Midterm Material: Language Disorders in Children

Brinton, B. & Fujiki, M. (1992). Setting the context for conversational language sampling. (Assessment)

-Formal norm-referenced tests: provide useful info but dont characterize communicative competence -Recent approaches/methods recognize successful comm not simply result from aquisit of linguistic forms but structural knowl must be integrated w ability to use lang in real communicative contexts. -Lang most accurately assessed when looked at in naturalistic communicative contexts (from study of pragmatics) -require extensive sampling & detailed analysis of behavs occur during sampling -need mult behav samps -SLP has to find balance btwn "best practice" & clinicial realities of eval comm fxns Why assess convo? -represents ultimate measure of communicative competence (acutal use of social & ling knowl in real intrxns w real people) -Final goal of speech & lang intervention: ability to use a target behav in conversation; if individ cant use targeted behavs in therapy, intervention would've been of little value Description: Conversational parameters -to describe the way individ fxns in convo select specific convo params; to eval these need to answer several questions 1. What behavs want to eval? The behavior criteria: Criteria 1-critical to sustain ongoing intrxn (certain elements that enable individ to exchange approp flow: elements allow exchange ideas, adjust to, cooperate w listener) Criteria 2-reliably assessed (consider nature of behavior & methods available for analysis) Criteria 3-seems amendable to improvement thru intervention (convo behavs expected to respond best to thereapy) (these criteria assure clinical resources devoted to those behavs that will provide most return for effort expended) -we prefer to highlight parameters that can be enhanced given the individus cognitive, linguistic, & social resources -expect reasonable success in treating assertiveness & responsiveness (fey, 1986) -most profitable to treat aspects that have sufficient developmental underpins to permit improvement Convo parameters select for eval include: Turn-taking, topic manipulation, conversational repair (meet all criteria above) -assessment of these 3 params of convo expected to yield targets that will respond to treatment -Critical to assess each param w regard to individs level of dvlpmt -Sometimes the assessment of 3 above can result in id of compensatory skills to facilitate the intrxn of individs w severe or permanent comm imps, instead of intervention targets How to eval these convo behavs? 2 basic alternatives to study convo phenom: 1. Sample and wait: observe intrxns til aspects of interest displayed +intrxns spont & genuine -takes lot of time and effort 2. Elicitation: try to elicit aspects wout disrupting naturalness of convo +mult examps of specific convo params observed in good time frame -essence of internx may be destroyed 2 purposes of manipulation: 1. permits structuring of interactions so behavs of interest likely to be displayed 2. Some manip allows us to obtain samps we wish to observe to get valid examples of behavs we want to obs Examples of variables we manip: -select convo partners -physical setting & materials -time allotted -purpose of intrxn -role of person intrxting w client probes used in intrxn; increase efficiency of eval: Topic initiation- preplanned topics deter if & how client maintains the topic Questions- used to display # of convo behavs (top maint, relevance, responsiveness) Responses to ques (topic main, informativeness, relevance, social approp) Requests for repair- helpful to probe willingness & ability to respond to listeners feedback trouble sources Trouble sources- provide context where individ should request repair (ones that violate truth constraints are more powerful in eliciting request for repair) How to analyze data we collect? -analysis systems must be sensitive enough to disting variations in performance of normal range from differences that reflect delayed or impaired pttrns) -ids only more obviously imparied ptterns -provide sensitive measures of specific skills help w idying impaird pttrns & selecting treatment goals Conclusions from findings: -eval import to consider what conclusions the data collected & analyzed will support which depend on validity of meas employed, results of individs convo aspects (general comm skills) -info integrated into larger pic & Ultimate consideration in assessment: impact of convo management skills on daily life Findings: -To max efficiency of eval procedures, assessment focus on specific parameters of conversation critical to successful interaction esp: Topic maintenance, Turn Taking, Conversational Repair -The value of our assessment methods depends on our ability to integrate the information we obtain into a larger pic of communicative functioning

Kohn (2004) Standardized Testing and its victims (Theorietical)

1) our kids are tested to an extent thats never been seen in our hx and not seen anywhere else in the world; few countries use ST for kids below high-school age--or mult choice test for students of any age 2) Noninstructional factors explain most of the variance among test sores when schools/disctricts are compared (# of parents living at home, parents ed background, type of comm, poverty rate 3) Norm refd tests were never intended to measure the quality of learning or teaching; main obj was to rank- not rate; to spread the scores out- not to gauge quality of a given student/school 4) Standardized-test scores measure superficial thinking; positively correlated w shallow approach to learning 5) Shouldn't give to kids younger than 8 or 9 6) Should not base important decisions (grad/promo) on results of a single test 7) It's expensive and schools have to cut back or eliminate programs 8) Educators are leaving the field -test may be biased; discriminatory effect when scores are spread out may test knowl gained outside of school -not everyone can afford better test prep -Measure temporary acquisition of facts and skills, including skill of test-taking more than genuine understanding; results reliance on direct-instruction techniques & endless practice tests -standardized tests are especially hurtful to students who need our help the most

Dunaway (2004) ADHD: story in schools and its implication (Assessment) (Intervention)

6 Specific strats contextually presented to show one way to effectively collab in pub school ed -kids w ADHD trouble w lack of inhib, concomitant comm/learn probs, social difs Role of SLP in ADHD -Communication goals form centerpiece of a comprehensive ed plan for kids w ADHD -any serious sped evals seek contributions from SLP to help team get true pic of the student -We provide valuable services & insights to ed colleges when addressing ADHD as a diagnostic & treatment cat the following narrative describes how this might be done: 1) Guiding a descriptive interpretation 2) Providing a fxnal focus: -SLP in assessment process can direct the assessment team toward questions they may not ask -ability to focus on fxnal issues involving lang, learning, & comm in classroom imp given our changing focus away form discrepancy model and reliance on standardized tests to determine need -ed moving toward authentic assessment; eval studs doing real tasks in class & engage in real intrxns on play ground bc these students w ADHD are remarkably context dependent & perf on assessment tasks vary SLP Role in eval & treatment of kids w ADHD -Lang defs w ADHD due to lack of exper & inapprop instruction -Attention deficit provides an effective barrier against many natural lang expers & taxes the developmental organizational skills 3) Seeking an effective solution to the dilemma he had SLI and req speech and lang services to make progress 4) Planning intervention that mirrors performance needs: -after determ eleibility -1st had to help kid understand his strenghts & weaknesses & chagne the way the teachers/students viewed him and himself = Empowerment stage which was beginning of comprehensive self-monitoring program -he needed to listen, follow directs, participate in lit frameworkd, talk to classmates, complete assignemtns, & come to deeper understandign of the material 5) Contextual modifications -to best meed his needs constructed structured, predictable env in larger classroom context so he always knew what to do and how to do it, -gave schedule, gave warnings for transitions, made instructions verbally redundant, gave mult ops for small grp reteaching, provided nat consequences, encouraged him to take breaks when needed -now the env supports needed to navigate instructions 6) Instructional modifications -SLP knows how to make explicit those invisible classroom/playground procedures -pinpoint trip lines, size up expectations, explain the process so student can und, have great toolbox for helping them strengthen their und of how things work and what their role is in the process -helped him strengthen & use his lang skills to mediate his attention limits 7) Negotiating Mediation opps -SLP role shifted depending on what was going on in classroom & what Brad needed at any given time -consulted w parent/teacher/resource specialist, obs him practicing new skills, worked directly w him in class, on play ground or in speech room; env offered many opps for generalization; worked individ for new strats or reflection, small grps to try out new ways of think/acting; slp cotaught entire classw teacher A) Eval strategies relevant to service delivery to ADHD in schools B)extend examples from the narrative Case stud to personal prac in working w kids w ADHD Conclusion: We can effectively meet needs of kids w ADHD & fellow educators by: employing our skills in collab fashion, focus on fxnal prob solving, create ops for various kinds of adapts, accomms, & direct mediations

Damico (1985) CDA: Functional approach to language assessment (Assessment)

CDA: A Functional Approach to Lang Assessment Professional's clinical judgement & informal obs indicate prob but the objective assessment toold dont support this, why not? -assessment procedures commonly used, tools that make up diagnostic batteries are not sensitive to some of the functional aspects of communication, esp those affected in older lang impd individs. This chapter: -Discusses a procedure (CDA) that's been designed to assess functions of lang -Useful for id lang imps in school-age kids Objective assessments with standardized tests inadquate bc: overemphasize superficial aspects of lang structure & fragmented those aspects into many separate components What was needed was an approach to assessment that would reach beyond superficial cats & inventories and that would examine the functional effectiveness of individuals's attempts to communicate CDA -allow for lang assessment in older school-age kids -analyze lang from a functional rather than structural viewpoint -to handle linguistic data holistically rather than discrete elements -to sample communicative interaction rather than responses to artifical tasks -provided consistent w movement of our profession toward applied pragmatics -analyzes the functionality of language discourse in a holistic fashion, focusing on language in conversational interaction. -Offers help in problem cases especially in helping to diagnose lang d/os in older children Discourse analysis: relevants bc fxnal perspective would have to focus on lang behav above sentence level; it involved study of lang fxn & suprasentential structure Error Analysis: -Descriptions of comm strengths important, primary fxn of SLP is to discover difficulties that interefere w communication "What lang errors mark this individ as d/oed?" -Application of EA essential in remediation process ; id errors most apt to interefere w discourse Clinical Obs & data collection -allowed us to use the data to mold an intervention plan for each individ -Behaviors selected for assessment were obtained directly from lang samps Purpose of chapter: provide complete description of CDA so clinicians can und its purpose & potential as a tool to be used in desiging individualized communication development programs Strat for obs Comm deficits -Language sampling: holistic eval, obtained in relatively open comm setting, has been widely used & applied; may yield more useful information than testing Id of specific prob behavs that impede fxnal discourse 3 steps: a) id of diffs b) selection of those prob behavs most critical to inrxn c) checks on psycg reality of selected behavs -literature revealed advantage of focusing on pragmatic or discourse behavs and these were more effective indicies of lang learn difs Identified 17 problematic behaviors Selection of Theoretical Framework: -Grice's 4 Cooperative Principles (quan, qual, relation, manner) -analysis based on this framework can be utilized over wide range of ages; consistent w trend of synergy Description of the Complete Procedure: -Organized according to 4 categories described by Grice. -can be overlap btween these categories; use the one that appears to be the most descriptive according to informed judgements of pros Clinical application: -a descriptive approach designed for analysis of spont lang samps -focus of assessment on functionality of the discourse regardless of underlying cause -9 Procedures to follow when using CDA 1) spont lang sample collected over 2 sessions ab 180 utterances; 2) transcribe sample ASAP to help recall of sit cues 3) When transcribing, essential to preserve speaker-listener dyal, nonling context, intonational contour, all verbal segments (pause & false starts) all needed for analy 4) segementation of utts accomplished thru modification; place more emph on phonological unit, dont omit verbal segs like false starts, hesitations, 5) after transcribed, sample should be read through while listeing to tape to aid in placing correct intonational contours & correcting transcription error 6)analyze each conversational turn and mark any of the described error behavs & other discourse errors that occur; only identification not interpretation 7) count # of utts w one or more discourse errors & deter the freq of occurance of each of the behavs ; aids in description of individs comm ables 8) imp to note # of single word utts & nonverbal responses; many individs w discourse difs may compensate by using short utts or nonverb comm; large # of single words analyze the language with and without these utts, if signif diffs btwn the two the individ may be shielding diffs 9)CDA is a descriptive tool, not designed for quantification, not a sole basis for labeling individs as having comm d/o.

Damico (1988) The lack of efficacy in language therapy (Theoretical)

Conclusion: -Attempt to deter reasons for lack of efficacy (fragmentation fallacy had greatest impact but was due to combo of factors) & 5 factors were identified as contributing to therapeutic failure 1. Fragmentation fallacy- looks at linguistic behavior as seperate & automonous comps that can be observed and analyzed apart from each other; dont look at underlying constructs of lang prof; lang stripped of essential qualities of intentionallity & synergy 2. Therapist bias: phenom of an opin/feeling influencing one's objectivity in therapeutic situation. percieve reality thru "filters" 3. Acquiescence: agree w impressions/opinions of others without dispute 4. Lack of follow-up: re-evals critical; kids dismissed without approp support/follow up may regress 5. Bureaucratic policies & procedures: adequate opportunity or service; kids are molded to fit the service plan rather than the reverse -functional language in naturalistic setting -more realistic treatments of lang can be implemented & fxn effectively in pschometric framework Psychometric theory

Wesby & Watson (2010) ADHD and CODI (Theoretical) (Assessment)

Current research: ADHD indicates that language impairment is a component of all types of ADHD, whether or not they have diagnosed co-morbid read/lang disabilities, exhibit deficts in aspects of higher-order discourse. Barkley core impairment o ADHD involved deficits in self-directed speech & the internalization of lang used for the development of mental rep & self org Diagnosis of ADHD requires that children exhibit at least six of these 18 behaviors in either the inattention category or the hyperactivity/impulsivity category for at least 6 mos dvlpd before age 7 Types: -ADHD-PI - prdom inattentive; more processing d/o and internalizing d/os such as reading, lang learn disabilities, anxiety -ADHD-PHI- predom hyperactive-impulsive; -ADHD-C combined all types associated w executive dysfunction important to understand the children & their families within the context of their culture, values, beliefs, financial abilities Barkley (1990) poor reg & inhibition = halmarks of ADHD & defined it as consisting of "developmental deficiencies in the regulation and maintenance of behavior by rules and consequences that give rise to probs w inhibiting, initiating, sustaining responses to tasks or stimuli & adhearing to rules/instrucs in sits where consequences for such behav are delayed, weak, nonexist. -this def has signif implications for how the social & academic defs of kids w ADHD und/treated Barkley (2005) theory to explain the link btwn poor behav inhib (hyperactivity-impulsivity) & inattention w the concept of executive or metacognitive fxns bc most if not all imps associated w ADHD are in realm of self-reg or executive fxn Barkley's model: -1st component = behavioral inhibition (foundation for exec fxns that shift control of behav from external env to control of behav internally rep infor. -aspects of behavioral inhibition provide critical support for the use of 4 components of exec fnx (nonverb Wmem, verbal Wmem, emo control, prob solving) are essential for management/self reg of behav -4 efs interactive & hiererchial w a deficit in one EF contrib to deficits in other EFs -purpose of 4 efs: internalization of behav enables individ to anticipate change & guide future bheav -many of the behavs manifested in kids w ADHD can be understood in terms of deficits in these EFS ------- ADHD & Lang learn difs -dif on tasks require them to recall/formulate complex sents -difs w discourse org & convo prags of lang ----- Associated lang/lit d/os in ADHD-only -accompanied by signif general lang delays & comm d/os: expressive, pragmatic, discourse organization deficits ------- Pragmatic deficits -w adhd prod excessive verbal output in spont speec, task transitions, in play settings; produce less speech in response to convo questioning -Lack of private speech --------- Reading imps in kids w ADHD w co-morbit reading diabilities charcterized by deficits in phonological awareness and/or rapid automatic naming -------- Implications for assessment & intervention: -SLPs want to assess the lang factors related to the executive fxn deficits associate w ADHD (prags, discourse orga, inferencing, monitoring, prob solving) -Standardized tests dont assess the prag & discourse defs associated w ADHD; bc it assess discrete pieces of behavior out of context -For students w ADHD not a matter of knowing what to do, but a matter of knowing when and how to do- may have necessary factual info but not know how to use it in context -Damico (1985) Kim & Kaiser (2000) proposed protocol can be used for documenting inapprop prag behavs; SLP considers inappropriateness in 4 types of behavs (4 maxims) -Narrative assessment esstential; Test of Narrative Language is standardized & might be useful for idying kids in early elementary grades but not used w kids w ADHD; more for kids w SLI -SLP needs to consider other ways to conduct narrative assessments and narratives produces should be evaluated for: complexity of narrative structure, syntactic complexity, Cohesive strats -The Qualitative Reading Inventory- 4 can also be used to assess the monitoring strats students use when attempting to comp a passage- evaluator models how to "think aloud" ---------- Interventions for ADHD -use of medication that results in greater symptom reduction than behavioral treatments alone for kids w ADHD-only -pills wont substitute for skills; so meds unlikely to be sufficient for students w co-morbid lang learning disabilities or w disruptive behavioral disorders -interventions should address the underlying executive function deficits & nature of the specific working memory & language impairments that are characteristic of a person w ADHD -TAble 23.2 showls goals for intevention that address the probs arising from deficits in EF in students w ADHD -The intented outcomes of langauge interventions are facilitation of students' pragmatic, discourse, monitoring, and problem-sovling skills ------- Conclusion: -If eds & SLPs beleive learning difs of these students are due primarily to attention defs, they will fail to provide students w most approp interventions (must consider the EF) -Lang imp is a component of all types of ADHD even ADHD-only.

Nelson (1992) Targets of Curriculum language assessment (Assessment.)

Curriculum-based language assessment: -uses parts of student's current curric to evaluate the student's communicative knowl, skills, and strategies realtive to what they must do to succeed in school. Purpose of Curriculum-based language assessment (vs traditional assessment): -criterion-referenced -addresses whether individ can meet criteria for success in particular setting (vs perform in normal limits of traditional assessments) Function of Curriculum-based language assessment (vs traditional assessment): -used to evaluate the processes of learning (vs traditional = evals completed product of learning) -important to describe what happens to individs lang processing resources when systematic intervention strats are used to boost processing effort. (ZPD & Scaffolding) Curriculum-based language assessment & intervention (vs traditional assessment) -used to eval the dynamics of the child within the learning context (vs traditional "context-stripping") -employs a set of procedures guided by system theory System theory view of language, learning, teachers, and learners: -Learners considered to be part of interactive of specialized culture of school -Understanding needs of partic student, student's abilities examined in relation to communicative demands of contexts -understand how closely home experiences of target child match communicative expectations of school; childs home culture and language allow them to use prior knowl to make sense of school & mediate points of mismatch to reconcile the differences. Methods of Curriculum-based language assessment (vs traditional assessment): -use of interview and observational data to guide the selection of assessment contexts and content. -Curricular contexts relevant for students "zones of significance" that are highly customized contexts identified thru ethno procedures (interviews of parents, students, teachers and observations of curricular demands while student interacting w curricular) id'd as important for the individ. Procedures of Curriculum-Based Language Assessment: -Outside-in look: to id communicative and linguistic demands of partic curricular activity & considering ways to modify them in intervention to make curricular more accessible. -Consider factors related to: a). kinds of curricula (id'ing most problematic or success-related to id where further assessment is needed), b) 5 modalities of processing (listening, speaking, reading, writing, thinking) -after problematic areas of curric id'd, examiner observes those contexts to assess their multi-modality demands & opps while looks at the modalities the student currently bring to bear in the problem-solving process. -examiner asks if student (in the future) might learn to integrate multiple modalities of processing better by acquiring some new knowl, skills, strats (in-side out intervention question) -And if it might help to modify the curriculum or present it differently (outside-in intervention ques) c) size of linguistic units: sounds, syllables, words, sentences, texts -"whole language" avoids fragmentation of language; engage kids in active learning involving real communicative events that are meaningful and purposeful. -this ponts out that learning tasks used in diff school systems & classrooms make different demands on lang processing sys of children (page 6 of article) d) 3 types of discourse events: conversational, narrative, expository -Conversational: part of underground curriculum, Initiate-respond-evaluate (IRE) pattern in classrooms -Narrative: definitions and concepts of what makes a story a story; most kids know this before going to school; but some cultural difs; debate over if and how story features should be taught -Expository: -Inside-out look: to id the communicative knowledge, skills, & abilities the student currently bring to the task, exploring ways to facilitate them thru mediational processes What is curriculum-based language assessment? -a form of descriptive assessment -used to identify ways that student's language and other communicative behaviors interact w demands of their school curricula. How's is a curriculum-based language assessment done? 1. zone of significance is identified for particular student (thru interviews & observations), then examination of those areas is conducted in greater detail. The inside-out look -analysis of the knowl, skills, and strategies the student brings to the task of processing language and communicative demands of the curriculum -attempt to understand whats doing on internally to yield outcomes Examiners own internal questions: 1. What does a person have to do to make sense of this communicative event? 2. What is the person doing, or failing to do, to yield the observed result? -use miscue analysis; all observed behaviors is assumed to represent to outcome of underlying processes (violation of rule = dont have knowl of that rule or not activating the knowl) -Central focus on active construction of meaning -Part of Curriculum-based language intervention involves helping students focus on fact that school language is supposed to make sense -When students process the language of the cirriculum, they must be able to do so smoothly among the 5 modalities. Knowledge Modules: -construct meaning by activating dif kinds of knowl and skills depending on linguistic and cog demands of partic context. -6 kinds of knowl/skills modifiable (change & mature from learning expers) cognitive structures of longterm memory: graphophonemic, semantic, syntactic, discourse, pragmatic, word/prior knowledge. Who does Curriculum-based language assessment apply to? -Any student whose comm probs interfering w educational performance. What strategies are used for assessment & intervention? -participant observation that involve varying degrees of mediated language processing. -particularly focusing on processing varied types of texts, these then serve as the contexts for simultaneously studying varied modalities of linguistic units What type of analysis used to focus on the effects of contextual variables on processing by the individ? -"Outside-in" analysis What type of analysis used to identify aspects of internalized processing that are strengths to be used in the intervention process or weak areas that need to be strengthend? -"Inside-Out" analysis What is required in a comprehensive assessment & intervention? -collaborative effort by all involved to identify areas that are truly relevant to student needs. What is curriculum-based language intervention? -is a natural outgrowth in which both contexts and individuals are viewed as targets for the interactive process of change. -is an integral part of the curriculum-based language assessment

Perkins (2001) Compensatory Strategies in SLI (Theoretical)

Diagnosis of SLI- based on formal test results SLI term itself is not specific; it is a category for groupds of kids not clear that formal tests are able to provide an accurate & comprehensive profile of kids with SLI Purpose: provide evidence of a range of factors that formal lang assessments of SLI may miss Formal tests suggest what one can't do well; also need to consider the things one can do and does do, and why he may be doing it makes more interesting and complex picture than tests results suggest Why dont test scores provide the whole story? Inconsistency in performance: -linguistic performance is very variable can be due to: diff in und whats required, errors of lexical transposition, errors of morphology, errors of lexical selection, and reading errors; other times able to produce targets correctly, sometimes delivery is disfluent w syntactic formulation errors, other time capable of producing fairly complex syntax in utts delivered rapidly and fluently Key to variability above seems to be amount of cognitive pressure he is under, task complexity and processing speed Explanations of SLI usually 'limitation in general processing capacity'; this kid explained above doesnt seem to be lacking in linguistic resources, rather his ability to access and utilize these resources is limited --------------- Compensation -most of this kids lang difs may be seen as an attempt to compensate for these processing limitations -compensatory strats usually construed as trade offs, both btwn ling and nonling cog sys (memory) and btwn diff linguistic systems -kids w SLI such trade-offs have been noted btwn 2 or more: articulatory accuracy, phonology, prosody, morphology, lexis, syntax, discourse, pragmatics This study looks at such interactions qualitatively, considering the extent to which his impaired but variable performance may be seen as resulting from a set of compensatory strats ---------- Peter's comp strats for reducing processing demands -Reduced lexical density & syntactic complexity: excessive use of deictic forms at the expense of specific content words = hard to follow; syntactic productivity is reduced -Use coordinated lists of lexically related words & phrases: lists more than necessary and confuse himself -Don't monitor lexical selection retrospectively: selects wrong word and continues to use it without noticing anything is wrong -Make use of immediate context when responding to general questions: uses contextual 'props' of whats around him; reduce processing load -Take your time: sometimes takes him 10 sec to find word; those talking to him need to be aware of this -Verbalize aloud: talk to self when cognitive pressure increases (which is good vygotskian fasion) -Co-opt the cognitive and linguistic resources of others: use conversational hook 'you know' in convo to secure accpetance of an item of info before moving to next, but provide too little contextual info for other person to know what is being referred to ------------ Conclusion -Formal lang assessments of SLI dont account for compensatory strategies -Compensatory strategies provide a glimpse of the complex processing interactions underlying his variable performance -Each individual case needs to be looked at holistically, in detail and qualitatively in naturalistic settings if one is to get proper understanding of the child's problem's and provide appropriate remedial intervention

Holzman (2010) Without Creating ZPDs there is no creativity. (Theoretical)

Focus = collective activity of creating Metaphor "a head taller" by allowing, inviting, guiding people across the lifespan to create ZPDs ZPD -associated w learning & school-like acquisition of knowl & skills -important in the rejection of pop belief that learning follows and is dependent upon development -Vygotsky "The only instruction that is useful in childhood is that which moves ahead of development. Instruction pushes development further to elicit new information -Vygotsky learning leads development Question of how learning leads development depends on how we understand what the ZPD is Individual: ZPD chrstic of Individual child -cant limit to fxns that have matured. Consider those fxns in process of maturing to fully eval state of childs develpment: consider actual level and zpd Dyadic: ZPD key role learning & dvlpment fundamentally social and form a unity, joint actions and collaboration in kids daily lives Collective: socialness of learning-leading-development is collective; key to ZPD people are doing something together -learning awakens variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when child is interacting w people in env and in cooperation w peers ZPD is actively and socially created ZPD = process vs spatio-temproal entity ; activity vs actual zone ZPD activity as stim creating the zone (env) and what is created (learning-leading dvlpmt) Creativity -ZPD as activity puts creativity center stage -Creativity attribute of social units (dyads, grps, collective) and is ordinary and everyday How do social units create ZPDS? -Must be capable of doing what we do not know how to do; -learning doesnt require knowing how -central chrstic & creative activity of learning leading dvlpmnt = childs pot to move from what he is "ZPD-Creating-head taller" methodology of becoming- people shape & reshape their rlsps to themselves, each other, and to material and psychological tools & objs of their worlds From developmental & ed perspective: ZPD = actively created; creators are social units; & is a methodology of becoming Imitation What is this methodology? (what does being a head taller look like) -imitation is necessary for creativity in general & creating ZPD -role of imitation in learning -Vygotsky: imitation is a social-relational activity essential to development "dvlpmet based on collaboration and imitation is source of all specifally human characteristics of conschousness that dvlp in a child" Completion is another activity taking place in creating language-learning ZPD -understanding the rlsp btwn thinking & speaking -speaking is not the outward expression of thinking but part of a unified, transformative process -thought is restructures as it is transformed into speech; it is not expressed but completed in the word -Speaking/thinking, a dialectial unity in which speaking completes thinking; others can complete thinking for us -together imitation and completion comprise much of the language play that transforms the total evn, a process out of which a new speaker emerges Children do not learn language nor are they taught language in the structured, systematic, cognitive, acquisitional, and transmittal sense They develop as speakers, language makers, and language users as an inseperable part of joining and transforming the social life of their fam, community, & culture When babies babble, they are speaking before they know how to speak, by virtue of the speakers around them accepting them into the comm of speakers and creating convo w them. -Moms dads etc dont have curriculum or give baby grammar book & dict to study nor remain silent around them -Rather they relate to infants/babies as speakers, feelers, thinkers, and makers of meaning, as fellow creators -this is what makes it possibly for very young children to be thought as though they are a head taller Play -an activity Vy attributed the "head taller" exper -see play as both appropriating culture and creating culture, a performing of who we are becoming

Wesby (1997) There's more to passing than knowing the answers (Assessment)

For kids to be successful: -must know how to do school, learn how to negotiate school cirriculum -for kids culturally, linguistically, learning disability, the implicitness of how to do school presents roadblock to their acquiring the academic content of school -To facilitate success must understand academic content & context they are expected to learn This article: -describes how the components of "learning to do school" changed across the grades in an elem school w a pop thats cult/ling divers Learning to do school -Nelson (1989) requires kids master several curricula include academic know & social knowl content; learning occurs in lessions; for students answers to be correct answer must be right in academic & social form -To understand what kids must know in order to give right answer slp teacher must consider classroom scripts, teahcers cues, kids knowl -In doing the lessons of school curricula teachers and students draw simultaneously on 2 sets of procedural knowl- knowl of academic task structure and knowl of social participation structure that are influ by variety of intrapersonal & interpersonal factors Adequate eval of students should take both inside-out approach (what are the students cog & linguistic processing abilities & disabilities) and an outside-in approach (what are the classroom scripts and other environmental influences on learning) Kids w learning disabilities or behav probs -not using metacognitive strates essential for self-control/reg expected for their grade level, often did not remember classroom rules, didnt und how to participate in classroom discussion, couldn't organize themselves to complete projs independently or work effectively in groups ------ Conclusions & implications: -students exper changes inside-out and outside-in of school -inside-out = dvlp more elaborate cogn, metacog, & linguistic abilities, incerased Wmem capacite, increased sped of processing to bring to school curric -Outside-in = encounter increasingly abstract academic content, expectations become increasingly responsible for monitoring their own behavior & organizing their learning Outside-in changes that students exper as they move thru elem grades; Changes in classroom lesson scripts may trigger inside-out changes in their abilities to move them from teh stage of being controlled by others, to self-control/self-regulatory management. In doing so they use lang to dvlp metacog skills that make self-control/reg possible; if they dont master both changing academic content & changing social scripts that req them assume resp for own behav & learning, they are likely to be seen as unmotivated or as behaviorally or learning disabled Kids from cult groups that emp socailization toward interdependence rather than toward independence & self reg are likely to have difs accessing learning in classroms in which teachers expect students to take charge of their own learning

Dudley-Marling (2000) A family affair (Theorietical)

For teachers to understand the effects of school trouble on lives of families Relatively minor probs in school can have far-reaching consequences for family life Birth: no signs of trouble First grade: signs of trouble; second grade parents increased amount of time reading to her each day Marital stress: fighting about school trouble caused them the put the girl in an alternative school A loss of confidence: The effects of school trouble on anne

Perkins (2005) Pragmatic ability and Disability as emergent phenomena. (Theoretical)

Holistic approach to pragmatic ability & disability is outlined Takes into account behavior of individs involved in communicative process & underlying factors which contrib to such behavs Pragmatic impairment & normal pragmatic fxning viewed as the emergent consequence of interactions btwn linguistic, cognitive, & sensorimotor processes which take place both within and between individs This paper -Holistic & emergenist approach to pragmatics takes into account behav or individs involved in comm process & underlying factors which contrib to such behaviors -Motivation: to meet needs of clins who req knowl of the specific underlying factors in order to treat the resulting beahv Non-linguistic fts: eye gaze, gesture, posture, social rapport described pragmatically even thou occur independently of language use -SLPs take broader view of pragmatics to include nonling fts, view closer to Morris's original semiotic conception of prags "the study of relation of signs to interpreters" why? Clinics freq encounter individs w minimal linguistic capacity such as stroke pts & those w autism. Key factor difs such cases is level of competence in a range of nonlinguistic cognitive capacities (mem, atten, inference generation) clins tended to be far more aware of role of cognition in pragmatic fxn Semiotic view of prags from neurolinguistics = prag is right hem; ling left hemi -better to consider integrated fashion to role of nonling & ling, verbal & nonverbal competencies in prag fxning -Better definition "the study of the use of linguistic & nonlingu capacities for purpose of comm" Theories of pragmatics 'Relevance Theory' progress in direction above -lang is one comm "aid" among many and a uniquely complex & central one -pragmatic signif of the way comm may be distrib across both verbal and nonv modalities Theoretical constructs & analytical frameworks from range of approaches to prags enable us to describe the behav of ppl w comm imps; however, although theories of prags provide a means of describing prag imps; the level of explanation the afford is rarely adeq for clins (dont transalte easily into clinical intervention) What is needed to move beyond mere description is some account of the underlying factors which contrib to prag imp -One of examples has probs w verbal memory and syntactic comp -Other example is on the spectrum -any assessment/intervent that fails to take account of underlying difs would be less than adequate In addition to means of rep underlying contrib factors (neurolog, cogn, behav, social) and the way they interact to produce what we perceive as pragmatic ability and disability -can do second thing by understanding pragmatics may be rep as "emergent" phenomenon ------------ Emergence -process whereby a complex entity results from a set of simple interactions btwn "lower-level" entities -Clark (1997) emergent pttrns largely explained by the collective behavior, of a large ensemble of simple components, none of which is playing special/leading role, in controlling process of pattern formation. Emergence liked to functionalist approaches to language & generative approaches to lang ----------- Emergenist account of prag ability & disability -modular approach -Interactionist view- prags is fxnal phenom -competition model- prags a fxn of interplay btwn the inof value of a partic form or pattern and its processing cost -2 approaches above focus on cog & ling intrxns within the individ -conversation analysis on the other hand also imp to focus on interxn btwen two people & regards prags as fxn of joing actions btwn people -approach proposed here is firmly within the interactionist tradition but adopts an explicitly emergentist perspective; instead of seeing prads as discrete entity that exists independently of other entities w which it interacts; better chrized as epiphenomenal or emergent property of intrxns btwn such entities (lang, mem, attn, etc) -Prags is what you get when lang, social cong, mem, intention, inferential reasoning collide in socio-culturally situated human intrxns -Emergenist model builds on previous interactionist approaches by a) extending & being more specific ab range of intrxting entities & nature of their intrxns, b) focus simult on intrxns withing & btwn individs; c) provide single account of both prag ability & disability 5 principles 1. Pragmatics involves the range of choices open to us when we communicate—e.g., what is said/how/why/when/where it is said, to whom it's said, who says it, whether anything is said or not. 2. Such choices are involved at all ''levels'' of language processing, from discourse down to phonetics. 3. The choices are not exclusively linguistic, but involve the way communication is distributed across verbal and nonverbal channels. 4. In order to qualify as ''pragmatic'', such choices must be motivated by the requirements of interpersonal communication. 5. There is frequently no direct link between an underlying deficit and a resulting pragmatic impairment. Rather, the latter may be the consequence of one or more compensatory adaptations. 3 key notions: 1. Elements. the entities btwn which intrxns take place, and are of two kinds: (a) linguistic and non-linguistic cognitive systems, and (b) sensorimotor systems. 2. Interactions. the dynamic relations that occur btwn elements, and are motivated by the need to maintain a state of equilibrium within a given domain. 3. Domains. Intrxns take place both within individuals—i.e., the intrapersonal domain—and between individuals—i.e., the interpersonal domain ------------ Conclusion: -Pragmatic competence requires integration of a range of linguistic, cognitive, sensorimotor & sociocultural elements; impairments of any of these can result in pragmatic disabiltiy -Pragmatic impairment results when theres a restriction on the choices available for encoding/decodign meaning -These choices characterized in terms of a range of capacities which underlie the communicative behavior -Emergentist model outlined here accounts for pragmatic disability in terms of an imbalance btwn interacting linguistic, cog, & sensorimotor systems within & btwn individs and in terms of attempts to compensate for both ling & nonling impairment -Motivation for redressing the balance is interpersonal though it will inevitably have local intrapersonal consequences -Pragmatics is therefore not a discrete and isolable component of of comm its all-pervasive

Van Kraayenoord (2010) Response to Intervention: New ways and Wariness (Theoretical) (Assessment) (Intervention)

Id new aways to improve delivery of instruction -break barrier btwn sped & reg-ed -Offering waves of instruction -preventing difficulties through early assessment & intervention Being wary -these practices relate to the privledging of reading, emph on constrained skills, dominance of skills-based approach, early intervention Raises concerns about RTI from outsiders perspective --------- -All RTI models are prevention/intervention framewords - 3 tiers; each tier reps a more intensive level of instruction/intervention -RTI is based on monitoring students progress by means of curriculum-based-measures, over the course of their participation in appropriate intervention -Key components of assessment in RTI = universal screening and benchmark testing , diagnostic measurment, curriculum based measurement -major premise of RTI; use of high-quality instruction ------------ New ways - 3 positive fts of the new ways in which RTI provides support, instruction, & intervention to those w difficulties in learning 1)Breaking down sped -reg ed barrier: RTI desigined to be inclusive of students w LD, those from cult and lingu diverse backgrounds, & others at risk for reading difs, therefore consistent w inclusive ed, which aims for all students to be ed un their neightboorhood schools in reg ed classes w same age classmates & provided w effective & approp insttruction & support 2) waves of instruction: emerges from use of tiers of instruction & intervention -Clay & Tuck (1991) 3 waves of teaching a) delivery of an effective lit program during first year of schooling b) early intervention Reading Recovery whose lit progress is a concern after 1 yr of instruction c)for students w ongoing probs often comprises commercial training packages or teacher dvlpd intervention programs targeting one or more aspects of literacy ------- Prevention, Early Assessment, Early intervention another strength of RTI -prevention: strong core program of Tier 1 reading instruction provided in reg-ed class that'll reduce need for later support or intervention -making class instructs as effective as possible at tier 1 minimizes 'curriculum casualties' and reduces overidentification of risk that pot overwhelms instruction resources at tier 2 & 3 -5 reading componenets (phoneme awareness, phonics, fluency, comprehension, vocab) taught through use of direct & explicit instruction -can only examine effectiveness of initial instruction & intervention on achievement if one assess the students; early assessment is essential to id of children w difs -early id assist in avoiding later failure; possibly preventing LD classification and labeling -Providing HQual initial literacy instruction in class enables dvlpmt of students' early reading comps, while effective early diagnosis & early intervention reduce the possibilities of more extensive reading difs & other neg effects -------- Being wary -RIT and almost exclusive focus on reading; australia literacies and multiliteracies -------- A curriculum of constrained skills? -decoding and meaning making dominate discussions of RTI reading curricula; heavy emphasis on lower order reading skills; focus on these skills may lead to exclusion or delays in instruction of other more imp skills like comprehension and critical analysis; implies lower order skills should be mastered before higher order skills -------- The skills based approach to instruction -sense of uniformity in the instructional approaches to teaching RTI; heavy reliance on published material; wary of one use of approach w students w LD bc of their hetergoeneous chrstics and bc broad view of lit should also mean range of instructional practices --------- Restrictive assessment pracitces -scientifically based assessment is component of RTI; used during universal screening, benchmark testin, diagnostical assessment, progress monitoring -2 means of assessment: a) standardized tests assoicated w universal screening DIBELS b) CBM used for diagnostic assessment & progress monitoring; these both consititute restrictive assessment practices -DIBELS; focus on speed--neglects goal of reading = comprehension, Data from DIBELS is the only info collected ab students reading performance--contrasts w use of multiple measures of assessment to inform instruction Conclusion: -Evidence-Based Reading Practices for RTI addresses how RTI can & is being used to improve the achievement of students w learning difs in US -RTI introduced several new ways of working in schools & classrooms to support students who exper dif w learning -Wary ab number of practices associated w RTI & their consequences for curricula, assessment, instruction

Owocki & Goodman (2002) Sociocultural Knowledge & Experience (Still kidwatching just ch 2)

Kidwatchers learn ab childrens sociocultural know by observing them as they work & play; important bc it reveals much ab their literacies & provides idea for supporting their further dvlpmt This ch: -Explore central role that sociocultural exper play in kids lit dvlp -techniques kidwatchers use to learn & capitalize on kids sociocultural knowl & expers ------ Understanding Lang as a sociocult pract -Sociolinguistic theory indicate that lang dvlps as a sociocult practice -Kids dvlp capability to use, talk ab, learn thru lang (oral and written) as they use it within the social & cultural contexts of their lives -early childhood years, each child dvlps range of lang forms suited to meet range of social practices, varied expers = varied ranges, results in kids going to school w dif knowl and ready to learn in dif ways -Task of KW = move toward a social-contextual approach in which eval involves understanding, valuing, and actively making use of each child's lang & lit Lang & identity: -KW consider role of identity in lang learning; kids id's dvlop under influence of lang, cult, race, etc and bring these christics to each literacy event -identities guide kids behavis &developent -and how all of this influences learning in the classroom -teachers need to more formally ed selves ab the lang and cult backgrounds of their students thru groups w other teachers or conferences or reading about it Organizing rich env for learning -KW create learning env in which school practices connect w kids personal/social worlds -Bc kids learn best when lang & exper are meaningful to them Relevance, Ownership, Choice -KW allow kids questions, interests, ideas to drive the curriculum; encourage them to make choices that take them down meaningful & purposeful paths; plans for all kids to expand the lang knowl, knowl ab world, by building upon existing knowl & existing ways of knowing Family connections -invite fam mems to share their funds of knowl -Connecting home, community, classroom brings into a curriculum that reflects the rich knowl of the fam & the culture Using Assessment Data -systematically collecting info on sociocult aspects of childrens lits gives KW numerous insights for planning curriculum & instruction; collected thru fieldnotes, internviews, informal convos, conferences, questinnaires, home-school, journals, work samples -has questions that provide framework for thinking thru & analyzing observations & contexts w families-- using them to create meaninful conditions for learning Transcending the Politics of Lit & schooling -Defining lit based on political or institutional discourses, limits access to learning for all children but partic those whose literacies differ vastly from those of the dominant culuture -This practices pull teaching away from children's lived lits & push it toward predetermined sets of goals or standards set by those far removed from the classroom -interrupt this by embracing a sociocultural pedagogy that values all kids lis; keep eyes open to what kids can do; self-eval for inconsists or biases Building a community of practice -within a caring and warm "community of practice" that kids develop multiple lits and identifies as competent learners & communicators

Owocki & Goodman (2002) Kid Watching in literacy development (Assessment)

Kidwatching: -taking time to learn ab my kids & their difs, see what they can do, determine how I can best support their needs -how students interact socially and negotiate their days -Keep a positive focus on what kids can do & desire to understand the students -Focus on understanding ways her students are prob solving & using language to help them expand repertoire of possibilities -Teachers can reflect on their own practices; thinks ab what they can do to fortify the learn env -helps refine teacher philosophy & her teaching -Documenting miscues helps und how to help students w reading -doesnt interrupt of get in the way of children's learning -Teacher involved in teaching, evaluation, curric dvlp which means carefully reaching into the kids worlds to help them build from the known and expand to the unknown, & expand ways of constructing/expressing knwol Basics of Kidwatching: 1) taking note of what her students know and can do 2) attempting to understand their ways of contructing & expressing knowl 3) using what she learns to shape curriculum & instruction Processes that make kidwatching work to fullest potential: -building insider view of the community; --make informed teaching decisions based on data collected SLP Role in eval & treatment of kids w ADHD -understanding how lang & lit dvlp --informed by a developmental, sociocultural perspective on lang/learn; children construct know within unique social worlds --miscues meaningful, -Organizing a rich env for learning --kids show diff capabilities in dif contexts, kidwatchers observe them as they use lang in variety of settings, on variety of topics, & thru intrxn w variety of people -intrxting w children --ZPD; how much support do they need to achieve something thats difficult for them and the then be able to do independently --Evaluating what they can do w guidance helps you plan immediate or future experiences that capitalize on the child's current intellectual functioning --Interpretive probing: asking ques in order to discover what kids know & why they think the way they do -obs/doc kids knowl --getting to know each kid in as many dif contexts as possilbe --have to have up-to-date knowl ab lang; general pttrns of dvp & sociocultural nature of lang-learning -general pttrns serve as indicators of growth & guide teachers to deter where to go next in planning & instruction --be aware of the role of error in lang learning bc they are expressions of lang/concepts as they currently exist in kids schema --to documetn what kids know & their ways of constructing & expressing knowl --anecdotal records, field notes, checklists -analyzing data --anal of read, write, oral lang as you observe, interact, reflect w kids on their learning --use questions as a basis for analysis -fostering kids self-eval --most imp type of eval is self-eval bc it helps kids become critically aware of their own thinking & learning processes --encourage them to self-eval by asking themselves questions --helps students recognize the signif of their own learning & extends & refines the meaning of their learning expers -plann/reflect w kids & their families help you to get to dvlp sense of wht is expected from child & what is possible for chidl -engaging in self-eval of teaching --helps you reach new ground as an evaluator & makes evaluation a positive learning exper -using eval to inform instruction & build curric --purpose of kidwatching is to help children build their capabilities to use lang to communicate & learn --teachers do this by inquiring into who children are, what they know, what they can do, how they learn

McCabe & Rollins (1994) Assessment of Preschool Narrative skills (Assessment)

Narrative discourse development has strong implications for emergent literacy in preschool kids 1) Method for eliciting personal narratives from preschool kids High-Point Analysis: A Developmentally Sensitive Means of Assessing Narrative Skill -to assess narrative skills of preschool kids, the approp genre of story telling must be elicited: Personal narratives about real past events -Personal narratives ab real past events is the genre that preschool kids naturally compose quite frequently in convo w each other High Point analysis is valid Protocol for eliciting personal event narratives important in assessment process as the narrative itself: -Concept map: conversational technique; remember use story prompts to get them to talk ab experiences that mean something to them, collect atleast 3 narratives essential that atleast 3 brief anecdotal story prompts told (not ab siblings, death, bday parties, trips), use neutral subprompts in response (repeat exact words they said when they pause, say uh-huh, tell me more, then what happened?), minimize kids self-consciousness 2) Scoring personal narratives from preschool kids -Select longest narratives to get fair estimate of upper bounds of kids performance -Can't be a story about something they were not present for 3) Normative data enable early detection of probs at narrative level of lang Links btwn preschool narration & literacy acquisition: -may be possible to id children at risk for lang-based reading probs in early phase of lang acqu. -Kids who dvlp reading disability in 2 grade have been found to be deficient in the length, syntactic complexity, & pronoun accuracy of their spoken lang at age 2:6. -readers w disabilities found deficient in tasks that tap oral skills, directions, & narratives, & construct narratives. -Dyslexia: problems in connecting sentences using conjunctions (not constructing sents); recall omit causal & temporal links, provide fewer imp details tested in schools -in general, oral narrative performance predicts literacy achievement -ability to recall a short story was the best predictor of language development Normal Discourse dvlpmt: -most prom aspect of lang acq during early elementary-school years = development of extended discourse 22 mos old = refer to real past events w help from adult 2 yo = narratives concern negative past events (injuries) 2-5 yo = even fantasy stories preoccupies w agrgession, death, hurt, misfortune 3 1/2 yo = Two-Event Narrative 4 yo = Leap-Frog Narrative 5 yo = End-at-High=Point Narrative 6+ = Classic Narrative Chronological narrative = undeveloped stories, unevaluated lists of actions; hallmark- dont select some part of an overall event to focus on and provide details Current Assessments of Narrative skills: -formally and informally construction of fictional stories is primary genra employed to assess narrative skills of kids at risk for lang probs; however we have noted such narrative task inapprop for preschool kids Narrative probs in kids w SLI - 8-9-yo kids w SLI have substantial dif producing narratives; deliver Leap-Frog Narratives (consist of more than two events that occurred on one occasion, but they narrate the events out of sequence) that resemble those told by normally developing 4 yo boys 4) Distinguished kinds of jumbled/incomplete even sequences told by kids after 4 yo who have probs w language in general & narrative construction in particular -Id'ing begin and end of narratives will be harder for disordered narratives, struggle to id boundaries of narratives = one potential indicator of disordered narration -Id macrostructure -Id evaluated high points -Id age appropriateness of narrative structure: if produce nar that falls into most common cat for their age (or more advanced cat) all is well If consistently peroduce narratives w less advanced structures, advise monitoring -Assessment of Leap-Frog Narratives in kids over age of 6 is serious concern bc no normal kids fell into this category; all kids w a diagnosis of SLI fell into this category -Separate word-finding issues of narrative construction event though flow of narratives is affected by word-finding probs -Job SLP is to distinguish btwn general discourse probs (word-finding deficits and problems specific to narrative construction) -assessment of structural maturity should be distinguished from assessment of truth value of what they say. 5) Alternative storytelling styles of kids from other cultures -cultural differences must be carefully distinguished from individual deficits -Japanese children tell extraordinarily succinct collections of experiences, often given in sets of three lines -Latino cultures rarely focus on sequencing events in their narratives, foregrounding instead narration of family connections and relationships, almost 50% of the narratives produced by children from Latino cultures contained no sequencing of events Leap-Frog Narratives have one or more of the following features: a) events on specific occasion are given of out sequence b) import info appears to be omitted c) scrips are inserted into a narrative ab past events d) instead of giving more info ab one specific occasion, narrator may leap into generating narratives of similar occasion e) unrelated occasions are narrated intrusively in the midst of other occasion -This is the kind of variation, mindful of age, culture, and normal variation, that should be registered to indicate a child at risk for reading. Concerns: -3 yo hasnt referred to past events = concern - 4 yo never chains 2 events together in any kind of narr = concern -6 yo strug w sequencing events or not chaining 2 events together in most instances = concern Critical for SLP: -separate out issues that explain narrative differences exhibited by children -Is individual fluctuation characteristic of normal performance? Is it individual deficit? Or is it, instead, a matter of cultural differences -If a 7-year-old North American, Caucasian, English-speaking child produces Leap-Frog or Single- Event Narratives at best, however, an assessment of narrative deficit is definitely warranted. 6) Treatment Possibilities/Implications for diagnosed narrative deficits: -intervention efforts should take place throughout the child's day -intervention should focus on consultation w teachers & staff & parents -intervention w parents & child together integral bc they spend most their time w parents so they can facilitate narrative skills through the child's day & parental styles of talking ab the past predict more optimal narrative development

Kratcoski (1998) Guidelines for using portfolios in assessment and evaluation. (Assessment)

Portfolios: -allow for authentic, functional assessments that clearly define learners' strengths and needs as they relate to the classroom and curriculum - use of portfolios in all types of assessments reflects a philosopy that honors the process of learning & collab -Responsibility within assessment practices: in conducting assessment pros have the resp to eval learners in ways that are relevant, meaningful, and useful bc decisions based on these assessments will affect the learners for the rest of their lives -Responsibility to implement practices that authentically reflect the learning process & best address the needs of the child & incorp portfolios into service delivery w kids w COD provide the vehicle to do just that Purpose of article: -discuss use of portfolios as tool for conducting various types of evals & assessments in schools; -specific guidelines presented for initiation the use of portfolios into case management procedures -emphasis placed on use of portfolios as tool for functional assessment Ultimate goal of assessment is improvement of instruction for the learners What are portfolios? -Systematic, purposeful, meaningful collection of students work in one or more subject areas. For SLP -systematic, purposeful, meaningful collection of learner's communication skills across varying contexts Rest of article: use of ports specifically for SLP purposes: evaluation for eligibility & placement, assessment for intervention planning, and assessment to measure learner progress ------ Using Ports for eval & assessment: -purpose of eval to id learners who are eligible for sped & related services by deter presence of a disability, after determined they qualify for special services, goal of SLP shift to process of assessment -assessment is one of intervention planning in that the clinician's goal is to dvlp a profile of the learner's strengths and needs that will assist in designing IEP goals/outcomes & determining the extent of services and model of service delivery -current perspect SLP assessment emp use of eval procedures that are authentic, functional, descriptive and more closely linked to intervention -functional assessment- process of collecting meaningful, relevant info concerning learnign probs in specific contexts; purpose of data collection is to answer specific questions concerning the learner functioning in a partic setting -Portfolios can be used effectively as authentic assessment tool for eval and assessment purposes, gather artifacts from variety of contexts SLP obtains more holistic view of learner, building a collection of expers that demonstrate learners actual use of speech & lang behavs in various context -Portfolios can facilitate collab ------ Portfolios as a functional assessment tool -portf assessment emph assessment for intervention; focus on the use of data collection for generating and testing hypots regarding why learner is experiencing probs and then determining the solutions to those probs; a reflection of functional assessment processes Steps to guide SLP in using ports for evals & assessments within framework of functional assessment 1) define the prob 2) form hypoth -predictions regarding learner behav that create questions that must be answered by assessment: five factors generated around: curricular, teacher/instructional, env, student skills, learner process [The behavior or concern] occurs because [possible reason] 3)dvlp assessment questions 4) determine the items to be added to portfolio Examples of specific items that can be included in port for eval/assmet -Initial referral forms -Language samples -Story retell samples -Observation notes -Work samples -Teacher interview -Parent interview -Student interview -Testing data --------- Summarizing & interpreting port eval & assessmt data 1) Review the prob, hypoth, prediciton statements & questions 2) Review each portfolio item to form responses to the assessment questions 3) Confirm or reject the hypoth 4) Transfer the hypothesis to long-term solutions -goal statement must: reflect data collected in portf, must be specific behav to be measured, conditions under which that behav will be exhibited must be specified, criteria. -data collected in response to assessment ques & hypoth should also be used to guide decision-making for designing intervention procedures, choosing intervention providers, deter context & freq of services --------- Using Portf for measuring learner progress -necessary to employ a tool that allows for the examination of the learner's actual use of targeted communication skills in varying contexts. -holistic measures such as interviewing, anecdotal observations, and work samples are legal and show measurable, developmental growth while also providing meaningful information regarding the child's strategies as a learner -Portfolios to measure learner progress is a collection of work selected by the learner, slp, etc that profiles the learner's use of targeted comm behavs -greatest strenght of portfs to assess progress; enables learner to demonstrate growth over time -enable learners to assume resp for their intervention program & progress when they're involved in selecting the work samples/items to put in it -increases accountability by providing documentation toward goals & objectives -provide info that can be used immediately to shape future intervention & develop new IEPs -facilitates collab; useful to share at parent confs & IEP reviews Questions guide to begin using portfs to assess learner progress: 1) Are IEP goals/objs defined in terms that are concrete, observable, measureable? 2) What items should be added to the portf to demonstrate learning? 3) How will the portfolio items be analyzed? 4) How often will items be added? 5) Who will contrib items to it? 6) Where and how will it be stored? 7) What happens to the portf at end of year?

Holland, Nelson (1998) Counseling issues w CODI kids (Theoretical) (Assessment) (Intervention)

Provide strategies for how SLP-As can adopt a wellness perpective in communciaiton counseling for kids w CODI Given ideas that can be adapted to specific circumstances of your clinical practice Kids have strengths that can be id'd, developed, enhanced. As you consider specific kids, what might you guess are their signature strengths? What is another way you could have helped them use that specific strength in a recent counseling moment?

Geekie, Cambourne, Fitzsimmons (1999) Understanding Literacy Development (Theoretical)

Psychological model of reading = human mind is like a computer, an asocial processor of info; brain gets info from env thru senses, encodes is, stores in mem and retrieves it when needed to make sense of daily exper or to prob solve Top-Down theorists propose that reading is meaning-driven -info stored in LTMemory allows print to be processed in large meaningful chunks -reading prob occurs when reader tries to process small, meaningless units of info, which clog STmem & prevent the reader from maintaining a focus on meaning Bottom-up theorists (behaviorist?) Beard and Oakhill -development of automaticity helps reader overcome processing limitations -skilled readers pay little attention to graphophonemic rlsps; focus on meaning in their responses to printing lang -beginning readers must first learn to deal w graphophonemic correspondences and develop automatic decoding responses to visual patterns of word meanings, when this can be done automatically then they can give attn to higher level processes reqd to und written lang -skills must be identified and taught to beginning readers -teacher expert; children learn by being shown & told -child is novice who learns to master the skills thru explicit instruction & repeated practice -vast maj of children dont just pick up the rules of writing system, they learn to read bc they are taught -learning involves transmission of knowledge and skills from teacher to learner, w teacher determ what is to be learnt, and in what order. And what is being learnt is a set of skills, demonstrated by an expert, and mastered thru repeated practice of the component skills -------------------- -capacity to use phonic clues to recognize words dvlps out childs experience of reading, rather than product of instruction This chapter: -kids = social beings constantly engaged w other people in making sense of their world of experience. -Learning is social & collaborative in nature -This view is much more useful in trying to make sense of literacy development Talking & Learning: -learn social & collab, happens all the time -talk btwn kids & adults involves learning, meanings negotiated, child fine-tunes understanding of world, at end shared understanding of adult & child overlap more than in begin Frank Smith (1983) -learning isnt something that happens only when kids are stimulated or reinforced. It goes on naturally and constantly as kids & adults try to build a common basis of understanding thru lang Roger Brown (1980) -Adults learn ab gaps in kids knowl from conversational breakdowns -Any growth in kids understanding depend upon adult intervention and guidance -How can we know which labels to use so our communicative intentions can be made clear to other people? This is vital part of what is learnt in mastering a lang and is fundamental to successful learning -Growth of understanding depends upon the child's engagement in thinking -Prereqs to learning 1. child made aware of deficiency in his capacity 2. adult provided provisional model that can be used as a standard for making future judgements -Sometimes referring is a difficult process which might not always be succflly achieved, it might require further thought, experience, and negotiation before understanding is fully achieved -remembering, linking occasions to make further connections, -learning convo has its topic what has been foregrounded in the current situation, but it assumes a common, remembered background of exper and capacity to refer to that common exper. -This above is of great import in understanding way in which classroom talk contribs to learning & learning ab lit In classrooms - When the labels are in written lang and even the act of referring is directed at lang itself rather than objs and people. -What matters is that child has dvlpd control over the social processes that permit the negotiation of agreement ab the meanings of things -its thru the use of these social processes that learning proceeds -learning processes = social ; what is learn = cultural in nature -not just categories and labels that are learnt but also learn culturally specific ways of communicating; problem solving; thinking ----------- Vygotsky stuff -Critical ft of social interaction in Vy theory = is that it is a shared thinking process during which the support of an expert is available to the learning child -learning preceeds & promotes mental dvlpmt; instruction should identify those tasks which kids cant manage alone but can complete w assisstance "shared thinking" indicator of future literacy develpment Summary of all points above: -All children are actively engaged in interpreting their world, but they need support from someone that is more knowledgable than them. -What children learn is essentially what their culture offers them thru the intervention of others. -its a ft of human society that knowl is passed from gen to gen. the adults who instruct kids help them to acquire this pre-exist cult knowl and is not done by transferring knowl from mind to mind, but thru collaborative sessions in which the children participate in acts of shared thinking w someone more competent than themselves ------------ Learning as puzzle solving (puzzle story) -recognition of kids as social beings, who thru social intrxn, acquire a framework for interpreting experience, and learn how to negotiate meaning in a manner congruent w reqs of the culture -How does the puzzle story illustrate theoretical position on learning? 1) Learning often a mutual accomplishment -Rogoffs = children actively shape adult's contributions to any instructional session is crucial insight into nature of learning. Learning is collaborative not adult-driven 2) Children often learn thru guided participation -children watch, listen, and participate (guided-participation) 3) Children profit from the support of more competent people -Bruner (1986) acting as 'consciousness for two' -ZPD -Adult intervention is instrument in promoting development and shaping its direction -kids have to learn what their intentions in the activity are supposed to be. once understand the purpose & how to participate appropriately, then able to engage in purposeful, independent prob solv behavior. This above is basic ft of learning that is central to our discussion of young kids engaged in learning to write 4) effective Instruction is contingent instruction -Wood 'leading by following' -responsive rather than directive -those learnt best moms behaved contingently on 2 rules: a) failure on the part of a child to complete sub-section causing mom to increase level of control b) instruction following success in completing part of task result in mom providing less help -Bruner (1983) 'where there was once an observer, let there now be a participant -this handover is fundamental aspect of learning 5) Its not interaction itself but the quality of the interaction that contributes to better learning -quality of the interaction is crucial import in deter the effectiveness of the learning which takes place -adult-child groups that engaged in 'shared and guided decision making and discussed those decisions w the children 6) lang is means thru which self-reg of learning behav dvlps -role of lang: talked while modelling, talked ab what she was doing and why she was doing it. Described activity in terms of distinguishing fts and how those fts related to other pieces -Strategic thinking aloud: used efficient strats & talked ab why they were doing it -even when kids can do it independently language remain integral part of the activity; Vyg, talk shaped the activity into a structure 7) learning depends upon the negotiation of meaning -young children and difs w referential comm; ability to prod clear spoken messages & recognize when heard messages are not clear -Peter Lloyd sociolinguistic perspective to referential comm: to und ref comm, reciprocal nature of convo must be considered. success or failure in comm from this perspect depends on negotiation of und thru convo, especially the asking of ques designed to bring responses which will clarify, confrim, or elab on info previous recieved. -young kids have dif recognizing what they dont understand and in seeking info to clear confusions; in classes teachers should give more attention to creating cirucmstances which make it easier for kids to ask questions and resolve misunderstandings Conclusion -learning is social & collaborative in nature -learning can only be adequately understood if its social nature is taken into account -Learning is social in both what is learnt (e.g., writing is a valued social achievement) and in the learning process (the dialogue which facilitates learning & eventually becomes basis for thought itself) -Vygoskian position -Rogoff "individ dvlpmt cant be understood without considering social roots of both the tools for thinking that children are learning to use and the social intrxn that guide children in their use -when children have trouble learning something, turn to someone more competent; children learning to read/write achieve far more w assistance than alone How important is adult intervention in childrens learning? -children benefit from the assistance of adults when they are learning -Social interaction facilitates understanding, promotes development, & helps them to relate what they have learnt independently to what is known by people generally This chapter takes approach of 'community of learners' model in a classroom operating in accordance w this model, responsibility for learning is shared. Adults & children will be collaboratively engaged in learning activities, w adults guding and supporting childrens leanring. Amongst other things, the children learn to participate in the management of their own learning. Everyone works togther, with everyone being a resource for everyone else Teachers can: simplify the instructional context to make learning easier for the children, provided support which helped the children to remember and attend and plan more effectively, respond contingently by provid assistance when needed then withdraw and hand over control when kids capable, constantly encouraged them to seek solutions to their probs, & to use other kids in class as resource for learning instructional model involves truly collabrative acts of learning

Hamayan, Marler, Sanchez-Lopez, Damico (2013) Special ed considerations for ELL's. (Theorietical) (Intervention)

Reasons for misidentification of special needs among ELLs 3 reasons for misidentification 1) problematic assessment practices -complex, requires consideration of mult factors, this complexity & the methods to address it are not considered in schools -biases that orient assessment process away from best interests of ELLS become operational (focus on superficial behaviors rather than underlying proficiency as indicies of difficultly, collection of inadeq data from norm-ref stand test that dont enable sufficient descriptions of proficiency, lack of recognition of several consequences of bilingualism during assessment, application of inappropriate discrepancy formulas to interpretation purpose -superficial level academic & language challenges manfiest in ells similiar to special needs; not enough to focus on superficial indicies must also determine if deeper or more complex variables are operating -second lang learners challenges typ due to factors extrinsic to learner; the lang learning process itself or cross cultural diffs; need to develop further proficiency in academic language -not good to give standardized tests to ELLS bc gives inaccurate views of the student -ELLs test performance should be interpreted using both languages via conceptual scoring -Ells highly variable in performance based on individual, contextual, affective, & developmental factors but these arent considered in scoring criteria of these tools -failure to take into account bilinguial process during assessment further reduces effectiveness of trad assessment & diagnostic tools for ELLs -Discrepancy modelfor id learning disabilities dont serve ELLs well -RTi model seeks to improve learning env for all students by supporting teachers & students -important to adhere certian standards in order to collect qualitative data that are authentic and to have the conviction that these data are not inferior to data obtaine dthru more standardized means 2) influence of medical model when addressing educational issues -medical model prevailed as way to und special needs -based on notion diabilities/challenges can be id'd much like list of ailments that are recognized as diseases in medical field -medical orient created set of beliefs ab nature of special ed & ELLs role within special ed, these beliefs inform perception of academic & language-learning probs & our assessment practices -falsely suggested to educators that sped needs can be easily id'd in a valid & reliable manner, resulting in misidentification bc complexity of the phenomena & individuality of ELL overlooked -exceptionality = social construct, diagnostic criteria based on number of sociocultural factors 3) funding biases toward special ed -students have to be formally identified as having SPED before additoinal funding can be recieved by school -identification connected w additional funding that gives school much needed resources 2 compelling reasons for not placing ELLs erroneously into SPED a) stigma of the label b) we must ensure the most effective learning env for these studends Traditional SPEDS can limit the kind of learning ELLS need; need a meaningful context in order to comprehend a lang that surrounds them Sooner exceptionalities are id'd and supported, the better opp the student has to be successful in school Continuum of Services Framework -2 major changes must occur in school cult for this new approach to be implemented 1) dispose of urge to formally & quickly categorize students into SPED, instead must gather info as extensively as possible ab student and their surroundings. -as more info gathered, introduce instruction & interventions we believe to be most effective for specific observable behavs into students everyday routines 2) Circumvent compulsion to provide only intervention allowed by funding; instead meaning-based instruction & intervention, both systematic and specific must be infroduced independently of the category or specific funding prog that eventually supports the student, this support must be introduced as soon as significant challenges are identified -info gathered might require referral that results in formal placement into SPED; intervention part of IEP, -only thru such a framework, that needs of ELLS who having sifnif academic & lingchallenges can be met in a cohesive way that makes sense from student's perspect -this framework supported by RTi approach in assessing the need for & in providing sped support to students that need it -in this model, specific interventions are made, students response to those is used as basis for further decision making -Advantages of well implemented, culturally & ling resonsive Rti approach: 1) encourages a proactive process dont wait for them to fail; provides enhanced instruction in a timely manner across grade levels. 2) emph high qual, consist, effective instruction linked to authentic assessment for ELLs thru the day 3) focuses on students in explicit way 4) requies collab across disciplines & creates new roles for prob solving

Duckworth (1987) The having of wonderful ideas (Theorietical) (Intervention)

The having of wonderful ideas is considered the essence of intellectual development, would depend on the extent of the occasions for having them More schemes (piaget) more material they have for trying to put things together in their own mind David Hawkins said of curriculum development "You want to uncover a subject" schools can help to uncover parts of the words kids would not otherwise know how to tackle; 2 aspects to providing occasions for wonderful ideas: 1) willing to accept children's ideas 2) proving a setting that suggests wonderful ideas to children- dif ideas to dif children- as they are caught up in intellectual probs that are real to them Theoretical point: development of intelligence is a matter of having wonderful ideas Making new connections depends on knowing enough ab something in the first place to provide basis for thinking of other things to do-other questions to ask- that demand more complext connections in order to make sense. The more ideas about something people already have at their disposal, the more new ideas occur and more likely they can coordinate to build up still more complicated schemas The having of wonderful ideas dont necessarily have to look wonderful to the outside world. No difference between wonderful ideas that many other people have already had, and wonderful ideas that nobody has had yet. The nature of creative intellectual acts remains the same. Infant makes connection btwn seeing things and reach for them for the first time, Kevin's idea of putting straws in order of their lenght, musician who invents harmonic sequence, astronomer dvlps a new theory of creation of universe. In each case above, new connections are being made among things already mastered. The more we help children to have their wonderful ideas & to feel good about themselves for having them, the more likely it is that they will someday happen upon wonderful ideas that no one else has happened upon before.

Creaghead (1992) What does this student know about school? Analysis of classroom scripts for interaction. (Assessment)

These comm probs exist btwn teacher and student and btwn text and student appropriate assessment of these probs must involve analysis of those intrxns as they occur in the context of the classroom Formal lang tests will not reflect the child's strategy for approaching the directions on a work sheet or fear of misspelling a word Imperative that assessment of classroom interaction be collaborative btwn teacher and SLP; teacher can add much to data analysis ------ School Scripts -what they know ab how to act & interact in school -mental schema for an event -knowledge of the script enables individs to deter whats approp to do & say during the event -importance of scripts for kids success in school; strategies for determining their script knowl & for helping them dvlp stronger school scripts. -Classroom interaction should be analyzed for: a) classroom scripts (what do kids have to know ab how to act in this room?) b) the teacher's cues for defining and activating these scripts? ( How do kids know how to act in this room?) c) the kids knowl of the script & awareness of the teachers cues (what does this child know ab the script for this class? Which cues does kid notice and which ones missed? What does the kid know ab the signif of these cues?) ------------ The Script -Students w lang/learn probs may not have answers to these questions ----------- Clues to the script -second goal: determine the teacher's cues for defining the script & alerting the kids when a given script is to begin --------- The Childs awareness of the script & the teachers cues -After deter script & teachers cues; 3rd set of ques involves the target child's awareness of both -------- "Teacher Talk" and the child as a listener -teachers talk about 70% of the time in classrooms -teachers are initiators of communication -major fxns for teacher talk: giving info/directions, nominating speakers, accepting & evaluating responses -kids speech more responsive and bids for attention, permission to speak -since teachers typically control interactions, successful students must understand teachers verbal & nonverbal communication & subtle cues that define acceptable responses -To determine why a kid dont follow directions, und teachers quest, or know when/how to respond; the teacher's actions & oral communication at the moment of the failure must be examined -------- Timing -kid who asks content or procedural question or makes a topic-related comment during intro of lesson may be demonstrating lack of knowledge of the timing aspect of the lessons; event if ques is approp & on topic, it may not be allowed during this time. without careful obs these kids may be id'd as being off-topic or impulsive when their prob is really timing ------- Style -most kids can adapt to variations & follow teachers lead. Some cant, the "comm probs" exhibited by these kids may be related to an inability to determine the comm need of the moment or to change w the teacher's style -some unable to adapt to teachers script due to lang/learn difs --------- Language -Analysis of what the teacher is saying at the moment that the child fails to understand may reveal more ab the child's lang prob than a formal assessment -analysis of "teacher talk" in class may have positive outcomes: a) awareness of their own comm & of their classes reqs may lead teachers to reduce their demands on kids w codi b) analysis of classroom demands can lead to remediation focusing directly on helping the child meet these demands ------- The child as a speaker -Cazden (1988) outlined following requirements that children's contributions to classroom discourse must meet: approp timing, standard syntax, decontextualization & explicitness, approp use of the lang of curriculum, & relevance & conciseness -Interaction during speech therapy may be more like "mother-child" interaction that is one-on-one, child directed, & scaffolded -As a result the kinds of comm reqs may not exist in the speech therapy room and that analysis of the interaction as it occurs in the classroom a required for assessment ---------- Text & the Child as a Reader & Writer -examining textual material presented, observing children interacting w text, provide insight to their perceptions, difs, strats. -Truax (1990) outlines: a) interpersonal schemata -dif writing have dif fxns that deter the rlsp of the reader to each piece -examining fxns of dif writing & kids perception of those fxns is imp b) textual schemata -to be good readers/writers, kids need to know how to relate their expectations ab the content to the purpose & structure of the text -assessment involves exam of the text structure & child's knowl & expectations ab it c) conceptual/exper schemata -effective reader uses a wealth of background exper & knowl to create meaning from text -background schemata include: axn scripts for events (in relation to kids real-life prior exper), vocab nets (examining vocab reqs of school texts is more valuable method of deter target vocab), sentence level networks including figurative lang (observer must deter both kids prior knowl of such forms & ability to create meaning from context), geographical/historical networks (texts should be examined for degree & kind of assumed world knowl & relevant knowl that the child has) -as being req for text comp & determining what kids must bring to the process of interacting w the text. -These schemata can also be used as a framework for observing kids writing; must be able to draw upon these schemata to create decontextualized pieces that communicate to the reader

Pils (1991) Soon anofe you tout me: eval in first grade whole language classroom (Assessment) (Intervention)

This article: shares evaluation strategies implemented in whole lang classroom -Whole language philosophy allowed to teach children at their levels & enable them to become independent learners -Journals instead of work books, ditto sheets for key words, basal readers for trade books & read/write workshops - Meaning and language became basis for curric -literature, oral language, drama & writing became major building blocks This article: -changes in perspective, attitude, responsibility -Describe the assessments implemented to evaluate students progress & guide acquisition of literacy abilities --New forms of assessment: examine students work to make judgements and how she assisted them was determined by where they were in the reading/writing process --Clipbaords & labels: anecdotal notes make it easy to spot pttrns of behavs, problems that she needed to address, recent achievements; these obs made on daily basis gave a clear pic of the progress being made --Portfolios: Writing samples compared initial to other ones during the year; # of words read aloud in one minute done at beginning, middle, end of year; 10 min writing samples to keep track of how many words each kid can write in a 10 min period at 3 mo intervals thru the year; Lists of books read and to be read; Challenge cards; Conference records -Description of classroom & lit events that occur in it --Had plenty of literature surrounding kids --realized activities were the substance of the whole lang program, thematic units implemented to integrate math, science, social studies. Literacy activities: key words & sents, Daily news, Buddy reading, Reading workshop, writing workshop -Share new perspective on evaluation that she acquired -Various special ways she gathers & responds to info ab her students Whole lang: Conclusion: -kids share responsibilty for learning & participate in its eval -parents participate teacher discussed kinds of growth expected, what stages likely to come next, they saw and heard what kid does in class, teacher learned kids interests & hobbies from a survey, teacher only talked about what kid could do -Assessments done daily to make more away of students dvlpmt & any possible probs -can work on difficult area immediately -kids dont need to stop read/write to be evald; reading and writing is the eval

Goodman & Goodman (1994) To err is human: Learning about lang processes by analyzing miscues (Assessment)

Unexpected responses reflect readers linguistic or conceptual cognitive structures When we see how kids miscues reflect good reading strats, how they learn from the text, and we see "the dynamic transaction btwn a reader & the written lang" Readers intuitive grammarians who integrate all the language cueing systems (gramm, graphophonic, semantic, prag) as they use strats for constructing meaning from texts Schema-forming & schema-driven miscues explains how the readers' prior knowl & exper affect both understanding of the text & their miscues Goodmans suggest a single process of making sense underlies both oral & silent reading Conclude by argument ab reading research that focuses on "isolated sounds, letters, word parts, word, and sents" severly distort the reading process & our understanding of it -- miscue analysis does provide insight into that process -------- Miscues: unexpected response -reveals that miscues are unexpected responses cues by readers' ling or conceptual cognitive structures -Oral response: generated while meaning is being constructed, form of linguistic performance, & powerful means of examining readers' process and underlying competence Reading miscue & comp -What is said in oral reading is not what the eye has seen but that the brain has generated for the mouth to report; text is what the brain responds to; oral output reflects underlying competence & psychosociolinguistic processes that have generated it -When expected and observed responses do not match; gives a window on the reading process -more proficient reader = greater proportion of semantically acceptable miscues -comprehending-- what reader does to understand during the reading of a text -Comprehension-- what the reader understands at the end of the reading; done w open-ended retellings following the reading; retells provide opp for reserchers to gain insight into how concepts & lang are actively used & developed thruout a reading event -retells: info on readers under of text emerges from the organization they use in retell -by comparing our interp w kids retelling & miscues, were able to analyze how much learning occurred -Linguistic & conceptual schematic backgroun a reader brings to a reading not only shows in miscues but its implicit in the dvlping conception ormisconcepts revealed thru readers retelling ----- Interrelations of all the cueing systems -least proficient readers use graphic info more than most proficient readers -integration of all lang syst necessary in order for reading to take place -Miscue analysis provides ev that readers integrate cueing sys from the earliest initial attempts at reading -Readers sample & make judgements ab which cues from each sys will provide most useful info in making predictions that will get them to meaning -are miscues syntactially acceptable, semantically acceptable? -as readers make use of all lang cues they predict, make inferences, select signif fts, confirm, constantly work toward constructing a meaningful text ; & contstructing themselves as readers ------ Schema-Forming & Schema-Driven miscues: -analy of miscues has been basis for dvlpmt of a theory & model of the reading process -learned from miscues in reading has been applied to many aspects of lang -errors kids make provide insight how young learn lang, & insight into nature of lang: how it dvlps, grows, changes -readers schemata vital to the transactions -schema concept helpful to explore how miscues are necessary to lang learning; is an organized cog structure of related knowl, ideas, emos, actions that have been internalized & that guides & controls a person's use of subsequential info & response to exper -linguistic schemata = rules; by which we produce & comprehend lang -much of kids lang learning can be explained in terms of developing control over lang schemata; w growing linguistic & conceptual schemata, kids use lang to predict, process, monitor expression & comp -consider miscues from schema-forming or schema-driven miscues, both can go on at same time -Piaget (1977) assim & accom important here: schema-forming miscue likely to involve new info (ling or conceptual) that may not be easily assimilated; schema-driven miscue may involve either old (given) info or new info in a predictable context -roles of miscues in lang learning are the positive effects of linguistic and conceptual processes -if lang user looses meaning; likely produce miscue -if lang user chooses a syntactic schema dif from authers; miscue likely result' -if a reader/listener interprets in a way dif from the meaning intended; miscue result -Miscues reflect readers abilities to liberate themselves from detailed attention to print as they leap toward meaning -readers make use of their linguistic and conceptual schemata to reverse, subst, insert, omit, rearrange, paraphrase, transform; do this w letters, single word, two-word seqs, phrases, clauses, sents. -their own expers, values, conceptual structures, expects, dialetcts, lifestyle integral to the process -The meanings they construct can never be a simple reconstruction of authors conceptual structs, bc they are dependeent on the readers' schematas -risk taking = signif aspect of lang learning & proficient lang use

Damico, Nelson (2005) Interpreting Problematic Behavior: Systematic Compensatory Adaptations As Emergent Phenomena in Autism. (Theoretical)

What does this article do? -Emergent account of pragmatic ability & disability provides theoretical & empirical support for deeper und of some systematic behavs tht've served as diagnostic indicies in comm impd pops & -Does this by employing conversational analysis, examples of prob behavs in autism idd as a specific type of compens adapt -Discus theoretical & clinical implications ------------ -Our lit makes freq refs to the symptomatic behavs manfiested by individs w certain comm d/os. These behavs themselves often regarded as diagnostic indicies -e.g., flapping behavs & tantrums; autism. pragmatic "errors" and grammatical difs id'd in lang do'd school-age kids; persistent behavs in aphasics -This article provides add'l data for a conceptually deeper und of some of these systematic behavs id'd as problematic -Perkins (1998, 2002, 2005) describing behavs seen in pragmatic imp as epiphenomenal results of deeper levels of fxning; we view many of these problematic behavs as specific kinds of emergent behavs called compensatory adapts that've been constructed by impaired individs as they try to create meaning within their social contexts ---------- Theoretical foundations -Vygotsky semiotic capacity (language) -Products of internal symbolic coding sys = human meaning-making manifes (perception, cogn, mem, inte, oral lang, lit, social axn) & various pragmatic maps we create within those manfiestations to make sense of world at dif levels of rep (percepts, cog inventions & discoveries, words, grammar, utterances, gestures, scripts, schemata) -As individ attempts to negotiate way in the world, employs semiotic mapping fxn so comprehensability, predictability, & successful creation of practical expectations can occur -Perkins (2002) pragmatic maps most likely the emergent prop of intrxns btwn some of the higher psycholog fxns -Janet Emig (1983) individ uses ling/semiotic capacity to "weave a web of meaning" which is necessary for one to operate meaninfully in the world = pragmatic mapping -Vygotsky: mapping fxn of our semiotic mediational cap & its resultant emergent products (cog ability, systematic social axn, verbal behav, commu comp) which are properties of the linkage of external facts of reality w internal states thru semiotic mediational capacity and they create useful/meaningful maps to negotiate our symbolic world -resultant maps of the world are effective & appropriate within our culture -if individ has effective semiotic capacity they should produce effective prag maps thatve been mutually agreed upon & acqd within ones linguistic & cultural community -if individual dont possess above, then difficulties arise: as a meaning maker they still must strive to make sense of the word but their semiotic capacity isnt sufficient to employ the effective mutually agreed upon prag maps of the individs linguistic conm; do the best they can within their limitations -creates prag map thats less effective and/or very dif from others which can be viewed as a compensatory adaptation -Compens adapts = the emergent results (prag maps) created by the intrxns btwn various symbolic task reqs, biologic & usage chrstics of meaning-making manifestation employed, numeraous contextual factors, and ineffective semiotic mediaitional capacity -Presenting behavior mediated by a stable weakness/deficit in semiotic capacity, frequently consistent in nature (occurs systematically in id'd individ & is predictable) -Compensatory adaptive phenomena noted as indices of deficits ---------- Empirical support --If commonly observed overt problematic behaviors are compensatory adaptations in this sense, they should appear as stable, recurrent, systematic, and predictable manifestations under certain meaning-making conditions. -for the concept of compensatory adaptation as a emergent phenomena -used conversation analysis; effective means of ensuring authentic data collection & rig & valid data analysis & interp ------- Discussion -Emergent quality of overt social actions worthy of further dvlpmt -Practical mapping provided by emergence chrstics of prags is linked w semiotic mediational capacity is promising -combining such ideas = better clinical und of perceived prob behavs is emerging a deeper und of the nature of compensatory adapts Clinical considerations -advantage of regarding problematic behavs as emergent phenomena (comp adapts) sensitive to certain controllable contextual variables is that we shouldbe better able to id these beahvs and specify the extent to which they impact meaning-making success. -be able to id the controlling factors and to shape all factors toward greater meaning-making success -Compensatory adapts can be used as "guides" or "road maps" in assessment to assist in clinical description & diagnosis to help deter each individs level of comprehensability and ZPD & as building blocks in range of meaning making contexts ------- Caveats -theoretical & empirical support for comp adapts as emergent behavs ---------- Conclusion: -recast prob behavs in terms of a deeper/richer semiotic perspective; then behavs can be viewed as emergent phenomena (compensatory adaptations) -Empirical data -Various theoretical & Clinical implications -Broadening of semiotic perspective & the view of these behavs as epophenomena provide more direct theoretical implications & clinical applocations

Allington (2009) What really matters in RTI. (Theoretical) (Assessment) (Intervention)

Why struggling readers continue to struggle: -most never catch up; bc schools create school days for them where they struggle all day long; struggle more bc they get far less appropriate instruction Reading Lessons, Interventions, & Struggling readers -NCLB & Reading First component, targeted class instruction as central to dvlping greater number of students who read on grade level; these 2 are among the first federal initiatives to target classroom lessons in addressing needs of strug readers; but have been misread and classrooms are less focused on struggling readers Simple but basic rule of learning -Use of multi-text, multi-level curriculum design, teachers selected a variety of texts to teach what they were required to, selected some text even struggling reader could read -document more gains strug readers made in class, got much more instruction all day, everyday, that both theory and research indicate would allow them to increase their reading proficiencies -central theme: strug readers need full day of high quality lessons if they are to grow as readers -quality of general ed instruction must also match dvlpmt of strug reader Diff rates of learning - The essence of the problem -waited for kids to dvlp when they didnt then they got referred Doubling or Tripling reading growth -strug readers rarely caught up to peers bc most schools haven't though of what efforts might be required to double or triple the strug readers learning rates for reading -research studies suggest that we have pretty good idea of how to accelerate the reading development of the kids that need better instruction; prob is most schools provide nothing like the intervention that were offered by these studies (on strug readers in primary grades; 4th and up less successful) Building a reader -can create kindergarten classes that reduce or expand these initial differences -teacher provided profess dvlpmt that focuses an improvement of their classroom early lit lessons: daily very small grp lessons focused on accelerating lit and lang dvlpmt of those kids that arrive w most risk of reading failure -in kindergarten, work harder & more expertly w those students in need, this begins closing achievement gap, difs may still exist in grade 1, so now create early intervention lists and begin to offer broad extra instructional support to student furthest behind -each of these early strug readers must receive a full period of high quality literacy instruction in the classroom -most successful first grade teachers; early in year strug readers spent 70% of their reading instructional time in teacher-guided small grp lessons; better readers only ab 30% in grps; gradually decreasing % of teacher-directed instruction worked best So how might this look in a school? -only way to create fewer students w limited reading proficiency is to provide those w more & better reading instructions than that provided to the other students -in classrooms we need strug readers to get more teacher time, more intensive reading lessons, more teacher-directed lessons targeted to their specific instructional needs Taylor's Early Intervention Reading Program What does intervention look like beyond the classroom? -strug readers sent out of class during reading block in class; thus the intervention adds no additional reading lesson time to their school day 2 imp factors: 1) what might the strug reader miss if sent out of class at a time other than the reading block time? 2) issue of ease of scheduling the intervention -Strug readers need additional reading instruction if we expect them to learn to read faster than the achieving students How much intervention? -even if sched outside of reading block, dont add enough instructional time to be expected to double or triple the studs rate of reading acq -when intervention efforts dramatically increase the amount of reading instruction offered, we are far more likely to see the growth needed to catch up -if we want them to catch up we must schedule intervention periods so dramatic that increases in reading actually occur -kindergarten and first grade most strug readers will benefit enormously from add'l 30 mins daily -but by second grade and beyond need to schedule far more intensive reading time every day; Reading Recovery tutorial 80-85% brought to grade level proficiency in ab 12-20 weeks of intervention -30 min expert tutorial or very small grp lesson became basic time allocation model for any intervention intended to close reading gaps; reps a 1/3 increase in reading lessons. its more effective for younger struggling readers Bigger Reading Probs -beyond grade 1, longer intervention periods are usually necessary bc they fallen further behind -these cases require we provide something that doubles or triples the rate of reading growth -bringing strug readers word reading skills up to grade level has been accomplished with older strug readers, the interventions that accomplished this did not bring reding comp & fluency up to grade level -evidence adding an extra period of high qual reading instruction to typical hs day can accelerate reading dvlpmt but not quadruple tht rate -by grade 4 strug readers would benefit from full extra hour of intensive & expert reading intervention every day, for many this would be sufficient to catch up over one year. for others might not be sufficient, but wold help close reading acievement gap, might consider 2-3 year intervention plan but goal remains: struggling readers must catch up RTI -intent to reduce ab 70% the number of students who are classified as pupils w disabilities -underlying rti initiative = reserch on early intervention that suggest many strug readers can be caught up to grade level & that too many of these students are simply classified as pups w learning diabilities . -Reading recovery intervention; provide intensive expert tutoring to lowest first graders in each school; goal to tutor them as to accelerate their reading development such that they were caught up to their normally ahcieving peers; it does accelerate reading; largely untapped resource only used in some schools; only use it in first grade -RTI is not something that happens in sped rather its a method for teaching all students that needs to be driven by general ed teachers in gen ed classroom -Schools demonstrate that reading difs not result of lack of appropriate reading instruction; all students, esp strug readers, be provided approp classroom & intervention reading instruction; only after schools provided and documented such instructuion and failure of students to benefit are considered for sped to begin -most approp grade levels for RTI might be 1 &2, 7&8 bc those are the grades where pupils w disabilities are actually identified -Goal is reduce # of students who are referred for sped services -hope is that by providing instructionally needy students w intensive reading interventions they will be able to demonstrate the ability to catch up w peers -if after providing approp intensive & expert reading intervention thru multitiered design, we have not accelerated a students reading dvlpmt, then schools might consider the referral to sped as last step in RTI -know a lot on how to design effective intervention lessons that accelerate reading dvlpmt, the RTI needs to be designed to achieve this goal, the main accomplishment of any RTI would be resolving reading difs that some readers experience; accomplishment of that goal will be most likely if RTI initiatives are designed around core reserch-based design principles.

Wade (1990) Using think alouds to assess comprehension. (Assessment)

verbal report measures to assess reading comp strats Purpose: -describe informal assessment procedure that uses think alouds (readers' verbal self-reports ab their thinking process) to obtain info ab how they attempt to construct meaning from text Process involved in comprehension -bc of role of background knowl reading viewed as the active construction of meaning -reader integrates new knowl derived from the text w own background knowl in ways to make sense = schemata (theories we hold ab events, objs, situations) each schema provides a skeleton for understanding incoming data; -Schemata determine how new info will be interpreted causing people to "see" messages in certain ways -interactive process btwn text and readers background knowl explains how readers can process text so rapidly -if schema dont account for incoming info, its either modified or rejected, and search for better schema begun. -major component of effective reading is comprehension monitoring; self regulatory mechs that include evaluating one's understanding of a text & taking correct axn when failiures in comp are detected ----------- Probs of poor comp -many young/poor readers dont realize when a passage is incomprehensible, dont know they should check their comp, lack of strategies for doing so, failing to make necessary repairs ------------ Think alouds as a method for assessing comprehension strats -verbal report data are an import source of info ab cognitive processes -verbal reports allow access to the reasoning underlying cognitive behaviors -one type of verbal reporting is the think aloud method; examiner provides task & asks subjs to say aloud everything that comes to mind as they are performing it; indirect cues to elicit more "can you tell me more?" -When used to assess reading comp strats; have students think aloud after reading short segments of a passage --------- Assessing comp strats -has readers think aloud ab the meaning of a passage after they have read short segments of it. -passages should be written so readers cannot know for sure what the topic is til they read the last segment -readers are req to generate hypothesis during their think alouds ab the texts meaning from clues in each segment -procedure ends w reader retelling the whole passage in their own words -used on kids from 2-9 grade -readers typically fall into one or a combo of the 5 categories Description of the assessment procedure thats designed to gather info ab those processes Taxonomy of dif types of comprehension which can be used to analyze think alouds Types of comprehension: The good comprehender: interactive reader, constructs meaning, monitors comp; some categorized as good comps yet all had labels of reading difs (poor word attack, lacked fluency, but able to draw on BG knowl & comp monitor strats may be reason why they were able to understand despite their probs in word recogn) The non-risk taker: bottom-up processor; passive role failing to go beyond the text to dvlp hypoth, look for clues from examiner rather risk being wrong ; say they dont know; repeat words/phrases verbatim = indication that they're not dvlping a coherent understanding of the text; relatively common prob esp for young, poor readers; lack or underutilized background knowl, over rely on text to suggest approp schema; laborious decoding could leave few cog resources for the processors of meaning & comp monitoring The non-integrator: -dvlp new hypoth for every segment of the text, never relating the new hypoth to prev ones or info presented earlier in the text -mix of bottom-up and top-down that lead to comp failure -schema of the moment guides the interpretation of the text; reader never goes beyond the text to dvlp inclusive, integrated understanding The schema imposer: -type of top-down processor who holds on to an initial hypoth despite incoming info that conflicts w the schema, seemingly unaware of alternative hypothesis The story teller: -extreme examples of top-down processors -tend to draw far more on prior knowl/exper than on info stated in the text --------- Instructional implications: -Understanding whether and how students use their background knowledge in constructing meaning from text and whether they monitor their comprehension has important implications for instruction. -Strategies that might be effective for one type of comprehender may be inappropriate for another: -For good comps, instructional strats should draw from their strong comp strats -Strats for bottom-up processors focus on using prior knowl to enhance understanding; may need to develop rapid, automatic, word recognition skills to free up their cognitive resources for more top-down processing -Top-down processors need strats emp cog flexibility & comp monitoring -common elements in all comprehension instruction: begin w materials approp in terms of interst, content, dif; another provide instructional support thru modeling & direct explanation that help make invisible processes involved visibile -Think aloud approach to comp strat assessment should only be one part of a comprehensive assessment program -To understand the cx of comprehension probs & make informed decisions ab subsequent instruction, teacher should know if readers a) have adeq background knowl, both general knowl of the world & specific knowl of topic b) have an under of what is involved in meaning construction & comp monitoring c) adept & confident in applying this knowl to partic reading tasks d) have prereq skills, rapid, automatic, word recognition Instructional approaches to use w different types of readers Limitations: -one strat reader will use w one type of passage, may not be same strats used w other types of readng material -assessment of reading comp should be varied to include texts that differ in length, content, dif, genre; purpose for reading should be varied -imp in comp assessment are obs of how readers deal w text when they have great deal of bg know vs ones they do not -Background knowl plays big role in comp, recognizing the results one obtains in any thing aloud assessment will be specific to the unique combo of text, task, content, reader BG knowl. Advantages: -think alouds do produce valuable initial hypotheses about readers' processing styles, which can then be tested in more natural reading situations Summary: -think aloud procedure for assessing comp help teachers evlauate students comp strats such as: ability to generate appropriate hypotheses, integrate new information from the text with the hypotheses, and revise or abandon hypotheses if new information conflicts with them -teacher can learn how reader goes ab integrating info such as visualization or elaboration techs & how confident reader is in fig out what text is about -provides info not readily available -as a result teachers will acquire valuable info about students' strengths and weaknesses, both of which can be used to guide instruction