Mini-Exam 1
Adrenarche
General order of pubertal development-- -Adrenal glands must mature for puberty to occur -"arche"= greek for start -Dhea get's produced by adrenals (Produces pubic hair, body smell) -Generally happens b/w ages 6-9 -Everyone has to go through adrenarche
Cascade of changes
General order of pubertal development-- -Levels of growth, insulin, calcium metabolism, muscle fat, etc. -Hypothalamic set-point change causes these changes
Hypothalamic set-point increases
General order of pubertal development-- Hypothalamus (which checks levels of these androgens + estrogens) changes how much androgen + estrogen it wants in the blood (adds more)
Secular trend in menarche
Secular trends -The secular trend downward in the age of menarche has occurred in every western country for which records exist -Menarche is getting earlier + earlier -Examples: menarche, height
What is the problem with school opening times and sleep? What were the consequences of changing the bell schedule
Sleep-- -Sleep needs stay same -->Adolescents need 9.2 hours of sleep 11pm + 9.2 hours means you should technically go to bed at 8:30 -->7-8 hours for adults -Problem: rise time --> In U.S. HS start by quarter to 8→ so cut in sleep time -->Younger kids can't go earlier like HS cause would require large amounts of after care -->Adolescents are in sleep deficit -Catch up sleep -->Catch up sleep on weekends doesn't actually help (should keep same bed time + rise time throughout entire week) -Consequences: -->School performance *Got 8 hours sleep performance increased from 35→ 50% *Got 9 hours sleep 6→ 11% *Tardiness + behavioral problems went down *Grades went up *Standardized scores went up -->Driving accidents *Kansas: 1 county started school 1 hour later→ crash rates went down 16% , counties around them went down 8% (difference of 24%)
Melatonin secretion shifts
Sleep-- -Produced throughout the day in cycles but a lot in the evening. Effect of melatonin: feel sleepy about 2 hours later. -Pre-puberty kids' big push of melatonin is at around 7 pm, so sleepy by 9 pm. -During puberty it shifts to around 2 hours later→ big push is now at 9 pm, don't feel really sleepy till 10-11 pm. -Blue-light exposure from screens tells pineal gland (that produces melatonin) + interferes w/ melatonin production
Experimental research designs
Specifically divide participants into groups, use random assignment, treat groups differently, any difference in outcome measure is supposed to be due to your manipulation
Group differences in timing of puberty
Typically studies by comparing average age of menarche (age of 1st period) -Across countries --Age at menarche lower when not malnourished (ex: africa and united states) -->Median age for U.S.& Western Europe→ 12.5-13.5 years -->Median age for Africa→ 14-17 years (means half haven't gone through at 17) -Among SES groups within a country --Affluent girls reach menarche before disadvantaged girls -->Wealthy girls reach menarche before poor malnourished girls -Within same populations but different eras --In Norway 150 years ago average age of menarche was 17
Blue light exposure
What is the factor that influences melatonin production (separate from adolescence) that was discussed in class?
Adolescence
thought to be a period of transition but where is the boundary
Correlational research designs
treat everybody same, no groups, just collect measures on everybody
Research begins w/ questions
need to know facts 1st + check if true 1. How does _____ change across adolescence? -Ex: sleep (can't use sleep in quizzy answers) -Need to know sleep changes as a fact 2. Teenagers are/do _____, is that due to ____? -1) rebellious, 2) hormones -Need to know teenagers are rebellious 3. Does _____ in ______ adolescents influence _____? -1) drug use, 2) impulse control -Speculating this is a problem
Information gathering methods
-Systematic observation -Self-reports/interviews -Psychophysiology -Clinical or case studies -Ethnography -Historical Research
Ethnography
-Descriptive, qualitative changes -Goal is to understand a culture or social group -Participant observation --Researcher lives in community for months or years (they become part of study + part of the culture) --Margaret Mead → went + lived in Samoa + wrote observations of how adolescents transition to adulthood (Observer bias: the adolescents played tricks on her b/c they knew she was observing them)--> Problems: observer bias
Clinical /Case-study method
-(study 1 person b/c they are special in some way, ex: particularly good at physics, serial killer, etc.) → not so common -Brings together a wide range of info on 1 child --Interviews --Observations --Test scores --Psychophysiological measures
5 major changes of puberty
-Adolescent growth spurt -Changes in body composition (muscle/fat ratio begins to change in boys + girls) -Changes in circulation & respiration -Development of primary sex characteristics (gonads→ ovaries + testes) -Development of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, pubic hair, voice change)
Smoking stats
-Age at menarche→ 10-15 -Asked at 17 how often they smoke? -->Those that had menarche at age 10, 30% reported smoking weekly + 30 % said never had menarche at age 11, 23% smoking weekly & 40 +% smoking never -->had menarche at age 12, 16% reported smoking weekly + 40 +% said never -->had menarche at age 13, 16% reported smoking weekly + 40 +% (almost 50) said never -->had menarche at age 14, 11% reported smoking weekly + 55% said never had menarche at age 15, 9% reported smoking weekly + 65% said never -Smoking= bad for health, addictive + pricey (difficult to stop + bad to start young) → may come from hanging w/ older kids (early puberty)
Research Designs (quantitative research= measure in numbers, qualitative isn't done via one of these designs)
-Correlational research designs -Experimental research designs -Modified experimental designs
Anorexia
-Do not eat like typical person, don't look like they're eating -Or eat more normally, then exercise tremendous amount -Found everywhere, across cultures -Data: in class, 80% said 0 people, 19% said 1,2,3 or more Anorexia is ⅙ as common as bulimia
Experimental research designs
-Essentially a controlled comparison --Have groups + treat groups differently --Ex: Take 3 pieces of bread, dunk 2 of them in applesauce, don't dunk 3rd→ one of them dunked then put in ziploc bag, other dunked not put in ziploc + placed in windowsill by itself, 3rd is no applesauce no ziploc... after a week look at results b/w 3 and the bread dunked + not dunked will look different. One w/o applesauce will be dried out, one w/ applesauce will have things growing on it, one dunked in ziploc bag will look grossest --Any difference b/w these 3 is due to the different ways you treated them + things you changed -Individuals are randomly assigned to one or more experimental conditions (or treatment groups) -Individuals in different groups are exposed to conditions that differ in only an aspect of interest (independent variable) -Behavior is expected to change based on the aspect of interest is measured (dependant variable)
Independent Variable (IV)
-Experimenter changes, or manipulates -Expected to cause changes in another variable -IV: applesauce exposure, air exposure, presence of ziploc bag
Dependent Variable (DV)
-Experimenter measures, but does not manipulate -Expected to be influenced by the independent variable -DV: educational→ attention training, lighting levels in a classroom, etc.
Nature
-Inborn, biological events -Based on genetic inheritance
Individual differences in timing of puberty
-Interaction b/w genes + environment -Environmental influences --Nutrition -->If malnourished you go into puberty later -->Leptin: hormone produced by fat, appears to have a role in kicking off puberty. If not producing enough leptin, your body puts off puberty Ex: gymnasts --Health -->If you have major health issues (parasites, etc.) puberty starts later --Environment; exposure to pheromones? -->Pheromones: airborne signaling molecules -Odor experiment, -smell jar + lots of people guessed appropriately which one was sad, angry, fearful, etc. -In scary situations we give off these pheromones -Not sure what effect is, but they are around -Menstrual cycles starting to align with others is supposed to be due to pheromones -Pheromones may be due to earlier start of menstrual cycles when they live w/ stepfather, stepfathers, etc. -Differences in timing/rate among individuals in the same general environment result chiefly from genetic factors
The Transition to Adulthood: Other Perspectives
-Israel: completing military service -Argentina: being able to support family financially -India & China: being able to support their parents financially
The Transition to Adulthood: American Style
-Legally an adult at age 18 -Characterized by Individualism --Accepting responsibility for oneself --Making independent decisions --Becoming financially independent
Biological Methods
-Measures of autonomic nervous system activity (biological characteristics)--> Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupils, stress hormones (cortisol test) -Brain scans -Genetic testing
Moodiness in puberty
-More fluctuations throughout the day than adults, especially in EARLY puberty (age 11-13/14) -Mostly not due to hormones-lots of new experiences Immediate impact of puberty i. High-quality relationship w/ mother: high quality relationship is protective against depressive symptoms if you have low testosterone levels ii. low-quality relationship w/ mother: low testosterone, low-quality relationship=more depressive symptoms
Variations in timing + tempo of puberty
-No specific average age at onset or duration of puberty -No relation b/w the age at which puberty begins + the rate of pubertal development -Timing (early or late) and adult stature -->Small effects: late maturers slightly taller as adults, early maturing girls slightly heavier as adults -There are ethnic differences (african american, mexican, white) for girls for breast development, appearance of pubic hair, age at menarche -->African american develop slowest, then mexican, then white develops fastest
Vote
-Our Data (compared to 2015): Majority: 18, 2nd highest: 16 -Risk: your country, if allowed to vote at younger ages they are heavily bribable, with voting comes significant responsibility, must be able to think through issues before able to vote -General age in all countries is 18, 21 -Mostly cognitive issues
Graphic Violence
-Our Data (compared to 2016) : Most popular: 16 (18 or under), 2nd highest: parental discretion→ not standard 18 & 21 here -You don't want them to see it b/c "people do what they see" (learn by imitation) → cognitive aspect
Graphic Sex
-Our Data (compared to 2016): Most popular: 16, 2nd highest: 15,18 (majority 18 + below) -Issue w/ porn its not committed partners (context is iffy) → it's not "real" (not typical standards of what is normal/regular) → cognitive aspect
Marry
-Our Data (compared to 2016): Most popular: 18, 2nd highest: 21 -All countries b/w 16 + 20 -Biological→ must go through puberty -Cognitive→ you don't know who you even are yet, thinking is different at different ages Table 1.2 Median Marriage Age (females) Developed Countries U.S. → 26 Canada→ 28 Germany→ 30 France→ 29 Italy & Japan→ 29 Australia→ 28
Life-endangering Profession
-Our data: Majority: 18, 2nd most popular: 21 (similar now to 2015 results) -Don't want younger ages (13,14,15) entering military b/c... --they don't have a life yet, haven't reached appreciation for life yet (cognitive aspect), --they are not fully grown yet (biological reason) b/c they have to be strong enough to carry a huge amount of weight in army, firefighter, etc.,
Drinking Age
-Our data: Most popular: 18, 2nd most popular: 21 (similar now to 2016 results) -General age 16-21 in other countries -Drinking age is 21 in U.S. b/c driving age is 16 or 17 when you're not a good driver still (so don't add drinking on top of that) → law is there to protect the innocence who are going to get hurt if someone drinks + drives -Drinking early (14, 15, etc.) impairs brain development + you're more likely to get addicted + impair brain growth (reason why drinking age is 18 + up)
Observer Influence
-Participants may react in unnatural ways (if know they're being observed) -Can be minimized (By not being obvious)
Why are there age boundaries?
-Protection -Acknowledgement of changes --Biological changes --Cognitive changes (need understanding) --Psychosocial changes (Need to know who you are) --Role changes (Whether you are independent + what you want to do w/ your independent life) -Different boundaries in different contexts
Sequential Design
-When the design includes longitudinal sequences, permits both longitudinal & cross-sectional comparisons -Reveals cohort effects -Permits tracking of age-related changes more effectively than the longitudinal design -May have the same problems as the longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies, but the design itself helps identify difficulties
Correlational research designs
1. Info is gathered on individuals, -Generally in natural life circumstances w/ no effort to alter their experiences --Treat everyone the same→ test everybody's heart rate, attention measured, same questionnaire, etc. --Not making distinctions b/w groups & not trying to change anything) 2. Look at relationship b/w participants' characteristics and their behavior or development -Is there a relationship b/w height & weight (as height goes up so does weight, etc.) -Ex: Rebelliousness & hormones? (correlational→ are you expected rebelliousness to be linked to hormones)
Changes
3 perspectives of adolescent dev.-- -Biological changes (puberty) -Cognitive changes (thinking that is available to them) -Social changes
Psychosocial issues
3 perspectives of adolescent dev.-- -Development of identity (personal changes becoming a person, gender identity, occupational views, who are you going to be) -Development of intimacy + romantic relationships -Mental health issues
Contexts
3 perspectives of adolescent dev.-- -Family (you and one parent, 2 parents, etc.) -Peer group (are your friends all studious, athletic, delinquents, etc. and how does that affect your development) -School context (expectations, what is school like) -Work (how this affects your development while going through cognitive changes) -Media
Development of primary sex characteristics
5 major changes of puberty-- -Girls: born w/ immature eggs, which mature during adulthood -Boys: sperm production starts during puberty
Adolescent growth spurt
5 major changes of puberty-- -Rapid acceleration of growth (2-3 inches every year) -Simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, + androgens -->The change of the hypothalamic set-point causes this change -->Suddenly adds more inches instead of 2-3 inches maybe it's 4 a year -Average female growth spurt is 2 years earlier than the average male growth spurt -->Consequence of this: girls are adding a lot of weight, reach adult height, boys end up taller than average girls b/c girls start growing earlier then stop when boys are just starting to grow -Girls go up then level off, when they level off boys shoot up for another 2 years then level off so boys end up taller than girls -Growth velocity is highest when you're relatively small -2-3 inches every year gets added, then at 11 the girls growth spurt starts, top height reached at 15. Boys have steady addition of height, start spurt at 13, their peak growth velocity is higher than girls then reach adult height at 17
Changes in body composition
5 major changes of puberty-- -Relative proportions of body fat/muscle change --Once hypothalamic set point changes, different builds start -->Guys end up w/ 3 parts muscle (75%) to 1 part fat (25%) -->Girls end up w/ 5 parts muscle (55%) to 4 parts fat (45%) (Much larger deposit of fat to muscle) -Skeletal changes --Bone density, epiphyseal plates close -->Get taller so your long bones (femur, etc.) the epiphyseal plates (growth plates) begin to grow on the ends of these bones. At end of growth spurt epiphyseal plates close + stop growing -Asymmetry of growth -->Not every part of your body is growing at same time -->Area where development goes from top of body to bottom(starts head, neck, torso, legs, etc.) -->This is not order changes take place in puberty (puberty starts w/ feet + hands first, torso grows last) *This is when growth spurt starts (ex: Grow out of shoes every 2 weeks)
Circulatory and respiratory changes
5 major changes of puberty-- -Size + capacity of heart + lungs -->If you have someone XX + XY they're both 5'7→ the heart in the guy (XY) will be bigger than in the girl (more blood will be pumped around b/c heart is bigger + more efficient) -Exercise tolerance -->More oxygen is being pumped b/c bigger heart + better blood -->Bigger heart + bigger lungs= more efficient for exercise -->Lactic acid→ running really fast muscles don't get enough oxygen so body starts anaerobic fuel burning which produces lactic acid (burning sensation when contracted muscle to long) --XY's (males) have better tolerance for lactic acid build up than XX (females)
Development of secondary sex characteristics
5 major changes of puberty-- (visible from the outside→ pubic hair, penis size, breasts)) -Measured in Boys + girls by Tanner stages -->Different people go into puberty at different times -->He looked for pattern in which it changes for boys + girls -->5 stages for XX & XY Tanner 1→ soon after adrenarche, Age 6.5-14 Tanner 2→ Age 8-14 Tanner 3→Age 9-15 Tanner 4→ Age 10-16 Tanner 5→ Age 11-17 -BOYS (5 stages) -->Spermarche (age at 1st ejaculation) typically occurs 1 year after accelerated penis growth (fairly early on in puberty, average age= 12) -->Boys capable of fathering a child before they look like adults, opposite true for girls -->Very predictable order, visible signs→ appearance of body hair, facial hair, lowering of voice -GIRLS (5 stages) -->Sequence less regular than in boys (More variability in when people start what -->Menarche typically occurs after the secondary sex characteristics; regular ovulation follows 2 years later -->Menarche: first time females have period (28 days), after breast development + pubic hair development. They are then capable of sexual reproduction -->Thus, girls appear physically mature before they are actually capable of reproduction
Anorexia & Bulimia
Adolescents w/ these eating disorders have an extremely distorted body image -Look in mirror and see much heavier person than they actually are -Bulimia & Anorexia 10 times more common among females
Longitudinal Advantages
Advantages -Permits study of common patterns + individual differences in development and relationships b/w early and later events and behaviors Problems -Age-related changes may be distorted b/c biased sampling, selective attrition , practice effects, and cohort effects --Biased sampling (who signs up for these studies) --Selective attrition (people may drop out of the study b/c of some reason to do w/ study) --Practice effects (problems must be similar in order to be comparable + may do better on something you already completed year before) --Cohort effects ---things that happen b/c something affects participation of whole group in study→ ex: longitudinal study→study of depression in 12, 13 y/o then 9/11 happens and now you study depression in 14 y/o's, did depression go up b/c of 9/11 or was it an event that affected all of these 14 y/o's (is it an effect of age, or is it a cohort effect) ---Theoretical and methodological changes in the field can make findings obsolete (problem w/ longitudinal design) --> Follow infants around and witness the changes then realize none of this was of theoretical interest
Cross-sectional
Advantages -efficient -Not plagued by selective attrition (b/c no one comes back), practice effects (no practice effect cause no one gets tested twice), or theoretical and methodological changes in the field (not likely b/c done very quickly) Problems -Does not permit study of individual developmental trends -Age difference may be distorted b/c of cohort effects --Study math in a bunch of 3, 4 ,5 6 y/o's and it could be the method of mass instruction that 7 & 8 y/o were exposed to may be different from the mass instruction the 4 & 5 y/o's were exposed to --So there could still be factors that affect certain age groups just b/c that happened to be their historical context
Theory
An orderly, integrated, evidence-based (facts) set of statements that -Describes behavior --Characteristics, contexts (setting) ---Ex: characteristics of person who bullies ---Ex: characteristics of people who get bullied ---Context: where does the bullying occur -Explains behavior --What makes this one person bully (What explains it) -Predicts behavior --Predicting who will do what→ Looking at classroom and seeing who will be the bully and who will be the victim
Bulimia
Binge eat (like typical person or more than typical), then make themselves throw up or use laxatives -Use artificial means to diminish consequences of eating -more common in western cultures, than other cultures (+ higher % than anorexia) → (3% Bulimia, ½% anorexia→ anorexia should be ⅙ or the 14% here) -Data: in class, 85% didn't have family member w/ bulimia, 14% had 1 person, 2% 2 people Bulimia is more hidden
The endocrine system
Biological changes-- -System of glands that produce hormones, and parts of brain & NS that regulate hormone production (2 components) -Hormones --Substances secreted by endocrine glands circulating in blood stream- essentially signaling molecules (not just sexual reproduction hormones→ ex: eating a lot causes hormones→ insulin is a hormone, leptin (produced by fat cells), melatonin, have little or nothing to do w/ sexual reproduction)
Endocrine Feedback loop on HPG Axis
Biological changes-- HPG Axis -Hypothalamus (brain nervous system part) → regulates hormones (others produce them) -Pituitary gland (master gland) → produces hormones -Gonads (testes & ovaries) → produces hormones -Pituitary gland, Gonads, adrenal gland→ Produce hormones -Gonads release sex hormones into bloodstream --Androgens (produces testosterone) & estrogens ---Changes are to the levels of these produced -Adrenals also produce androgens
What role do hormones play?
Biological changes-- Organizing role -Prenatal hormones "program" the brain & body to be masculine or feminine --XX: female, XY: male (Generates differences in hormone productions after 8 weeks) Activating role -Increase in certain hormones at puberty activates further physical changes --At puberty certain hormones increase in different hormone balances, starts cascade of changes in body differences
Puberty
Biological changes-- -Period in lifespan in which an individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction -Hormones regulated by the endocrine system lead to physical changes
HPA Axis
Biological changes-- hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands (put in place fairly soon after birth) -In relation to stress + sexual reproduction system
nature & nurture
Both _________ + ________ influence biological & psychological development
Self-reports/interviews
Clinical/Open-ended interview -Flexible, conversational style (What did they think, what was their experience, what did they like/not like (better than using a 1-5 scale report)) -Probes for participant's point of view Structured Interview/surveys -Each participant is asked same questions in same group -May use questionnaires, get answers from groups -Experience sampling method --People would get paged then would get little questionnaires (who are you with, what are you doing, how happy are you, interested are you, etc.. They could get paged a certain amount of time over a week then get that data (gives you more time points in the day of data across 7 days and a large group of people)
Who is an adolescent in research?
Common: -Early adolescence (11-14) -Middle Adolescence (15-18) -Late adolescence (19-22) -[Emerging adulthood (22+ optional)] Or Arnett's way (textbook) -Early adolescence (11-14) -Late adolescence (15-18) -Emerging adulthood (18-25) We go by the common not Arnett's way***
Most common "eating disorder" among adolescents
Disordered eating that leads to eating→ Obesity -BMI over 30=obese -Obesity has to be environment, nurture thing -Could say low-fat, but then has ton of carbs -Basal metabolic rate (BMR): # of calories required to keep your body functioning at rest (body's metabolism) -More than ½ (54%) people indicate 1 or more family members w/ obesity
Use of Historical Documents
E.g., diaries, public records -Ex: Public medical records, Diary of Anne Frank (rare to find diary w/ this much detail, they must write extensively)
The biological changes of puberty can affect the adolescent's behavior in at least 3 ways explanations
Effects of biological changes-- 1. Hormonal changes→ changes in adolescents behavior -Ex: increase in testosterone levels in boys w/ a XY constellation leads to increased sexual interest and sexual activity -Increase in hormones=change in behavior 2. Hormonal changes→ changes in adolescents appearance→ changes in adolescents self-image→ changes in adolescents behavior Ex: Hormonal changes cause your bones to configure differently, if a good swimmer + your bones change the lengths change and you have to reconfigure your stroke. Changes in bone length change how they look + their swing so they may not be as good of an athlete as behavior because their body proportions are changing, so self-esteem and behavior can change if they then look gawky Or you may change and look all that so your self-image becomes more confident 3. Hormonal changes→ changes in adolescents appearance→ changes in reactions of others→ changes in adolescents behavior If others treat you differently you will start behaving differently Ex: You are of XX constellation, + develop early + have breast before others, suddenly you're getting attention from opposite sex so you may start behaving differently Ex: boy develops early, new expectations form b/c you're bigger than everyone else (more tall + broad) + look more mature
The biological changes of puberty can affect the adolescent's behavior in at least 3 ways
Effects of biological changes-- 1. Hormonal changes→ changes in adolescents behavior 2. Hormonal changes→ changes in adolescents appearance→ changes in adolescents self-image→ changes in adolescents behavior 3. Hormonal changes→ changes in adolescents appearance→ changes in reactions of others→ changes in adolescents behavior
Designs for studying development
Longitudinal: Same participants studied repeatedly at different ages -One group studied repeatedly at diff. ages -Ex: Study them when their 3, then study same group in 3 years (6 y/o),then 9 y/o, and so on Cross-sectional: People of differing ages all studied at the same time -Take people of diff. Ages and study them at same time -Ex: Study 3 year olds on memory strategies then go next door and study a bunch of 4 y/o with same measures, then 5 y/o at same time, and so on Sequential: Same groups of different-aged people studied repeatedly as they change ages -Take 2 groups of people of an age -Take 4 y/o and study them when their 4, 5, 6, also take 5 y/o and study when they're 5, 6, 7, also take 6 y/o and study them when they're 6,7,8. Over those 3 years you have the 4,5,6 the 5,6,7 and the 6,7,8. Over those 3 years you have data from kids 4-8. -It's like a combination b/w longitudinal + cross-sectional
Modified experimental designs
Natural Experiment/ Quasi-Experiment -Quasi Experiment→ shows best that its not quite an experiment -Compare differences in treatment that already exist (e.g., abusive families, gender) --Things you can't already change (ex: age or ethics --Can't say these things are the cause of the difference (b/c you didn't assign them) -Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible
Systematic Observation
Naturalistic Observation -In the "field", or natural environment, where behavior happens --Ex: follow person around w/ a notebook and write down when they have an interaction --Ex: drug use --Naturalistic often works in situations where you could put a camera up + watch people walk in and see where they sit. If you did this week after week you'd see pattern --Not best form of observation, doesn't work so well Structured Observations -Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest --Where people are likely to show this behavior of interest (b/c they all come to the lab they will all likely show the behavior) -All participants have equal chance to display behavior --When there's something that people do, bit it's hard to catch them at it (Ex: ability to pay attention (something you could test in lab))
Video Rhesus Monkeys
Nature-nurture -Actions more attributable to genes, or environment? -Genes --personality (probably isn't learned from parents, it's in the genes) ---Monkey took things as they come, mom is generally relaxed ---Mother= nervous protected, baby=nervous, reactive ---Parents behavior has impact on baby -Environment --Pair relaxed mother w/ nervous foster baby ---Over time baby became more relaxed w/ foster mother ---But bold behavior pattern seemed to hold ---When baby was separated from foster mother he returned to being a highly reactive monkey
Observer Bias
Observers record what they expect, rather than what really happens -Ex: odor on learning experiment -Video recording helps w/ observer bias
Nurture
Physical & Social World -Your environment -How you are treated by teachers, peers, etc. -Do you have food, shelter, etc. -If you have to carry a heavy load everyday as a child maybe that will impact your physical development
clinicians
Psychologists go for nature/nurture except for __________ (___________ go for free will, say you are master of own fate, you can challenge assumptions, make choice to overcome→ say it's not just genetics) Some people have bias towards nature or nurture for certain characteristics→ but must be aware of biases
How do adolescents in general react to pubertal changes?
Psychosocial impact of specific pubertal events-- -Most adolescents react positively to pubertal changes i. Especially secondary sex characteristics (visual--> change in height, breats, voice change, facial hair) -Reactions to menarche are varied i. But less negative than in the past -Less known about boys' reactions to 1st ejaculations
Early or late maturation--> Girls (XX)
Psychosocial impact of specific pubertal events-- Compared to early maturing boys, early maturing girls have more difficulties -Pros of early maturation: Earlier dating? -Cons of early maturation: Have breasts way before their peers (attract more attention from peers) → leads to hanging out w/ older kids (more alcohol, drug use, sexual activity), end up shorter + stockier (leads to body image issues at same time) -Pros of late maturation:Keep on putting inches before growth spurt kicks in (tend to be taller + leaner than peers), fewer body image problems, less pressure to date, have more time to prepare for puberty (gives them better coping abilities) → deviance hypothesis -Cons of late maturation: Get teased a lot (for not fitting in a bra, etc.),
Early or late maturation--> Boys (XY)
Psychosocial impact of specific pubertal events-- Perception of being an early or late maturer is more important in affecting one's feelings than reality -Pros of early maturation: height increase earlier, get wide (broader) earlier, more muscle development (stronger) → better at sports (so popularity + self-esteem goes up) -Cons of early maturation:hanging out w/ older kids (more alcohol, drug use, sexual activity) -Pros of late maturation: Keep on putting inches before growth spurt kicks in (tend to be taller), better coping skills, better problem-solving skills (more attention available for schooling b/c not hanging w/ older kids + getting attention so do better in school) -Cons of late maturation: Remain smaller (don't do as well in sports), don't gain alot of attention from opposite sex (look immature)
Why is the effect of media on body image an issue in adolescence?
girls want lean, guys want muscular i. Joan Smalls, Sean O'Pry ii. Airbrushing→ mess w/ a lot of features to change how person looks 1. People internalize these norms 2. What effects on adolescents? a. People try for this ideal body type -Eating Disorders
Eating disorders
i. Body dissatisfaction -Higher among early maturing girls (shorter + stockier girls which they aren't the ideal→ tall + lean is ideal) -Puberty brings rapid increase in body fat for girls ii. Disordered eating -Patterns of eating, attitudes, and behaviors that are unhealthy -Includes people who aren't overweight, but are obsessed w/ what they eat (vegan, vegetarian, know what's in everything, etc.)