how they are doing. 4) Whether the supervisor has encouraged and rewarded high performance. When good work is overlooked, employees may ask themselves why they should try so hard. 5) Whether other employees with similar abilities are performing well or experiencing similar difficulties. If all or most of the employees are experiencing similar difficulties, it is probably something in the way work gets done or the system.

Workplace Violence

Several factors contribute to workplace violence. Workers who abuse alcohol or drugs or who have psychological problems may be more likely to engage in violence at work. Employees who are under stress, either at work or away, may explode in violence. Another factor associated with workplace violence is domestic violence. If an employee is being abused by a spouse, parent, or other third party, the abuser may carry violent behavior to the workplace. To address these business losses and out of concern for abused workers and their colleagues, some companies offer information and help for employees who are victimized at work or at home. These efforts may include secure parking spaces, flexible hours, and referrals to employee assistance programs for counseling. If an employee complains of feeling threatened by another employee or an outsider, the supervisor should take these concerns seriously. The supervisor also should work with the organization's human resource department to develop and practice plans for moving to safety in the event of a violent incident. The supervisor should turn to the human resource department for assistance if a problem employee seems threatening and does not respond to the basic measures to handle the situation. In the aftermath of workplace violence, employees often suffer psychological wounds that must be allowed to heal. The wise supervisor refrains from adopting the role of counselor but rather remains alert to those who may need special help, such as a referral for professional assistance or even reassignment or time off.

Compromises In Following The Decision-Making Model

Simplicity - consider ways we have handled similar problems in the past. The downside of this approach is that it tends to bypass new and innovative solutions that may deliver better results. Bounded Rationality - places limits, or bounds, on decision-making. Decision-makers settle for an alternative they consider good enough. Subjective Rationality - occurs when the decision-maker considers alternatives that are the result of intuition and gut instincts, rather than impartial data. Rationalization - people tend to favor solutions that they believe they can justify to others. Personal Perspective - When people assume that everyone else sees things the way they do, personal perspective is occurring. Recency Syndrome - the tendency to more easily remember events that have occurred recently. Stereotypes - rigid opinions about categories of people. It limits a decision maker's understanding of the people involved.

Group Decision Making: advantages and disadvantages

Some organizations allow or expect supervisors to work with others in arriving at a decision. Supervisors might encourage employees to come up with a solution themselves. Total quality management (TQM) includes team problem solving as a method of getting more productivity and better quality. There are both advantages and disadvantages of group problem solving. Group members can contribute more ideas for alternatives than an individual working alone. The group will also have a broader perspective since the experience of the group is broader than the individual's experience. People involved in the decision will better understand an alternative selected and also be more likely to support the decision. On the other hand, group decision-making is slower than individual decision-making. There is also a cost to the organization when employees spend their time in meetings rather than producing or selling. If one person dominates the decision-making process, the value of multiple inputs is lost.

Alcohol and Drug Abuse

Some poor performance such as unsafe practices, sloppy work, or frequent absences may be a symptom of alcohol or drug abuse on or off the job. These employees are expensive to the organization. They can hurt the organization by lower productivity. They are more likely to quit, more likely to cause accidents, have a higher use of disability and sick benefits, and increase insurance costs. Poor performance related to drinking may be more difficult for a supervisor to confront than illicit drug use. Because drinking is socially acceptable and problem drinking behavior generally is not well understood, the supervisor may sympathize with the employee who has a drinking problem. For example, a supervisor may overlook poor performance when he or she knows the employee is suffering from a hangover. To counteract this tendency, a supervisor must be aware and take action. In addition, supervisors should be aware of signs of drinking and drug use that can impair performance. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which prohibits discrimination on the basis of physical or mental disability, treats substance abuse arising from any addiction as a disability. Therefore, substance abuse may not be legal grounds for firing an employee. The supervisor should note that the federal antidiscrimination law treats substance abuse as a disability, and companies should encourage the employee to get help. Any actions taken with regard to the employee should focus on work performance, not on the substance abuse itself. Since the supervisor is responsible for ensuring a safe workplace for employees and others, it means that if an employee's suspected substance abuse is creating a hazard, the supervisor must act. The supervisor must treat each employee fairly and avoid discrimination.

directive counseling

Steps include 1. asking the employee questions about the specific problem, 2. questioning and listening until he or she understands the source of the problem, and 3. then suggesting ways to handle the problem Directive counseling may be used when the performance or behavior is unacceptable and the supervisor has a clear recommendation for the employee The supervisor may use directive counseling when the employee is being told that the performance or behavior will no longer be tolerated. This type of counseling will very likely be combined with discipline.

Guidelines for Group Decision-Making

The supervisor is wise to involve employees in some but not all decisions. When a decision must be made quickly, like in an emergency, the supervisor should probably make it alone. When the supervisor needs to build support for a solution, such as in cutting costs or improving productivity, the group process is useful. When the consequences of a poor decision are great, the benefits of the group's collective wisdom are worth the time and expense of gathering the input. The supervisor may use the employees for input or they may be asked to make the decision. Whenever supervisors ask for employee input, they should be sure they intend to use the information. Since a primary benefit of group decision-making is the variety of opinions and expertise, a supervisor leading a decision-making meeting should be sure that everyone is participating. The supervisor should concentrate on listening and encouraging the input of others. If someone is not participating, the supervisor may have to ask for his or her opinion or thoughts on the matter at hand.

external lotus of control

blame other things

supervisors & HR

Supervising problem employees is a delicate matter. The supervisor must be careful to motivate and correct rather than to generate hostility and resentment while following organization procedures, union requirements, and laws regarding fair employment practices. When problem employees do not respond to initial attempts at counseling, the supervisor should try discussing the problem with his or her boss, or consult with the human resources department. These resources can give the supervisor insights on how to handle the problem and what might be required by the organization's policy. They can also advise the supervisor in how to proceed without breaking laws, violating a contract with the union, or putting the organization at risk in case of a lawsuit. Help can be provided in suggesting next steps to be taken, reinforcement for the decision made by the supervisor, and actually sitting in on discipline sessions. For the new supervisor, a seasoned employee may be able to manipulate counseling or discipline sessions to his or her advantage and to the disadvantage of the supervisor. New supervisors may want to enlist the help of their boss and the human resources department before confronting the employee. Sometimes, just talking about a strategy helps the supervisor think of new ways to approach the problem.

Pay Information Secrecy

The compromise for maintaining privacy and sharing information is for the organization to publish pay ranges. Then employees will not know what specific people earn, but they can see what they can hope to earn as they get a raise, promotion, or transfer to another position.

Effective communication

The receiver can hear a message, or register sound in the brain, but not listen. Listening occurs when the person who hears sounds also pays attention and tries to understand. Effective communication is most likely to occur when the parties communicate from the receivers' viewpoint, learn from feedback, use strategies for effective listening, and overcome barriers to communication. Barriers to communication include information overload, misunderstandings, perceptions and prejudices, and biases in paying attention to messages. Ways to avoid these barriers include encoding messages carefully and simply observing feedback, avoiding name-calling, being aware of inferences and prejudices, and phrasing messages to appeal to the receiver. Effective communication is about more than simply talking and writing. It includes understanding feedback, the response or lack or response of the listener or reader, as well as the way the communicator interprets that response. Anything that can distort a message by interfering with the communication process is noise.

perceptions

The ways people see and interpret reality. When perceptions about others are false or biased, messages might get distorted

employee assistance programs

a company-based program for providing counseling and related help to employees whose personal problems are affecting their performance. This may be a referral service or a fully staffed department with helping professionals. These programs are voluntary and confidential

Discipline

action taken by the supervisor to prevent employees from breaking or continuing to break rules. broader than punishment. discipline is a teaching process Steps to administer discipline are usually dictated by company policy or union contract. The employee's rights are usually spelled out in the same documents. steps: 1) A warning may be written or oral. Some organizations have a policy that calls for an oral warning, to be followed by a written warning if performance does not improve. The warning should contain what the problem behavior is, how the behavior affects the organization, how and by when the behavior is expected to change, and what actions will be taken if the employee's behavior does not change. The usual practice is to have the employee sign the warning as an indication that the situation has been discussed with him or her. If the employee refuses to sign, the supervisor should make a note of the refusal. 2) A suspension involves requiring that the employee not come to work for a set period of time. The employee is not paid for this time off. The time period can be from one day to a month, depending on the seriousness of the problem. 3) A demotion is transferring an employee to a job involving less responsibility and, usually, lower pay. Some employees find a demotion a relief if they performed poorly because the job was more than he or she could handle. More often it leads to negative feelings. 4) Dismissal is also called termination, or discharge. This will cost the organization in that it requires the organization to recruit, hire, and train a new employee. However, it may be necessary if an employee's offense is serious or if he or she will not respond to other forms of discipline. Types of behavior that may lead to dismissal include failure to correct problem behavior, deliberate damage of the organization's property, fighting on the job, or engaging in dangerous practices. Before taking any action, the supervisor needs to have a clear picture of the problems. For this reason, many organizations may include in its disciplinary steps a category called suspension pending discharge. This step is used to complete the investigation, although it appears that the behavior warranted discharge

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

assumes employees' satisfaction and dissatisfaction stem from different sources. Dissatisfaction results from the absence of what Herzberg calls hygiene factors, which include salary and relationships with others. Satisfaction results from the presence of what he terms motivating factors, which include opportunities offered by the job. Employees are most productive when the organization provides a combination of desirable hygiene factors and motivating factors.

Vroom's Expectancy-Valence Theory

assumes that people act as they do to satisfy their needs. Victor Vroom set out to explain what determines the intensity of motivation. He decided that the degree to which people are motivated to act in a certain way depends on three things: 1) Valence-the value a person places on the outcome of a particular behavior, 2) Expectancy-the perceived probability that the behavior will lead to the outcome, and 3) Instrumentality-the perceived probability that the promised reward will actually be received. The strength of motivation equals the perceived value of the outcome times the perceived probability of the behavior resulting in the outcome. In other words, people are most motivated to seek results they value highly and think they can achieve. This theory is based on employees' perceptions of rewards and whether they are able to achieve those rewards. It is important to note that employees may place different values on rewards and their ability to achieve the outcome than does the supervisor. Supervisors need to determine from the employees what is rewarding and what is possible to achieve. To learn this, supervisors must be able to communicate well.

Theory X

assumes that people dislike work and try to avoid it, that they therefore must be coerced to perform, that they wish to avoid responsibility and would prefer to be directed, and that their primary need is for security. The leadership style of Theory X managers and supervisors tends to be autocratic.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

assumes that what motivates people is unmet needs. According to Maslow, the needs that motivate people fall into five basic categories: 1. physiological needs (the most basic need), 2. security needs, 3. social needs, 4. esteem needs, and 5.self-actualization needs (the highest-level need). Physiological needs are the ones required for survival. Security needs involve keeping oneself free from harm. Social needs are the desire for love, friendship, and companionship. Esteem needs are the need for self-esteem and the respect of others. Self-actualization needs describe the desire to live up to one's full potential. People may be seeking to meet more than one category of needs at a time.

McClelland's Achievement-Power-Affiliation Theory

based on the assumption that through life experiences, people develop various needs. The three needs include: 1) The need for achievement-the desire to do something better than it has been done before, 2) The need for power-the desire to control, influence, or be responsible for other people, and 3) The need for affiliation-the desire to maintain close and friendly personal relationships. People have all of these needs to some extent. The relative strength of the needs influences what will motivate a person.

entrepreneurial leadership

believing you play an important role at a company

Probability theory

body of techniques for comparing the consequences of possible decisions in a risk situation. A supervisor needs to know or be able to estimate the value of each possible outcome and the likelihood (probability) that this outcome will occur. A decision tree helps decision makers use probability theory. It is a graph or picture of all alternatives under consideration, showing the expected values of decisions in varying circumstances. Decision-making benefits from a logical process that will present alternatives in a format that displays the alternatives and consequences of selecting each of the possible alternatives. It is useful to the supervisor because it can show relationships and potential outcomes of each step of the decision-making process, and allows mathematical calculations by including probability factors or risks involved in each decision. This can obviously become quite complex for decisions with multiple parameters and risk, however even in its most simplistic form, decision trees can still be very useful.

Avoiding Communication Barriers

can arise if the sender fails to encode the message clearly, the message is lost in transmission, or the receiver misinterprets the message barriers may take the form of information overload, misunderstandings, and biases related to perception. When the supervisor is the receiver of a message, he or she needs to be careful to understand its true meaning. The supervisor should not hesitate to ask questions about unclear points. A supervisor also needs to recognize when people are intentionally vague or misleading. To avoid misinterpreting the words and behavior of others, a supervisor must be familiar with the communication styles of the various cultures of people with whom he or she works. Information about the values and customs of different cultures, of course, does not apply to every member of any culture, but it can sensitize a supervisor to areas in which extra care may be needed to promote understanding.

Ryan and Oestreich, authors of the "Cycle of Mistrust"

describe the combination of negative assumptions and self-protective behavior that traps both supervisors and employees in their efforts to communicate. They demonstrate how fear in the workplace is transmitted through verbal and nonverbal messages. This results in the loss of productivity as well as the negative results of communications and behavior. The cycle begins with the managers negative assumptions and has the following seven steps with examples: 1) Negative assumptions: A new manager is told that employees will test decisions and policies. Past experience reinforces this assumption. 2) Self-protective behavior: Without investigating, the manager wonders if employees are testing an attendance policy. A comment is made in a staff meeting that tardiness will not be tolerated. 3) Observed aggressive behavior: An employee is surprised by the comment and takes it personally. The employee is angry, embarrassed, and insulted. 4) Reinforce negative assumptions: The employee feels the boss is insensitive and has treated her unfairly. This may be used in future performance appraisals. 5) Self-protective behavior: The employee confronts the boss and demands specifics and clarification. 6) Observed aggressive behavior: The manager now feels uncomfortable by the defensive and aggressive behavior of the employee. 7) Reinforced negative assumptions: The manager is reinforced in the belief that employees will test decisions and policies.

informal communication

directed toward individual needs and interests and does not necessarily follow formal lines of communication. gossip: like small talk but centers around people. People use gossip to indicate what behavior is acceptable rumors: explanations, sometimes unfounded, for what is going on around us. When people are afraid, they spread rumors to ease their fear while trying to get at the facts. Thus, rumors tend to circulate chiefly during crises and conflicts—and they are often false. 1) Do not share any personal information about other employees. Discuss matters concerning others only when they truly need to know. 2) Keep company information to yourself, such as expansions or cutbacks, until the organization makes an official announcement Otherwise, if the information is inaccurate or the plans fall through, you could be embarrassed and upset your boss and employees. 3) If you hear a rumor, investigate it and find out the truth and the cause.

Establish and Maintaining Creative Work Climates

establish a work climate that encourages creative thinking is to show that he or she values creativity. When employees offer suggestions, the supervisor should listen attentively and look for the positive aspects of the suggestions. Then the supervisor should attempt to implement the suggestions and give the employee credit for the idea. Failure should be acknowledged as a sign that people are trying. Help employees see what can be learned from failures as well as from successes.

Decision-making tree

graph that helps decision-makers use the probability theory by showing the expected values of decisions in varying consequences

computer programs for decision making

have been developed to help people make decisions. Decision-making software leads users through the steps of the formal decision-making process. A database management program, on the other hand, systematically stores large amounts of data and makes it easy for the user to request and retrieve specific categories of data.

Active listening

hearing what the speaker is saying, seeking to understand the facts and feelings the speaker is trying to convey, and stating what you understand that message to be. If you want the receiver's attention, interest, and understanding, you must communicate from his or her viewpoint. Applying this principle includes tactics such as using understandable vocabulary, referring to shared experiences, and addressing the receiver's interests.

Groupthink

his is when individuals fail to think independently and realistically, preferring to enjoy consensus and closeness. Symptoms of groupthink include: 1) An illusion of being invulnerable. 2) Defending the group's position against any objections. 3) A view that the group is clearly moral, "the good guys". 4) Stereotyped views of opponents. 5) Pressure against group members who disagree. 6) Self-censorship or not allowing oneself to disagree. 7) An illusion that everyone agrees (because no one states an opposing view). 8) Self-appointed "mindguards," people who urge other group members to go along with the group. When the supervisor notices that his or her group is showing the symptoms of groupthink, it may be time to question whether the group is really looking for solutions. The group leader should be sure to encourage a variety of viewpoints by inviting suggestions and encouraging group members to listen with an open mind. Another way to overcome groupthink is to appoint one group member to act as devil's advocate, challenging the position of the majority.

decode

interpret. the receiver as well as the sender has an active role to play in communication. If the receiver is not playing that role, communication is not occurring. In many cases, this means the receiver of a message must listen to it rather than just hear it. Hearing means the brain is registering sounds. Listening means paying attention to what is being said and trying to understand the full message. This is the meaning of "decoding" a message.

The Pygmalion Effect

is the direct relationship between expectations and performance. This is similar to the well-used phrase of "self-fulfilling prophecy." When a supervisor relates the message that he or she does not expect employees to be able to accomplish a task, it is likely they won't. However, if the supervisor conveys high expectations, employees are likely to succeed.

Nonverbal messages

looks, gestures, body position, and noises such as laughter. Often these send a clearer message than the spoken word. The combination of verbal and nonverbal messages provides a clearer message than either type used separately.

Consensus

reaching a decision everyone can support. It does not mean that everyone is 100 percent satisfied, but that the agreement is something all members can live with.

Skinner's Reinforcement Theory

maintains that people's behavior is influenced largely by the consequences of their past behavior. Broadly speaking, people keep doing things that lead to consequences they like, and avoid doing things that have undesirable consequences. For example, praise feels good, so people tend to do things that get them praised. Supervisors can encourage or discourage a particular kind of behavior by the way they respond to the behavior. Consequences can be thought of as: 1) Reinforcement-the desired consequence for behavior. This term is used in the text to indicate positive consequences for desired behavior. This is also used to indicate the outcome for ceasing negative behavior. 2) Punishment-an unpleasant consequence of a behavior a supervisor wants to end. As indicated in the key terms, this is sometimes described as negative reinforcement. For long-term results, positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment. Punishment can lead to what is called "learned helplessness." Employees who are repeatedly punished will eventually believe that they simply are unable to succeed at the job and will begin to approach the job passively, based on the belief that they will fail no matter what.

feedback

may take the form of words or behavior. evaluating the words, facial expressions, and behavior of the people who received the message, the supervisor can determine whether they understood it.

communication process

occurs when people send and receive information. The process begins when someone encodes a message. The message is then transmitted either verbally or nonverbally. The receiver decodes and interprets the message. The message is shaped and filtered by personal experience, perceptions, and beliefs by both the sender and the receiver. In a conversation each person is alternately the sender and receiver.

Verbal messages

oral or written communication Oral messages can be face-to-face or use an electronic device such as a telephone or voice mail. Oral messages have the advantage of including the additional information transmitted by tone of voice and phrasing of the message. Verbal messages are also transmitted in written form. Letters, memos, and reports take longer to encode and transmit, but they have the advantage of leaving a record for the file.

Generating ideas

part of the group decision-making process. Individual members of the group may have differing opinions about the best decision. When differences of opinion occur, one of the first thoughts is to settle the differences democratically, or vote on it. Another decision-making method is by consensus of the group.

gainsharing

the company encourages employees to participate in making suggestions and decisions on how to improve the way the company or work group operates. As performance improves, employees receive a share of the greater earnings. This practice seeks to motivate through financial rewards and psychological rewards by making employees feel they have an important role as part of a team.

managing up

the efforts to learn about and match the style of one's manager

Organizational Grapevine

the path along which informal communication travels important to supervisors because employees use it as a source of information. Thus, a supervisor must expect that employees sometimes have information before the supervisor has delivered it. Supervisors also must realize that employees may be getting incorrect information through the grapevine, especially in times of crisis or conflict. 1) Be realistic about who communicates through informal channels, 2) Listen attentively to employees, and show genuine interest in their concerns, 3) When times are hard and employees are nervous, emphasize communication face-to-face, 4) Plant authentic positive messages, and 5) Be a trustworthy leader.

intrinsic reward

the personal satisfaction that comes directly from performing a task ex) personal satisfaction for helping out another person

counseling

the process of learning about an individual's personal problem and helping him or her resolve it. It may help them find ways to solve their problems. Working cooperatively with the supervisor gives employees a sense that the supervisor and organization care about them as a person, thus improving their job satisfaction Organization incur costs in coaching, additional training, and the learning curve, or the length of time it takes the employee to become fully competent and meet performance standards. In other words, the organization has continually increased its investment in this employee. It may be cheaper and good for employee morale to do what is necessary to help and keep this employee, as compared to the alternative of replacing the employee. Employees who receive needed counseling are motivated and more likely to meet performance standards. The improved attitude and behavior carry over to other employees' work as well. The failure of the troubled employee to carry his or her share of the load means others must make up for the loss, and a negative attitude brings down others around them. After counseling improves the problem employee's performance and attitude, the whole group tends to do better. Supervisors should counsel employees when they need help in determining how to resolve a problem that is affecting their work. The supervisor should focus on work performance or the lack of acceptable performance. The performance problems may be the result of personal problems. But they should help the employee resolve the problem only when qualified to do so. The supervisor must remember that he or she often lacks the training to help with many kinds of problems. In such cases the supervisor should simply listen, express his or her concern, and refer the employee to a professional trainer to handle that type of problem. The human resources department may be able to suggest sources of help. These are also good reasons to keep track of employees' performance and changes in performance. Knowing how each employee is doing at all times will help the supervisor detect when changes are taking place. It is in the best interest of the organization and the employee to recognize problems or potential problems early, so the employee has the best chance to improve and keep his or her performance record in the acceptable range.

nondirective counseling

the supervisor primarily listens, encouraging the employee to look for sources of the problem and to propose possible solutions the supervisor and employee will find it most beneficial to help the employee develop and change, rather than to look only for solutions to a specific problem The interview ends with the supervisor scheduling a follow-up meeting

which of the following characteristics of a leader must a supervisor consider when choosing an effective leadership style?

tolerance for ambiguity

Detecting and Confronting Troubled Employees

troubled employees include people who are substance abusers or have psychological problems. If disciplinary action or counseling seems ineffective at resolving the problem, the supervisor may have a troubled employee. When an employee is suspected of drug use, some organizations have a policy confirming the suspicion through the use of drug testing. Because there may be another explanation for symptoms that look like the effects of using alcohol or illicit drugs, the supervisor should avoid making accusations about what he or she believes is happening. Discussions with the employee should focus on job performance. do not ignore During the confrontation, the employee may become angry, defensive, or come up with excuses that sound particularly sad and compelling. Supervisors should avoid taking on the role of doctor, counselor, or police officer. The supervisor must continue to focus on the employee's behavior on the job and the way it affects the organization, and that the employee's behavior must improve.

Formal organizational communication

work related, follows the lines of the organization chart, and is directed toward accomplishing the goals of the organization.

Theory Y

working is as natural an activity as resting or playing, and people will work hard to achieve objectives to which they are committed. Supervisors who adhere to Theory Y focus on developing the potential of their employees and tend to have a democratic leadership style.