Midterm - Asian Thought
Hindu Life Stages and Life Aims
Four Life Stages: 1. Student 2. Householder 3. Forest dweller 4. Sannyasi (renouncer) both Forest dweller and Sannyasi aim for Moksha (spiritual liberation) Four Life Aims: 1. kama (pleasure, enjoyment) 2. artha (wealth and worldly success) 3. dharma (duty, fulfillment of social responsibilities) 4. moksha (spiritual liberation) Stages and Aims reflect an attempt (in the Dharma Shastras) to reconcile the worldly focus of the Vedic thread and the spiritual focus of the Upanishadic and Puranic threads of the Hindu tradition. Stages 1-2 and Aims 1-3 reflect the Vedic thread, while Stages 3-4 and Aim 4 reflect the Upanishadic and Puranic threads.
Devotion to Krishna in the Gita
Gita syntheses different threads of the Hindu tradition is with its emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Krishna as a personified form of Brahman. Here the Gita also clearly manifests the third thread of the Hindu tradition: devotionalism. Notice how the Gita interweaves the practice of bhakti yoga with the other yogas: See e.g. Bhagavad Gita, pp. 107-108, 117, 145, 202, and 207-208.
Puranic devotionalism:
Goal: attain moksha by means of spiritual renunciation and devotion (bhakti) Texts: Puranas, final written form 500 -1000 CE (and Upanishads)
Upanishadic spirituality:
Goal: attain spiritual liberation (moksha) by means of spiritual renunciation (sannyasa = interiorized yajna) and wisdom or mystical insight (jnana) Texts: Upanishads, 800-400 BCE meaning of life? ACHIEVE SPIRITUAL LIBERATION FROM SAMSARA = MOKSHA Many = ONE (FOCUS ON ONENESS) Key to pefection: knowledge (jnana) and renunciation (Sannyasa) Meditation Yoga (Dhyana) is important Samsara is a problem... Karma binds u to samsara thus making it hard to achieve moksha emphasis on unity of existence MONISM AND PANENTHEISM ( belief that "all is in God") ATMAN = BRAHMAN Interiorization of sacrifice - END EGO = REALIZE TRUE SELF
Vedic ritualism & morality:
Goal: maintain rita by means of ritual (yajna) and moral action (dharma) Texts: Early Vedas, starting with Rig Veda, written down around 1500 BCE (and later Dharma Shastras) worldy focus Values: virtue (dharma), Success (artha), and enjoyment (kama) Key to perfection: Ritual action (karma) like yajna (ritual/ sacrifice = external sacrifice) Plurality of existence, CASTE DIVISIONS MAIN AIMS: Maintain Rita, Worldy success (artha), and fufill one's dharma (duty/responsibility = do our part to uphold rita)
Dualistic/ Transcedntism
God is seperate from World G ----- W he creates outside himself
is there a hierarchy among the yogas?
In Chapter 3, Krishna seems to say that karma yoga is superior to jnana yoga. See p. 104. Yet is karma yoga itself a step on the way to dhyana yoga? See 139. And is dhyana yoga, in turn, a means to bhakti yoga? See 141 and 145. Chapter 12 seems to say that bhakti yoga is higher than jnana (and dhyana/raja) yoga: see 207. (However, on 208 the issue is presented more complexly.) It is said that the first third of Gita focusses on karma yoga, the second on jnana and dhyana yoga, and last third on bhakti yoga (the divisions are in fact not this neat). karma yoga → dhyana/jnana yoga → bhakti yoga Yet is this an ascending order or a descending order? Does the order of presentation in the text reflect the order of progress up the mountain? Or, does it begin with the hardest and steepest path or paths, and then, for those unable to pursue those, end with the easiest path that everyone can follow? This interpretation is supported by the idea that the different yogas are appropriate for different personality types (see Koller, 115).
Meditation (dhyana yoga) in the Bhagavad Gita
In addition to karma yoga, in the Gita Krishna also teaches Arjuna dhyana yoga (often referred to as raja yoga, or kingly yoga), the yoga of meditation. See especially the end of Chapter 5 and all of Chapter 6. In Chapter 6, Arjuna complains that "the mind is restless, turbulent, powerful, violent; trying to control it is like trying to tame the wind" (143b). Krishna teaches: "Wherever the mind wanders ... lead it within ... become one with Brahman" (bottom of 142)." "When meditation is mastered, the mind is unwavering like the flame of a lamp in a windless place" (top of 142). "Strive to still your thoughts. Make your mind one-pointed in meditation, and your heart will be purified" (141). You will "see the Self in every creature and all creation in the Self" (143).
Lingam/Yoni:
Together they represent the Shiva/Shakti, substance/energy or male/female duality of reality. The lingam is the static axis (unchanging substance) of reality, and the yoni is the fecund womb of dynamic plurality. (See Koller, 173)
"You, O Agni, are Indra ... you are the wide-striding Vishnu ..." hymn to Agni in the Rig Veda (HO#1, p. 5). What does this mean? If not polytheism what is it?
The hymns to various Gods throughout the Rig Veda would seem to imply "polytheism" (many Gods), .........and yet the cosmogonies might seem to imply rather a kind of "pantheism" (all is God). two terms which characterize the metaphysics and theology of the Rig Veda..... 1. Henotheism = belief in many "faces" of one God 2. Panentheism = belief that "all is in God" For details see Handout "Henotheism and Panentheism"
Gita's Karma Yoga:
A synthesis of dutiful action in the world with spiritual renunciation/liberation
Panantheism
ALL IS IN GOD (RIG VEDA) - 1/4 of God is Earth WE ARE IN GOD the world is within GOD
Teaching of the Upanishads
ATMAN = BRAHMAN Yet, the Hindu sages of the Upanishads also pointed to another way, an inner rather than an outer way. By peeling back the layers of the self (see the diagram on Koller, 25), we can discover a Self (Atman) that is deeper, and wider, than the shallow and narrow sense of our ego (jiva) as separate from the rest of the world ACHIEVE THIS BY: "In profound meditation, they found, when consciousness is so acutely focused that it is utterly withdrawn from the body and mind, it enters a kind of singularity in which the sense of a separate ego disappears." (Easwaran, 26) WHAT HAPPENS: One discovers, beneath the layers of the body, thoughts, feelings, and even personality of the ego, a "self-illuminating consciousness" that is beneath the very distinction of subject and object (see Koller, 26t); it is simply the universe becoming aware of itself.
Gandhi and Easwaran's Metaphorical Interpretation of Gita
According to Easwaran, "the Gita not only does not develop the action of the Mahabharata but is rather at odds with it" (19m) "To those who take this dramatic setting as part of the spiritual instruction and get entangled in the question of the Gita justifying war, Gandhi had a practical answer: just base your life on the Gita sincerely and systematically and see if you find killing or even hurting others compatible with its teachings. The very heart of the Gita's message is to see the Lord in every creature and act accordingly" (21). To see God in every creature, one first has to see God in oneself—indeed see God as "our deepest Self." "Krishna is not some external being, human or superhuman, but the spark of divinity that lies at the core of the human personality." (21b) Hence, the setting of war in the Gita can be understood "as metaphor for the perennial war between the forces of light and the forces of darkness in every human heart." (21m)
What Is the Means to Moksha: Jnana (mystical knowledge) or Bhakti (devotion)? Is Brahman Personal or Transpersonal?
According to Shankara, Moksha (spiritual liberation) is attained by overcoming ignorance (avidya) and a mystical knowledge (jnana) of a transpersonal Brahman. Ultimately for Shankara, Brahman transcends describable qualities: Nirguna Brahman. Even when he does depict Brahman with describable qualities (Saguna Brahman), he speaks of transpersonal qualities of Sat-Chit-Ananda. By contrast, Ramanuja and Madhva both defend a popular form of Hinduism that emphasizes devotion (bhakti) to a personal God. In other words, they understand ultimate reality as Saguna Brahman—and not just as Shankara conceives of Saguna Brahman with the transpersonal qualities of Sat-Chit-Ananda, but with the personal qualities of Ishvara (Lord). Specifically, Ramanuja and Madhva both worship Brahman as Vishnu. The Hindu devotionalism that Ramanuja and Madhva were philosophically defending is rooted in the Puranas (written down 500-1000 ce). These texts were based on oral traditions. Filled with mythical stories and instructions for devotional practices, they became the basis for the various sects of the mature Hindu religion: Vaishnavism (Vishnu worship), Shaivism (Shiva worship), and Shaktism (Devi/Shakti worship). (See Koller, chapter 11.)
Agni, Soma, Indra, and Vac
Agni is the symbol of fire's awesome power." "Soma, perhaps a hallucinogen, is the symbol of ecstasy and illumination." Indra "symbolizes the courage and strength people need to resist their enemies and protect their families and communities." "Vac, whose name means speech, is the goddess of communication." "Speech provides people a was of controlling things by giving them names." (Koller, 18)
How to understand the hymns to the gods in the Rig Veda? What do the gods represent? What is the point of performing rituals and chanting hymns to them?
Example: Yajna/ Fire altar to Agni The Vedic Gods "symbolize the fundamental powers of existence."
Krishna
"As an amorous youth making love to the cowherd girls, Krishna reminds his devotees that the ecstatic fulfillment of the deepest longings in the embrace of the beloved symbolizes the loving relationship to God that is ultimate salvation." (Koller 167b)
Uddalaka's Lessons to His Son, Shvetaketu
"As by knowing one lump of clay, dear one, we come to know all things made of out of clay—that they differ only in name and form, while the stuff of which all are made is clay." (HO#2, 182) "As the rivers flowing east and west merge into the sea and become one with it, forgetting they were ever separate rivers, so do all creatures lose their separateness when they merge at last into pure Being." (HO#2, 184b-185t) See the salt-in-water lesson on pp. 186b-187t. What does it mean that Shvetaketu cannot "see" the salt anywhere, but he can "taste" it everywhere?
Indicating Ultimate Reality by Saying What It's Not
"As the seers began to realize more clearly that Brahman could not adequately be described appealing to their experience of the world of appearance, they attempted to define this reality in a negative way." (Koller, 23m) Like many mystics and "negative theologians" in the biblical traditions, these Hindu thinkers sometimes said that you cannot say anything about ultimate reality, about Brahman. ----------To "define" something is to point out its limits, its differences from other things. After all, you cannot define (i.e., show the limiting contours of) something that is infinite! Negative theologians have thus tried to approach God by saying what He is not. This is called the via negativa, the path of negation. Similarly, Hindu thinkers have said that the only thing we can say about Brahman is "neti, neti" = Brahman is "not [limited to] this, not [limited to] that."
Kali
"Even though Kali is the embodiment of terror and anger ... she is not the embodiment of evil, but rather of the power to overcome and destroy evil." (Koller 169)
Why "Karma Yoga" Should Initially Strike You as an Oxymoron
"Karma" literally means "action." Karma-phala means the "fruits" (results or effects) of actions. In Upanishadic spirituality, however, karma has a more specific meaning: "egoistic action that binds one to Samsara." •Of course, "good karma" is better than "bad karma," but even "good karma" is "bad" insofar as it is egoistically motivated action that binds one to a way of life (and rebirth) that perpetuates suffering. •For example, you can give a lot of money to a charity, or you can do a lot of volunteer work, but if your motive is to gain recognition or status, then even these good acts are selfishly motivated and reinforce an egoistic mindset. "Yoga" means a "spiritual discipline that leads to Moksha, i.e., to a liberation from Samsara." Hence the paradox: Karma means action the binds one to Samsara. Yoga means spiritual discipline that liberates one from Samsara. So, it would seem that "karma yoga" is a contradiction in terms!
Shiva
"Shiva is a paradoxical god. He is simultaneously the lord of death and of creation and the cosmic dancer and immobile yogi. ... he is also regarded as transcending all polarities, beyond all images." Koller 170) Shiva as Nataraja, Lord of the Dance. "The entire universe is the effect of Shiva's eternal dance, which simultaneously creates and destroys the world in a never-ending process." (171)
Karma
("the principle of self-determination through action") [13]: "because every action inevitably produces its effects, therefore it is our actions that make us the kinds of persons we are" [xxviii]). are terms from the later "Upanishadic thread."
nama-rupa
(name and form).
Brahman's identity
(ultimate reality) are terms from the later "Upanishadic thread."
FORMS OF SHAKTI
.On par with Vishnu and Shiva (note that Brahma generally plays a more minor role) is the Goddess (Devi) or female aspect of divinity, often referred to as Shakti and thought of as the divine energy that pervades and gives life to the cosmos. - In the form of Lakshmi, she is the goddess of fortune and prosperity, and the consort of Vishnu. - As Parvati, she is the goddess of love, fertility, and devotion, and is the consort of Shiva. - Parvati also manifests as Kali, the goddess who symbolizes the destructive force of change, death, and conquering evil and ignorance; but at the same time she is also as a loving mother who protects and saves those who rely on her (see Koller, 168-170).
The Three Pramanas = Sources of Knowledge
1. Testimony 1a. Revelation From God/Universe 1b Testimony from sages } yoga (spiritual discipline) 2a yogic perception 2. Perception 2b normal perception 3. Reasoning (inference)
The three historical layers—or threads—of the Hindu tradition
1. Vedic ritualism & morality 2. Upanishadic spirituality 3. Puranic devotionalism Each newer layer does not simply cover over and replace the earlier ones, but rather they are woven together to become the three "threads" that make up the "rope" of the Hindu tradition. Bhagavad Gita weaves the threads alot
Why You Should Be Confused by Chapter Two of the Gita!
At the beginning of Chapter 3, Arjuna says to Krishna: "Your advice seems inconsistent. Give me one path to follow to the supreme good." (104) Indeed, Krishna's teachings in Chapter 2 do seem inconsistent and confusing. I think that is part of the point. The text is showing us the tensions between the Vedic and Upanishadic threads of the Hindu tradition. Krishna first offers Arjuna an austere Upanishadic/Advaita (sannyasa, jnana yoga) solution: 89-91. But it appears that Arjuna cannot make the jump to that level; moreover, he does not see how that level can be resolved with his worldly duties and concerns. Krishna then abruptly switches gears (or threads) and gives him Vedic (dharma) reasons for fighting: 92-93. Yet Krishna also implies that these Vedic reasons do not go deep enough (93-94)—not to mention the fact that Arjuna's dilemma here is that to do his dharma and fight cannot lead to an unambiguously good end. The ultimate problem with the Vedic reasons is that they remain within the domain of Samsara (here: the realm of the gunas). Even heaven (not to be equated with Moksha!) remains a temporary abode in the cycle of birth and death. (93b) Yet Krishna does not recommend that Arjuna take the Upanishadic path of total renunciation of worldly action. Rather, he teaches a path of renunciation in the midst of action: karma yoga (94-95t). ...and, in this "kit and caboodle" Chapter 2, Krishna also touches on dhyana yoga and bhakti yoga ... just to make sure that we're really confused—and curious!
A Synthetic Interpretation of War in the Gita
In fact, Gandhi himself was not an absolute pacifist. He told his son that bravely fighting in defense of someone's life was more virtuous than cowardly running away. (Of course he thought that it is most virtuous, and brave, to resist non-violently when that was possible.) Maybe the best way to understand the setting of way is with a Synthetic Interpretation, which understands the war to be both a literal external war and also a metaphorical internal war. Maybe the Gita is saying that we need to constantly engage in an internal struggle over the question of what is motivating our actions (karma), and how to act, in a world of strife and struggle (Samsara)—a world wherein even walking and breathing, not to mention eating, can destroy life. It is a fact that we live only by killing—the food that is keeping you alive today came from sacrificing the life of another living organism. "Life is food," as one Upanishad tersely puts the point. War is an extreme example of the strife and suffering inherent in Samsara. Perhaps a truly unavoidable just war—which the war in the Mahabharata is supposed to have been—is also an extreme example of ethical duty (dharma), where we must not only risk our lives, but even carry out the terrible "lesser evil" of harming or even killing some of our sinful or deluded human cousins when that is the only way to prevent them from harming or killing some of our other more innocent or righteous cousins. In any case, surely we need to engage in an intense inner struggle of spiritual discernment before deciding whether any war is truly unavoidable and just. Maybe this synthetic teaching about internal struggle about the necessity of external violence is the best way to understand the setting of war in the Gita.
The Traditional Literal Interpretation vs. the Mystics' Metaphorical Interpretation of War in the Gita
In her introduction to Chapter One, Diana Morrison tells us that "the orthodox Hindu viewpoint [is] that the Gita condones war for the warrior class [kshatriya caste]: "it is the dharma, the moral duty, of soldiers to fight in a good cause, though never for evil leaders. ... According to this orthodox view, the lesson of the Mahabharata (and therefore of the Gita) is that although war is evil, it is an evil that cannot be avoided" (75). By contrast, she says, the mystics' point of view is that "the battle is an allegory, a cosmic struggle between good and evil. ... According to this interpretation, Arjuna is asked to fight not his kith and kin but his own lower self" (75).
Rig Veda
In the Rig Veda, we find not one but three major cosmogonies (accounts of the origin of the universe). one is god sacrificing himself/parts of himself --- they became different parts of the caste system
Upanishadic Spirituality and the Oneness of All Life
In the Sacrifice of Primal Man cosmogony in the Rig Veda, we see both a "panentheistic" vision of the original unity of the universe, and a deep textual and historical root of caste discrimination in Hinduism. In the Upanishads, we see a stress on the oneness of all life. This teaching of the oneness of all life has led some Hindus to criticism caste discriminations. See the Instructor Handout: "The Ethical Implications of the Upanishads' Stress on the Oneness of All Life."
expression qualify Brahman as a Personal Deity
Ishvara: the "Lord," the general name for Brahman experienced as God in the form of a personal deity. The Trimurti (Hindu Trinity): Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver), and Shiva (the Destroyer/Regenerator) names as Persons God's functions. Most Hindus worship Vishnu (often as Krishna), Shiva, or Shaki (often as Kali) In practice, each of these forms or "faces of God" can be worshiped "henotheistically," that is, as an ishta devata (chosen deity) that absorbs all divine attributes and powers.
Being in the Zone of Karma Yoga
Karma yoga is a special kind of action that no longer binds one to Samsara. Act, but renounce the fruits of your action (karma-phala-tyaga). See pp. 94-96, 104ff. (chap. 3), 118-119. It is a matter of total detachment in the midst of total engagement, "inaction in the midst of action" (118). Karma yoga is thus spiritual renunciation in the midst of total engagement in dutiful action. Easwaran often translates karma yoga as "selfless service." Gandhi or Mother Theresa—who were completely committed to acting for the sake of others—could be considered to be paradigmatic karma yogis. But I think we all get at least a taste of karma yoga whenever we are fully immersed in an activity without obsessing about the fruits of the action. Think about the difference between "choking" and "being in the zone" when playing sports in a big game, or performing on stage in front of a big audience, or taking a big test, or talking during a big interview. We choke when we are self-consciously worrying about the outcome; we are in the zone when we are fully present and fully engaged--letting the chips fall where they may, or, as Gandhi says, letting God take care of the results (see 54).
Madhva's Source-Reflection Argument:
Koller points out an apparent inconsistency in Madhva's metaphysics: "But if they are different substances, then it is hard to see how things and selves—as ultimate substances—could depend for their existence upon a third substance, for to be a substance means to exist independently and in itself." (Koller, 161m) In other words, if what it means to be a substance is to be separate and independent from other substances, how could a substance be separate and yet dependent? In fact, Madhva had a reply to this kind of objection, known as his "source-reflection argument." He said that the relation between selves and Brahman is like the relation between the moon and reflections of the moon in drops of water. The moon and its reflections are separate substances, and yet, although the moon does not depend on the reflections, the reflections do depend on the moon for their existence.
Different kinds of theisms:
Monotheism = belief in one God Polytheism = belief in many Gods Henotheism = belief in many "faces" of one God Pantheism = belief that "all is God" Panentheism = belief that "all is in God" Transcendent (or dualistic) theism = belief that God is outside the world
Choosing a deity
Most Hindus have an ishta devata, a "chosen deity," that is to say, a face of God to which they devote themselves. The various sects of Hinduism can be broadly divided into three groups: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism
The Chandogya Upanishad (HO#2) - The importance of Self Awareness
Note the critique of the limits of Vedic Ritualism: 182t, 188b-189t What is the "spiritual wisdom," the "knowledge of the Self" that liberates one from sorrow? Uddalaka speaks enigmatically of "that spiritual wisdom which enables you to hear the unheard, think the unthought, and know the unknown" (HO#2, 182m). Koller says that "this ultimate Self cannot be known by any ordinary knowledge" because "whatever is seen, heard, and understood is always an object known by the human subject, and not the knowing subject itself." He goes on to say that "the Self that is the ultimate subject cannot be known as an object," but, nevertheless, "it can be realized directly in total self-awareness, where it is illuminated by its own light" (Koller, 26).
Madhva and Ramanuja vs. Shankara
One of Madhva's main argument for his pluralism, and against Shankara's monism, is that "all knowledge is based on perception," and perception necessarily implies differences. All perceptions require a subject/object duality and present differences between distinct objects. See Koller, 160m. Ramanuja and Madhva claim that Shankara's distinctionless monism is unteachable, since teaching implies differences between words, and and between the referents of those words (which are presumably separated in space), and also the process of teaching, or giving and argument, takes time. How would Shankara reply? Ramanuja and Madhva also claim that Shankara cannot account for evil and suffering. Why? For these "debates" across time between Shankara
What is the motivation and aim of philosophy?
Plato and Aristotle said that philosophy begins in wonder and with the desire for knowledge. Yet Asian philosophies have tended to start with the problem of suffering, and have understood "enlightenment" to be a kind of wisdom that is spiritually liberating. Thus, Asian philosophy have tended to involve "holistic practices" or "spiritual disciplines" (yogas, see Koller, xxviii) in conjunction with rational thinking.
Sankhya Metaphysical Principles adopted by the Bhagavad Gita
Purusha = Spirit, pure consciousness, detached "witness" of all mental and physical activity vs Prakriti = the psycho-physical world of matter/energy/mind Prakriti is made up of three gunas = qualities or interwoven "strands" that make up the fabric of experiential reality: sattva = the quality of harmony, equilibrium, self-control, detachment, light, purity, goodness rajas = the quality of passionate energy, conscious but uncontrolled and/or egocentric activity tamas = the quality of inertia, ignorance, unconscious instinct, darkness These gunas are the qualitative strands that make up the physical and mental world of our experience. Note how these qualities are both physical and mental. For example, both the weather and one's mind can be "foggy" (tamas), or "stormy" (rajas), or "clear" (sattva).
Upanishadic Spirituality:
Seek spiritual liberation (moksha) by means of renunciation (sannyasa) of the egoistic action (karma) that binds once to Samsara
The Three Vedanta Philosophies Compared (Upanishad interpretations)
Shankara's Advaita (nondualism) philosophy teaches that Atman is absolutely identical to Brahman. It entails a metaphysical "monism," according to which ultimate reality is a distinctionless One. The apparent plurality of selves and things in the world is a result of Maya, which can be understood negatively as an illusory superimposition of separateness on unity, or positively as the creative manifestation or expressive "play" (lila) of Brahman. Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualism) philosophy entails a "panentheism," according to which "all is in God," yet God or Brahman is a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. See Koller, 158m. Brahman is the ultimate "substance" of reality, whereas the plurality of Atmans and things are real "qualities" (i.e., attributes or "modes") of this substance. Madhva's Dvaita (dualism) philosophy puts forth a "dualistic or transcendent theism," according to which Atman and Brahman are distinct substances. More fully elaborated, his thought entails a metaphysical "pluralism," according to which Brahman (God), Atmans (selves), and things are each eternally separate substances. See "5 differences" (Koller, 160b).
Shankara's Advaita Vedanta Philosophy
Shankara's Advaita Vedanta: A-dvaita means "not two," meaning a metaphysical Nondualism (Atman=Brahman) Shankara's metaphysics could also be called a Monism, since it maintains that ultimate reality is One and that the Many is "Maya." The world of many things spread out in space and changing over time, according to the law of causality, is not ultimately real. Yet the world of Maya is relatively real. Somewhat like Plato Allegory of the Cave, Shankara thinks there are levels of reality and consciousness. In the fourth level of consciousness (turiya), one experiences Atman-Brahman directly. Ultimately, this experience is ineffable; none of our words and concepts do it justice. The last three things we can say about it are that it is experienced as absolute Being (Sat), consciousness (Chit), and bliss (Ananda), but all at once as Sacchidananda. See the Instructor Handout "Shankara's Advaita Vedanta" for details
Rig Veda
Shows both panentheism and pantheism "emcopassing the earth" VS "god is bigger than the earth" BUT FOCUS ON PANENTHEISM - 1/4 of God is Earth WE ARE IN GOD
The Four Castes in Traditional Hindu Society
Since the time of the Rig Veda (see verse 12 in "The Sacrifice of Primal Man" cosmogony in HO#1), Hindu society has separated people into the following four varnas or castes (Koller calls them "classes"): •brahmin: priests and teachers •kshatriya: guardians (military and political) •vaishya: merchants and farmers •shudra: laborers and servants There are also many subcastes or jatis (Koller calls them "castes"). Presumably, the reason for this "division of labor" was that "the essential functions of society must be fulfilled by the persons best suited to perform these functions" (Koller, 116). Under the influence not of the West but also of Hindu reformers such as Gandhi, social discrimination based on caste was outlawed in India's new constitution of 1947. Yet old habits die hard. In fact, however, there is another ancient tradition in Hinduism: the Upanishadic stress on the "oneness of life" called into question the legitimacy of such discrimination long ago (see handout "Ethical Implications of the Upanishads").
Are the yogas separate but equal paths up the same spiritual mountain?
Sometimes the yogas are presented as if they were different paths up the same mountain: Easwaran writes: "Like a person walking around the same object, the Gita takes more than one point of view. Whenever Krishna describes one of the traditional paths to God he looks at it from the inside, extolling its virtues over the others." (50) Krishna does say at one point: "As men approach me, so I receive them. All paths, Arjuna, lead to me." (117) What determines which is the best path for a person? Perhaps it depends on the personality and temperament of that person. In the terms of the Gita, perhaps it depends on which "guna" dominates his or her personality. (See Koller, 115) For those whose personality is dominated by sattva ➞ jnana yoga and dhyana yoga For those whose personality is dominated by rajas ➞ karma yoga For those whose personality is dominated by tamas ➞ bhakti yoga
The Three Pramanas
Sources of Knowledge
Caste system
The Hindu caste system can be traced back to one of the earliest Hindu creation myths or "cosmogonies." The social hierarchy was built right into the order of the cosmos, as is reflected in the first "cosmogony" (account of the origin of the cosmos) in the Rig Veda: The Sacrifice of Primal Man (or Cosmic Person). See verses 11-12 in HO#1, p. 14 (see also Koller, 19). •brahmin (Brahman, priestly caste) = mouth •kshatriya (Prince, ruling and military caste) = arm •vaishya (common people, farmers and merchants) = thighs •shudra (serfs, laborers and servants) = feet TIED TO PANENTHEISM
Relations Among the Four Yogas in the Bhagavad Gita
The Gita attempts to show how the various spiritual paths—karma yoga, dhyana/raja yoga, jnana yoga, and bhakti yoga—are complementary. (On jnana yoga, see e.g. the beginning and the end of chapter 3; on dhyana/raja yoga, see chapter 6; on bhakti yoga, see e.g. the end of chapter 6 and chapter 12.) •Is each yoga appropriate to a particular type of person? (See Gita, chapter 18; Koller, p. 115; and the following slide) •Is there a hierarchy among the yogas? If so, what is the hierarchy? •The Gita focuses first on karma yoga, then on jnana and dhyana (raja) yoga, and finally on bhakti yoga. But is this moving upwards or downwards on the hierarchy? •Or is there no hierarchy, but rather just "different paths up the same mountain"?
Karma Yoga as a Synthesis of the Vedic Dharma with Upanishadic Spirituality
The Gita introduces a major new teaching of "karma yoga," which attempts to reconcile the tension between the Vedic emphasis on worldly action according to one's duty (dharma) and the Upanishadic emphasis on spiritual renunciation of worldly concerns and attachments. The teaching of karma yoga thus synthesizes the duty to act with the renunciation of attachment to the fruits of action: karma-phala-tyaga = "renunciation of the fruits of action" (see Bhagavad Gita, pp. 251-252). It is thus possible to attain moksha in the midst of samsara, not by renouncing (sannyasa) all action, but rather by renouncing (tyaga) the fruits of action, that is, by way of nishkama-karma = "action without selfish desire." Hence, this teaching of karma yoga synthesizes the Vedic and Upanishadic threads of the Hindu tradition insofar as karma yoga entails spiritual renunciation in the midst of dutiful action.
Emanation rather than Creation
The Hymn of Origins ends, not just with a confession of ignorance, but with a suggestion that even the highest God does not know the origin of creation! (HO#1, p. 17) Another cosmogony asks: "Who, among the gods, was the One God above...?" (16). But it says that even he was born or evolved from a Golden Embryo (15). The Rig Veda presents us with cosmogonies of emanation rather than creation myths: "the idea of a creator separate from the universe is itself foreign to the Rig Veda" (Koller, 18b). The universe evolved or emanated from a divine origin that transcends yet embraces all things. This idea of an original Oneness is further developed in the Upanishads.
Role of Brahmins and Yanjna
The brahmins are the priests, the highest of the Hindu castes. They perform the rituals that maintain the Rita. Rita is a key word that means "order." It refers to both the physical and moral order of the universe. "Nature, deities, and persons are all subject to the demands of rita." (Koller, 19) The priests, brahmins, were responsible for performing the sacrificial rituals (yanjna) and chanting the hymns that would maintain the order of the cosmos, preventing such calamities as floods and droughts.
The Setting of War - Gita
The setting of the Bhagavad Gita is the beginning of this great war. The Gita begins with Krishna driving Arjuna's chariot between the armies. Just as he is about to blow his conch to signal the beginning of the war, he looks over at all his relatives—cousins, uncles, etc.—that he is about to kill or be killed by, and he is overcome by sorrow, casts down his bow and arrow, and says: "How can we gain happiness by killing members of our own family?" (81t) Yet in response, Krishna, at the start of the second chapter, says: "This despair and weakness in a time of crisis are [lowly] and unworthy of you, Arjuna. ... Arise with a brave heart and destroy the enemy." (88m) The remainder of the Gita consists of Krishna, who reveals himself to be God, teaching Arjuna about the meaning of life and, especially, about the four yogas as the paths to ultimate spiritual liberation. At the end—spoiler alert!—Krishna manages to convince Arjuna to get up and fight.
Tat Tvam Asi
The true Self, the Atman, they realized, is identical with Brahman, the one source and substance of the universe. Their formula for this identity is "Tat tvam asi" = "That thou art" or "You are That." (see Koller 27-28; and HO#2, 183) In other words, : Atman = Brahman. "Only one ultimate reality exists, although it appears to be two because it can be approached either by looking for the ground of things or by looking for the ground of the Self." "Thus, although the search for the ground of external reality, Brahman, had apparently ended in frustration because Brahman was beyond all possible description, the sages now realized that Brahman could be known by the self-certifying experience of complete self-awareness, because Brahman was identical with the ultimate subject, Atman." (Koller, 27b-28t)
the Hindu Trimurti (three forms) (Recall "henotheism" = many faces of one God)
The word "person" comes from the Latin persona, which originally meant a "mask" that a theater actor wears on stage. In this sense, the personal forms and personalities of the Hindu deities are like the Many personas, faces, of the One God. Brahma (Creator) Vishnu (Preserver) Shiva (Destroyer/ Regenerator
The "Wonderful and Terrible" Theophany in Chap. 11 of the Gita
Theophany - a visible manifestation to humankind of God or a god. Chapter 11 is a climactic chapter in which which Arjuna asks Krishna to show himself in all his "infinite glory." It is an overwhelming experience, at once both "wonderful and terrible" (197t). like as if "a thousand suns were to rise in the heavens at the same time" (195m). This is experienced both as the loving warmth: "your radiance warms the cosmos"(197t); and also as the "terrible radiance" (198m) of an all-consuming fire that makes Arjuna "shake in terror" (197). Finally "the Lord once again assumed the gentle form of Krishna and consoled his devotee, who had been so afraid" (202).
Vedantas (3)
Vedanta = "end of the Vedas" = the Upanishads. All three Vedanta philosophies claim to be based on the Upanishads. But they read them very differently, and their philosophies are very different. Indeed, the three Vedanta philosophies present three radically different and competing ways of understanding the self Atman) in relation to the world and God (Brahman). The Three Great Vedanta Philosophers 1. Shankara 8th Century Advaita Vedanta 2. Ramanuja 11th Century Vishishtadvaita Vedanta 3. Madhva 13th Century Dvaita Vedanta
Three Threads of the Hindu Tradition
Vedic ritualism/morality: •Goal: maintain rita by means of ritual (yajna) and moral action (dharma) •Texts: Vedas and Dharma Shastras Upanishadic spirituality: •Goal: attain moksha by means of spiritual renunciation (sannyasa = interiorized yajna) and jnana •Texts: Upanishads •Philosophy: Vedanta philosophies, especially Shankara's Advaita Vedanta Puranic devotionalism: •Goal: attain moksha by means of spiritual renunciation and bhakti •Texts: Puranas (and Upanishads) •Philosophies: Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and Madhva's Dvaita Vedanta
The Realization of Oneness through Meditation
We suffer because we identify with our egos that are separate from others and subject to constant change. We are liberated from suffering when we identify with the Self (Atman) which is identical to the Infinite Brahman. "It is the Infinite that is the source of abiding joy because it is not subject to change." "Where one realizes the indivisible unity of life ... that is the Infinite. Where one sees separateness ... that is the finite." (HO#2, 189) "One who meditates upon and realizes the Self discovers that everything in the cosmos ... —all come from the Self." "The Self is one, though it appears to be many. Those who meditate upon the Self and realize the self go beyond decay and death, beyond separateness and sorrow. They see the Self in everyone and obtain all things." "Control the senses and purify the mind. In a pure mind there is constant awareness of the Self." (HO#2, 190)
Gita's lessons
Why do you think that the Gita make a point of stressing that this is not just a war against evil-doers who are foreign, but a war against kinsmen? There is only one human race-species-family! Is the Gita an integral part of the narrative, and is it thus condoning war, so long as it is a "just war"? Or is the Bhagavad Gita an Upanishad-like spiritual teaching inserted into the narrative of the Mahabharata, a teaching whose message—namely of learning to see God or the Self in the heart of every creature—is at odds with the violence of war? Is the setting of war to be understood metaphorically rather than literally?
polytheism
a doctrine of the existence of many (poly) distinct Gods
cosmogony
account of origin of universe
Vedic Morality
action (karma) to perform one's duty (dharma) to maintain the order (rita) of the community cosmos
Jainism
another Indian religion that was established around the same time as Buddhism (6th cent. BCE). They take the moral principle of non-violence (ahimsa) the most seriously. Some Jain monks wear face masks, since ancient times and not to prevent the spread of Covid-19! They wear them to avoid inhaling and killing any tiny insects. They also carry brooms to sweep aside insects to avoid stepping on them. All life is sacred to Jains. Needless to say, they are vegetarians.
Henotheism
belief in many "faces" of one God Already in the hymns of the Rig Veda, it is often the case that the deity being addressed absorbs the powers and even the names of the other deities. At one point in the Rig Veda, it is said, for example, that "although Indra [God] is one, he is called by many names." "From the earliest times, Hinduism has proclaimed one God while accommodating worship of him (or her, for to millions God is the Divine Mother) in many different names." (Easwaran, Intro to Gita, 22) Hindu theologies are often best understood in terms of "henotheism" in the sense of "one God with many faces and many names."
Pantheism
belief that "all is God" God is aquainted with the world nature is God, God is world....and earth G = W
Transcendent (or dualistic) theism
belief that God is outside the world
creation myths
cosmogonies
Dharma
one's duty with respect to that order) from the early "Vedic thread" of the Hindu tradition,
Panentheism vs Pantheism
panentheism (= all is in god). Pantheism = (all is god) In the Rig Veda, we find not one but three major cosmogonies (accounts of the origin of the universe). Regarding the Sacrifice of Primal Man cosmogony, Koller writes that this "hymn envisions reality as a gigantic person (purusha), who ritually offers himself to himself, thereby bringing the universe into existence, in all its ordered diversity" (19). Since the world was made from the sacrificial dismemberment of the Primal Man or Cosmic Person, is this a pantheism (= all is god)? And yet, "Encompassing the earth on every side, He exceeded it by ten fingers' [breadth]" and "All beings form a quarter of him, Three quarters are the immortal in heaven." (HO#1, p. 13, verses 1 & 3) → panentheism (= all is in god). TIED TO CASTE SYSTEM
the key terms of Upanishadic Spirituality:
samsara moksha maya turiya ahimsa yoga samadhi advaita Tat tvam asi fuller explanations of dharma Atman Brahman and karma
Rita
the order that pervades the cosmos from the early "Vedic thread" of the Hindu tradition,
Atman
the true Self are terms from the later "Upanishadic thread."
The Bhagavad Gita The basic story plot of the Mahabharata
•King Pandu, before leaving on a spiritual retreat during which he dies, temporarily entrusts the throne to his blind brother Dhritarashtra. •Pandu's eldest son, Yudhishthira, should inherit throne when he comes of age, but in the meantime Dhritarashtra is persuaded by his eldest son, the wicked Duryodana, to pass the throne on to him. •Yudhishthira and his four brothers (Arjuna, Bhima, Nakula, and Sahadeva), called the five "Pandavas," are tricked and sent into exile for 13 years, after which they are promised the throne. Yet. even after they return, they are still denied by their cousins the "Kauravas," led by Duryodhana. •Finally, an all-out devastating war becomes unavoidable between the just Pandavas and the unjust Kauravas. (See Bhagavad Gita, pp. 71-76.) By the end of the Gita, Krishna convinces Arjuna to rise and fight in this terrible war against his unjust relatives
The "big questions" and the main areas of philosophical inquiry
•Metaphysics: Who am I? What is reality? What are things, persons, gods, God? (What is the basic sense of "being" = "ontology") •Ethics/morality: How should we relate to others? What is the right thing to do? •Ethics/religion: What is good? What is the good life? What is the purpose, what are the aims of life? •Epistemology: How do we come to know something? What is knowledge?
Nirguna Brahman vs Saguna Brahman: two senses is a Transpersonal Absolute
•Nirguna Brahman: Ultimate Reality without qualities, indirectly approachable by means of the via negativa ("neti, neti"), yet finally graspable only by means of direct mystical insight (jnana) •Saguna Brahman: Ultimate Reality with qualities, beginning with the impersonal qualities of Sat-Chit-Ananda
Panentheism in the Bhagavad Gita
•Recall that bhakti is appropriate for dualistic theism and panentheism, where God (Brahman) is greater than the self (Atman). •Often in the Gita, Krishna says that he is "the Self in the heart of every creature," i.e. as Atman (see pp. 21, 113, 117, 128, 143). •In the "theophany" (God-showing) Chapter 11, Krishna presents himself as "the infinite Lord" with an "infinite number of faces" and indeed "whose face is everywhere" (195). Note the panentheism implied in the following verses: •verse 7 (p. 194): "the entire cosmos turning within my body" •verse 16 (p. 196): "the cosmos is your body" •verse 37 (p. 199): "you are the abode of the universe" •verse 40 (p. 200): "You pervade everything; you are everything"
MANY expressions of divinity
•The so-called "330 Million Gods," which include deities who represent a more restricted range of God's attributes and powers Finally, all life, and even all existence, can be seen as a manifestation of the divine.This world of infinite multiplicity is the creative expression of Brahman
The Gita as a Synthesis of the 3 Threads of the Hindu Tradition
•Vedic ritualism/morality: aims to maintain the order of community and cosmos (rita) by means of ritual of sacrifice (yajna) and moral action (dharma) •Upanishadic spirituality: aims to attain moksha by means of spiritual renunciation (sannyasa = interiorized yajna) and jnana •Puranic devotionalism: aims to attain moksha by means of spiritual renunciation and bhakti We are going to see how in three ways the Bhagavad Gita can be seen as a great synthesis or harmonization of these three threads of the Hindu tradition. To begin with, the Gita introduces a new synthetic teaching of "karma yoga."