Miterm Ap env

46. Logistic Growth Model - Basic Understanding

-A growth model that describes a population whose growth is initially exponential, but allows as the population approaches the carrying capacity of the environment (K) -If a population starts out small, its growth can be very rapid More realistic as it takes into consideration environmental limits -Population growth begins to slow as the population size (N) nears about ½ of the carrying capacity (K) and stops growing when it approaches the carrying capacity → produces an S-shaped curve when graphed -Used to predict the growth of populations that are subject to density dependent factors as the population grows, but not density independent factors, due to their unpredictable nature- Overshoot = When a population becomes larger than the environment's carrying capacityMore individuals → less food for all individuals → die-off-Die-off = A rapid decline in a population due to death → causes populations to fall well below the carrying capacity -Overshoots and die-offs happen in subsequent cycles of reproduction, causing oscillations around the carrying capacity -Oscillation will decline over time and approach the carrying capacity -Predation also plays a role in limiting population growth and may cause oscillations between predator and prey populations

29. Air pressure and density in the atmosphere - Basic Understanding

-Air pressure: closer to ground = more pressure -More pressure more density -Temp not related to density -Sun heats air and it rises (Less dense?)-Adiabatic Cooling and heating

64. Theory of Plate Tectonics - Basic Understanding

The theory that the lithosphere is divided into plates. (Most in constant motion) -Continental plates: Less dense, thick, rich in silicon dioxide. -Oceanic plates: More dense, thin, composed of iron -Both plates are less dense the mantle meaning they float.

55. Equation to calculate national growth rate (Inputs and Outputs) - Basic Understanding

[(CBR + immigration) - (CDR + emigration)]/10Inputs = births and immigrationOutputs = deaths and emigration

27. Importance of the Ozone Layer - Basic Understanding

-Blocks lots of harmful UV rays which would kill many plants.

9. Carbon (radiometric) dating - Basic Understanding

-Carbon dating example (Put simply): If a creature dies, we can look at how far along its C14 is on its way to becoming N14. Basically we look at how far along the C14 molecule is on its journey to becoming N14.

33. Upwelling - Basic Understanding

-Deep ocean waters go up to the surface bringing nutrients that have settled on the floor. (Thermohaline circulation is part of it) -The deep ocean waters move up as newer, cold/salty water comes down -Weast coasts more upwelling causing more nutrients. (Better fishing)

12. Energy and power - Basic Understanding: How are they measured (Units)?

-Energy (Quantity): Ability to do work or transfer heat. -Joule: Amount of energy used when a 1-watt electrical device is turned on for 1 second. (Unit of energy) -Kilowatt-Hour: (kWh): Unit of energy used when considering electricity use/generation. Power (Rate): The rate at which work is done or heat is transferred -Kilowatt: Unit of power used when considering electricity use/generation.(Ask a bit more about this) -Joules is the main unit of energy but other ones are: Calorie (Food), calorie amount of energy it takes to heat 1 gram of water to 1 Celcius, British thermal unit (Btu), Kilowatt-hour (kWh), -Energy= power x time-Power= energy/time Ex.-Kilowatt (Rate) : Power oooutput of a generator measured in kW (Power = Energy/Time) __ Speedometer-Kilowatt-hour (Quantity): Monthly energy use of a home measured in kWh (Energy = Power x time) __ Odometer

28. Saturation Point - Basic Understanding

-If the temp decreases saturation point decreases: Forming clouds, condensation as saturation point lowers (Noot exactly but u get what i mean)

17. Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration - Basic Understanding: Which organisms perform each.

-Photosynthesis (For glucose) (Chloroplasts, plants, producers, algae cyanobacteria): 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 -Cellular respiration (For energy) (Everyone has cellular respiration): C6H12O6 + O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

10. Water's polarity - Basic Understanding

-Polar Molecule: Molecule in which one side is more positive and the other side is more negative .-Covalently bonded atoms often share electrons unevenly.-Electrons are drawn to the greatest positive charge. -Creates a partial negative charge in that region .-Electrons will spend more time in the oxygen end of a molecule because there are more protons. (Making it a negative charge) -Wheras on the bonded side, there are less electrons because the hydrogen atoms have less protons making is positive Hydrogen Bond: Weak chemical bond that forms when hydrogen atoms that are covalently bonded to one atom are attracted to another atom on another atom -Causes polarity -The hydrogen bond is essential to life-Causes capillary action and surface tension

37. Mutations and Genetic Recombination - Basic Understanding

-Recombination: Genetic process (Crossing over in Meiosis)by which one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome during reproductive cell division. -Doesn't create new genes, but produces new combinations ofalleles on a chromosome, producing new traits.Mutation -A random change in the genetic code produced by a mistake in the copying process. -When mutations occur in Gametes(reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) they can be passed on to the next generation.Outcomes: 1. No Effect - Mutation occurs in non-coding DNA, produces no phenotypic change 2. Detrimental Effect - Negative change in phenotype of a trait, reducing organism's chance of survival and reproduction 3. Positive Effect -Improves an organism's chances of survival or reproduction. -If such a mutation is passed along to the next generation, it adds new genetic diversity to the population.

24. Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis - Basic Understanding

-Says that an ecosystem that experiences intermediate levels of disturbance will have the highest biodiversity.

31. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)- Basic Understanding

-Warms air and increases evaporation (lowers density/more humidity)- Near the equator! (Gets more solar radiation)-Warm air rises into atmosphere -> Pressure decreases -> density decreases -> temp goes down (Adiabatic Cooling)-If the temp decreases saturation point decreases: Forming clouds, condensation as saturation point lowers-Causes precipitation/Rain:-At the clouds you see Latent heat release (Energy is released in the form of heat when the change in density occurs) (energy released when water vapor condenses to form liquid droplets.)-Cold dry air at the top of the troposhpere-Gets displaced horizontally and gets pushed back down to earth at 30 deg N and S-Displaced sideways b/c other air coming up pushes it out of the way.-As pressure increases temp increases temp. (Adiabatic Heating)-> repeat.ITCZ: Earth is tilted at 23.5 deg (Sunlight hits directly twice a year)-Most direct sunlight changes between 23.5 deg N and S-More sunlight=wet season-Less sunlight=Dry SeasonSlideshow: Hadley cell - Convection current in the atmospherethat cycles between the equator and 30° N and S.- Solar energy warms humid air in the tropics.- Warm air rises and eventually cools below itssaturation point.- Water vapor condenses into clouds and precipitation.- Latent heat release warms the air, causing it to riseto the top of the troposphere before it cools.- Cool (denser), dry air is displaced horizontally and sinks to surface at 30 degrees N and S.- As air descends, it is warmed by adiabatic heating.- Descent of hot, dry air causes desert environmentsto develop at those latitudes.- Warm, moist air continually rising drives this cycle! Not exactly just lookm 9into it.

22. Human influence of the Sulfur Cycle - Basic Understanding

-We burn fossil fuels that produce sulfer dioxide, when it gets into atmosphere it combines to make sulphuric acid and rains down on earth. (The change in acidity is detrimental to the earth)

18. 10% Rule of Ecological Efficiency - Basic Understanding

-When an oganism is consumed, roughly 10% of its energy is transferred to the nextrophic level.

23. Effect of clear-cutting of forests on nutrient flow - Basic Understanding

-When compared to an untouched area of forest: -Run off of nutrients increases in the clear cut forest because their are no trees to absorb nutrients -Then goes into ponds and such leading to eutrophication -With no clear cutting, the trees can absorb nutirents

11. pH Scale - Basic Understanding: What it measures, logarithmic

-pH: Indicates the relative strength of acids and bases in a substance. (Concentration of H+) -Acid: Substance that contributes hydrogen ions (H+) to a solution -Base: Substance that contributes hydroxide ions (OH-) to a solution pH scale goes from 1-147 is nuetral-Lower pH = more acidic-High pH = more basic

34. Thermohaline Circulation - How density and salinity influence water layers in the oceans - Potential future effect on northwest Europe - Basic Understanding

-thermohaline circulation is driven by the temp of water and salinity of water on its density: -More dense sinks more: (Lower temp) -More salinity more sink -More salt when flowing to Europe, so it sinks causing cold water? -Gets pushed up too surface by new water in the system(Slide 22 lecture 4)

4. Hectare conversations - Basic Understanding

1 Hectare: 2.47105 Acre's-unit of area in the metric system equal to 100 ares, or 10,000 square metres-100m by 100m

13. Watts and Kilowatts conversion and calculation - Basic Understanding

1 watt = 0.001 kilwattEx. 500w→ Kilowatts1kW = 1,000 Watts500w→ 0.5kW

63. Hot spots - Basic Understanding

A place where molten material from the mantle reaches the lithosphere. Forms islands and volcanoes. Plates can travel over hotspots. (In hawaii, the biggest island is the newest as it was just created and the oldest is the smallest.) Was in that location a long time ago.

30. Adiabatic Heating and Cooling - Basic Understanding

Adiabatic Heating: Air is forced downwards, the new pressure that the air faces causes it too warm up. Adiabatic Cooling: As air is forced upwards, like on a mountain, the air pressure decreases. The air expands causing it to cool.

47. Competitive Exclusion - Basic Understanding

Competitive exclusion principle - Principle stating that two species ing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist.-When two species have the same realized niche, one species will perform better and drive the other to extinction or migration.

7. Components of a scientific experiment - Basic Understanding: Control, Hypothesis, Replication, and Constants.

Control Group: any group used as a control (or reference to the normal) in a statistical experiment Hypothesis: A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation. Null-Hypothesis: the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations. Replication: Easy for other scientists to look at and replicate so they can check your findings. Constants: A quantity that doesn't change Variable: A quantity that does change

62. Layers of earth - Basic Understanding: Order and importance of each layer

Core: Innermost composed of iron and Nickel (Liquid outer layer and solid inner layer) Heat due to the radioactive decay of isotopes Mantle: Above the core, has magma (molten rock) Has slowly churning convection cells. Asthenosphere: outer part of the mantle, semi-molten. Lithosphere: Outermost layer. Includes the solid upper mantle and crust. Crust: The chemically distinct outermost layer of the lithosphere. Made up of several large and numerous small plates that overlie convection cells. • Important: The lowest part of the lithosphere is the upper part of the mantle -The layers overlap!

45. Exponential Growth - Basic Understanding: Calculation (Know the formula and e=2.72)

Density independent factor: A factor that has the same effect on an individual's probability of survival and the amount of reproduction at any population size. -Small and large populations will be equally impacted. -An individual's probability of survival is not related to the total number of individuals. -Ex. Natural disasters, environmental pollutants, human development. Exponential growth model: [ Nt = N0e^rt ] -Estimates a population'sfuture size (Nt) after a period of time(t), based on the intrinsic growth rate (r) and the number of reproducing individuals currently in the population (N0). -Produces a J-shaped curve. 72 robins: Growth rate of 0.3:How big would the pop be after 20 years?e=2.72=Population after 20 amount of years = 72 x e^(0.3 x 20)=29k robins

56. Major differences between developing and developed nations - Basic Understanding

Developed countries = countries with relatively high levels of industrialization and income Replacement-level fertility of about 2 Developing countries = countries with low levels of industrialization and incomes of less than $3 per person per day A TFR of greater han 2.1

53. Factors that allowed for exponential growth of the human population - Basic Understanding

Development of technology, agriculture, being able to generate more food

57. Rule of 70 - Basic Understanding

Doubling time = The number of years it takes a population to double70/growth rate Ex: A population growing at 2 percent per year → 70/2 = 35 years doubling timeThis is under the assumption that the growth rate remains constant for the entire time

14. Calculating total energy efficiency of energy conversion from a fuel to use of an electronic device - Basic Understanding

Energy efficiency: The ratio of the amount of energy expended in the form you want to the total amount of energy that is introduced to the system. Power plant to light: power plant: 500units of energy -->50% efficiency Power lines: -->25% efficiency Light500ux0.5x0.25= 62.5u and 12.5% efficient

25. Eutrophication: Basic understanding: Steps involved + End result

Eutrophication is when excess levels of nutrients make their way into a body of water turning the water toxic and anoxic. This is usually due to humans and the overuse of synthetic fertilizers. When it rains, the water from the rain flows as runoff and picks up the unused nutrients by the plants and ends up in lakes, streams, and rivers. This eutrophication process is driven by the excess amount of phosphorus (A limiting nutrient naturally occurring as phosphate: Po4^3. It bonds tightly to the soil particles and accumulates as sediment and cannot be used by fish.) Algae now have a large surplus of phosphorus and their population explodes. This restricts sunlight to the aquatic vegetation making it harder for them to live. Not only are the plants dying, but the newly formed algae also starts to die as well. This leads to bacteria feeding on the dead plant matter. The bacteria now needs a lot more oxygen to undergo cellular respiration which sucks out most of the oxygen in the water causing many fish too die. The absnce of the water makes the pond or body of water anoxic.

20. Stages of the Carbon Cycle - Basic Understanding

Fast Part: Living things (Photosynthesis/ cellular respiration/ Decomposition releases CO2/ Steady state) Slow Part: Geologic change (Some carbon goes into oceans and turns into calcium carbonate, drifts down to bottom of ocean -> limestone (Sedimentation) (Burial, if plants get buried before decomposing they turn into natural gas) Volcanic eruptions :

6. Per capita wheat production - Basic Understanding: Interpreting recent trends

Fill in!!!!!!!!!

19. GPP vs. NPP - Basic Understanding: Calculation

GPP - what plants use for respiration = NPP -Plants use light to make glucose but need some glucose to survive so we subtract that and get the NPP (the stuff we can eat.) -GPP: Gross Primary Production-NPP: Net Primary Production

38. Phenotype vs. Genotype - Basic Understanding: What contributes to phenotype?

Genotype -The complete set of genes in an individual. Genetic make-up of an individual trait Phenotype -A set of traits expressed by an individual.-Physical representation of trait based on genotype • -Genotypes define the phenotypes for physical, behavioral, and physiological traits. Phenotypes (for physical, behavioral, or physiological traits) result from... 1. Genetic Factors - Expression of Alleles forms for a given trait 2. Environmental Factors - Environmental conditions that influence gene expression. -It's the combination of genetic factors and environmental conditions that produces variation in phenotypic expression! -Allows populations to better respond to changing environments!

66. Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock - Basic Understanding: How each is formed, importance, examples

Igneous: Formed through the cooling of magma. (Extrusive Igneus: above surface) (Intrusive igneous: Under the surface.) Ex. Humus Sedimentary, accumulated sediments with lots of pressure. Has FOSSILS! (Sands) Metamorphic takes any type of rock and gives it pressure and heat which changes the rock giving it different properties. Metamorphic -> metamorphic rock equals different type of metamorphic.(Building materials, marbles etc.)

8. Isotopes, radioactive decay, and half-life - Basic Understanding

Isotopes: Naturally occurring atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. -Radioactive Decay: Spontaneous release of material from the nucleus of radioactive isotopes. (Unstable) -Changes element into another element over time (loss or gain of protons). -Parent and daughter isotopes -Parent=original state: Daughter=the changed isotope Half-life (t ½): Time it takes for one-half of the original radioactive parent atoms to decay

15. First and Second Law of Thermodynamics - Basic Understanding

Law 1: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can change form from one to another -Its difficult to observe where its going but it is always conserved -In a waterfall, energy goes from potential energy to kinetic. It also goes to sound and heat in the sky. In a car: potential (Chemical energy) is the input The output yields: Kinetic (Which moves car), Heat from friction in engine, tires on road, brakes, etc.-also sound. Law 2: When energy is transformed the quantity of energy stays the same but its ability to do work diminishes. (Converts to heat) Ex. Waste heat:When gas burns to move a car, some energy is moved into waste heat. -Any time there is a energy conversion, soome of it will be lost as heat.

26. Levels of the Atmosphere - Basic Understanding: Relative density and proximity to earth (S+T)

Levels: (Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere.) (Tihan sells milk to elders) (T.S.M.T.E) -Troposphere (10 mi/weather) (Most dense) -Stratosphere: (10-30 mi) (Has ozone which blocks Uv) -Mesosphere: (~30-50 mi) -Thermosphere (50 mi - 375 mi) -Exosphere: (375mi - 6,200 mi) (Least dense)

52. Thomas Malthus Hypothesis - Basic Understanding

Malthus observed that the human population was growing exponentially while the food supply we rely on was growing linearly Malthus concluded that the human population size would eventually exceed the food supply

16. Positive vs. Negative Feedback loops - Basic Understanding

Negative Feedback Loop: A feedback loop in which a system responds to a change by returning to its original state or by decreasing the rate at which the change is returning. Ex. Mono Lake:-Lake level -Sun evaporates some of the water, lowering the temperature. -In turn yields a reduced surface area. -This causes less evaporation-Level rises because the evaporation amount is less than the input amount. -Level is restored to its original state. Positive Feedback Loop: A feedback loop in which change in a system is amplified. Ex. Bunny Population Growth. -Population increase -This causes moore bunnies to make babies -Population increases again -These bunnies grow up and birth more bunnies -The population icreases.

42. Niche Specialists vs. Niche Generalists - Basic Understanding

Niche generalist: A species that can live under a wide range of abiotic or biotic conditions. -Fare better under changing conditions because they have a number of alternative habitats and food sources available. Niche specialist: A species that is specialized to live in a specific habitat or to feed on a small group of species. -Do well when environmental conditions remain relatively constant; however loss of a favored habitat or food source leaves them with few alternatives for survival.

21. States of the Nitrogen Cycle - Basic Understanding: Nitrogen Fixation, Assimilation

Nitrogen Fixation: Carried out by soil bacteria and takes N2 gas and converts it into ammonia to ammonium, usable by plants Assimilation: Process where plants absorb nitrogen (into their tissues) Nitrofication: Ammonia-> NitrateDenitrofication: Nitrate -> N2 gas

69. Soil horizon layers - Basic Understanding: Order of layers (Oreos Are Eaten By Cats), importance of each layer

O - The organic horizon at the surface of many soils, composed = of organic detritus in various stages of decomposition (humus - bottom of O). - Most pronounced in forests and grasslands A - (Topsoil), a zone of organic material and minerals that have been mixed together (Natural mixing or human altered in agriculture). E - A zone of leaching, or eluviation, found in some acidic soils under the O horizon or, less often, the A horizon (... but always above B). - Iron, aluminum, organic acids, etc. are transported through and removed from E horizon. B - (Subsoil) A soil horizon composed primarily of mineral material with very little organic matter. C - The least-weathered soil horizon, which always occurs beneath the B horizon and is similar to the parent material. Identify layers. (Just Know order I think)

35. Basic characteristics of Terrestrial Biomes - Super Basic Understanding

One of them is the dessert, and the other is a swampy thing I think (Ask tihan)

2. Relationship between population health and genetic diversity - Basic Understanding

The healthier a population the more genetic diversity it has. This genetic diversity allows the species to recover from different events. Say something puts black moths at a disadvantage, the black-colored moths will die but if there are other colors of moths, they will survive.

59. Demographic Transition - Basic Understanding

Phase 1: undeveloped economy (Subsistance based) factory, farming (Virtually non-existent) -Limited/no access to healthcare, good water/food, little access to public education -2 things happen: High birth rate: lots of kids =economically beneficial (more workers bing $ to family) -Lots of kids can provide for you when your older. -Many kids are lost as well. -High death rate aswell. -Small stable pop. Age structure diagram: pyramid.(Connect this to age structure diagrams and interpretation) Phase 2:Better life, moire education/healthcare, better circumstances -Death plumits b/c of better quality of life due to better economy -Birth rate laggs in its fall-Culturally, people are accustomed to larger families. -Access to contraception lags behind healthcare.-Death rate falls before birth rate = population growthPyramid:Phase 3: Developed economy, good healthcare,-large families=expensive, not economically friendly-Family size decreases. -Birth rate plumits -More focus on education and careers-Women start to chose to have children later. -Population growth starts to slow/plateau-Death rate perks up at the end of phase 3: more old people=more death-Column Phase 4: Japan example -High levels of equality -High levels of education/career. -Birth rate super low-pop size levels off then starts to decline.(Japan Germany china)-Inverted pyramid I GZOT THIS WRONG ION TEST

67. Weathering (Physical and Chemical) and erosion - Basic Understanding

Physical Weathering: Mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals caused by water, wind, seasonality of temps, or biological agents. Roots, freezing thawing, Greater exposed surface -> increases weathering rate (positive feedback.), Temp. Chemical weathering: Breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions, the dissolving of chemical elements from rocks or both. -Physical weathering speeds chemical weathering by creating more surface area. Occurs faster on newly exposed materials. -Acid precipitation: Precipitation high in sulfuric acid and nitric acid from reactions between water vapor and sulfur and nitrogen oxides ion atmosphere. Erosion: (Moving) Physical removal of rock fragments (Sediment, soil, rock, and other particles from a landscape/ecosystem. (Natural) -Leads to deposition. (Accumulation of eroded material) -Wind water ice move sediments.

58. Population Momentum - Basic Understanding

Population momentum = continued population growth after growth reduction measures have been implemented Occurs because there are relatively large numbers of individuals at reproductive maturity in the population

49. Parasitism, Herbivory, Competition, Predation, Mutualism, Commensalism - Basic Understanding

Predation -An interaction in which one animal typically kills and consumes another animal. -Parasitoid -A specialized type of predator that lays eggs inside other organisms—referred to as its host.-Strong selective force: Parasitism -An interaction in which one organism lives on or in another organism. -Parasite benefitted, host is harmed-Parasite doesn't Want to kill host.(Many do kill its host) -Pathogen -A parasite that causes disease in its host. Herbivory -An interaction in which an animal consumes a producer. -Many producers have defenses against herbivores-herbivores have dramatic effects on plants. Mutualism -An interaction between two species that increases the chances of survival or reproduction for both species.-Each participating species helps the other only to benefit itself.-If the benefit is too small, the interaction will no longer be favored. Commensalism -A relationship between species in which one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor helped. Competition - The struggle of individuals to obtain a shared limiting resource.

50. Primary and Secondary Succession, Pioneer Species - Basic Understanding

Primary Succession - Ecological succession occurring on surfaces that are initially devoid of soil. Pioneer Species -Can colonize new areas rapidly and grow well in full sunshine.Lichens, mosses, and algae colonize bare rock, breaking it down as a source of nutrients. -Early inhabitants die and build up, and rock breaks down à Forms soil! -Seeds of early-successional plants (grasses annual, wildflowers, etc.) borne by the wind begin to grow. Secondary Succession - The succession of plant life that occurs in areas that have been disturbed but have not lost their soil. -End of succession = Climax?-No! There is no true climax!

41. Fundamental Niche vs. Realized Niche, Range of Tolerance - Basic Understanding

Range of tolerance: Limits to the abiotic conditions that a species can tolerate. -Species have an ideal range of abiotic conditions under which their members can survive, grow, and reproduce. -Under more extreme conditions, their ability to perform these essential functions decline. Fundamental niche: The suite of abiotic conditions under which a species can survive, grow, and reproduce. Realized niche - The range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species actually lives. -Biotic limitations: Competition, predation, disease, etc.-Further narrow the fundamental niche!

48. Resource Partitioning - Basic Understanding

Resource Partitioning - When two species divide a resource based on differences in their behavior or morphology. -When two species overlap in their use of a limiting resource, selection favors those individuals of each species whose use of the resource overlaps the least with that of the other species. -Over many generations, the two species can evolve to reduce their overlap and thereby partition their use of the limiting resource. -Temporal Resource Partitioning: Utilization of the same resource at different times .-Spatial Resource Partitioning: Utilization of different habitats. -Morphological Resource Partitioning: Evolution of different body size or shape

65. Earthquake damage - Basic Understanding

Richter scale: logarithmic by factor of 10. proximity to epicenter/building quality. (NOT STRENGTH OF THE EARTHQUAKE)

40. Allopatric vs. Sympatric Speciation - Basic Understanding

Speciation - Formation of new and distinct species over the course of evolution 2 ways of speciation: 1. Allopatric speciation - Process of speciation that occurs with geographic isolation, physical separation of a group of individuals from others of the same species. -Geographic barriers splits pops. -Natural selection favors different traits depending on the region -Over time, species become so different that they can't breed. Sympatric speciation - The evolution of one species into two, without geographic isolation.Usually happens through polyploidy, an increase in the number of sets of chromosomes. -Once individuals become polyploid, can no longer breed -Commonly occurs in species of flowering plants. (Probably watch a video)

70. Different types of mining and their associated environmental problems - Basic Understanding

Surface mining: Pacer mining (goldruch kinda mine) along side a river. (Little impact) Modern day has lots of devastating affects. (used with volatile metals like mercury can be used to extract gold. (Mercury into habitats is devastating.) Open pit mining: mine materials near the surface with some lower down. Strip ming (For coal in the US) one side your are extracting coal and you separate the back fill behind you. (Now you have to replant where you find it.) Subsurface mining - Mining techniques used when the desired resource is more than 100 m (328 feet) below the surface of Earth. -Mines are typically dug into mountain sides, and from horizontal tunnels with vertical shafts are dug with elevators. -Coal, diamonds, and gold are some of the materials extracted by subsurface mining. -Very hazardous working conditions - Burial, fires, explosions, lung diseases. -Centralia, PA mine experienced a fire that has been burning since 1962

5. Understand sustainable practices - Basic Understanding: Identify examples

Sustainability: Living on Earth in a way that allows humans to use its resources without depriving future generations of those resources. -Sustainable Practices can have their resources rejuvenated quickly without ruining anything Goals of sustainability:Environmental systems must not be damaged beyond their repairRenewable resources must not be depleted faster than they can regenerate Nonrenewable resources must be used sparingly Ex. Timber, Chickens, solar, wind, tidal, (Anything that can be quickly replenished.

61. Sustainable development - Basic Understanding

Sustainable development goes beyond economic development to meet the essential needs of people in the present without causing additional environmental harm Human demand for food, water, lumber, fiber, and fuel led to loss of biodiversity Ecosystem sustainability will be threatened if the human population continues along its current path of resource consumption around the globe The continued alterations to ecosystems have improved human well-being will also exacerbate poverty for some populations If we establish sustainable practices, we may be able to improve the standard of living for a large number of people Sustainability will only be reached with a broader and accelerated understanding of the connections between human and natural systems Governments, nongovernmental organizatiions, and communities of people will have to work together to raise standards of living while understanding the impacts of those improvements on the local, regional, and global environments

60. IPAT and its significance - Basic Understanding

The IPAT equation was developed to estimate the impact of human lifestyles on Earth Impact = Population x Affluence x Technology Conceptual representation of 3 major factors influencing environmental impact

36. Phylogenetic Trees - Basic Understanding: Interpret Phylogenetic Tree.

The more recent a common ancestor, the more similar they are.

3. Background extinction rate - Basic Understanding

The ongoing extinction of individual species due to environmental or ecological factors such as climate change, disease, loss of habitat, or competitive disadvantage in relation to other species. (between 0.1 and 1 species extinction per 10,000 species per 100 years)

68. Cation Exchange Capacity - Basic Understanding

The percentage of clay and solis pH Clay particles surface bears a negative charge (important), clay being the smallest has proportionally the largest surface area. Many of the essential nutrients for growth that plants require are positively charged. Since opposites attract, the clay is able to hold onto a larger amount of central nutrients for plant growth. Theres a catch! Clay lowers porosity (The relative space between soil particles) Bigger soil particles -> more porosity. In filtration the water flowing into the soil and percolation the water flowing through the soil, the high amount of negatively charged surface area speeds up this process. 20% clay maximises nutrients with good water retention. (goldy lox) -leads to good oxygen availability and Nutrient holding capacity is basically CEC: Plants produce two positive hydrogen ions that take the place of the calcium. Releases calcium that the plant will absorb. Soils ability to exchange cations with plants. Thus, higher CEC, the more cations in the soil, equals happy plants. Base saturation: Proportion of soil bases (Positive charged essential nutrients) (Adding calcium to plants raises soils pH) to soil acids. Maximise base saturation. Plants hate acids. Inceases total avaliable nutrients. WHen soil pH is low/Acidic, lots of hydrogen + ions float around. They give soil bases food which occupies space that could be used by calcium. Lowers CEC. When soil pH is too low/Acidic, CEC is reduced. Base saturation: Bases/Acids.

51. Island Biogeography - Basic understanding

Theory of island biogeography: A theory that demonstrates the dual importance of habitat size and distance in determining species richness.Habitat Size: Larger habitats typically contain more species - Dispersing species more likely to find larger habitat- Larger habitats can support larger populations (less prone to extinction)- Larger habitats contain wider variety of environmental conditions - more niches!Distance from other Communities -Habitats closer to colonizing communities have higher species richness

39. Founder Effect, Bottleneck Effect, Gene Flow, Genetic Drift - Basic Understanding

They are all random processes that contribute to evolution: (Non-adaptive, not a result of fitness; purely random chance)(5 including mutation) 1. Gene Flow: Individuals move from one population to another (Immigration and emigration) and thereby alter allele frequencies of both populations. -Arrival of departure of individuals alters allele frequencies -In a pop that is experiencing natural, high gene flow from outside can prevent the pop from responding to selection .-Helps to provide genetic variation-Ex: Florida Panther 2. Genetic Drift: Genetic drift - Change in the allele frequency of a population over time as a result of random mating (random chance). -Non-adaptive, random process. -Largely alters genetic composition of smaller pops.Less-common genotypes can be lost by chance -Random mating among a small number of individualscan result in the less-common genotype not mating. -As a result, the genetic composition of population canchange over time, loosing overall diversity. -Leaves small populations more susceptible toenvironmental change, disease, inbreeding, etc. -In larger populations, it is statistically less likely thatalleles will be lost due to random mating - Diversity isMaintained! 3. Bottleneck: Reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size. -Reduced population numbers means reduced genetic variation -Fewer individuals = Fewer genes! -Low genetic variation in a population can cause increased risk of disease and low fertility.-Less able to adapt because of less variation. 5. Founder effect: Change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of descending from a small number of colonizing individuals. -If a few individuals from a mainland population colonize an island, the genotypes on the island will represent only a subset of the genotypes present in the mainland population.-Some genotypes will not be present in the new population.

54. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Replacement Level Fertility (RLF) - Basic Understanding

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) = An estimate of the average number of children that each woman in a population will bear throughout her childbearing years Replacement-level fertility (RFL) = The TFR required to offset the average number of deaths in a population so that the population size remains stable Typically around 2Two children replace the two parents when the parents dieSometimes children die before they get chance to reproduce

32. Rain Shadow - Basic Understanding

When mountain ranges exist near large bodies of waterwind from oceans goes inland. -Air above water is very moist blows toward mountains Forces above mountains, Adiabatic cooling up mountain occurs causing the air to cool and rain on the sea side of the mountain -Other side of mountain gets dry and arid because the moisture went to the other side.

44. Density-Independent Factors vs. Density-Dependent Factors - Basic Understanding

population distribution: A description of how individuals are disibuted with respect to one another. -Related to behavior and intra/interspecific interactions -Important to consider for management of species. -Random: Commonly in plant species.-Uniform: Commonly in territorial or toxic species. -Clumped Distribution: Provides extra protection for the organisms (Ex meerkats have one of them stand to watch to warn the others if there is a predator.)

1. Ecosystem services - Basic Understanding

processes by which life-supporting resources such as clean water, timber, and agricultural crops are produced by natural systems.(How the ecosystem supports us as a species.) Ex.Salt Marsh: Looks pretty, Storm barrier (If it wasn't there we'd have to build a storm wall which would cost money), filters out the water (Holds on to pollutants so we don't have to pay to filter), Serves as a fish nursery.